AASM 2021 Proceedings 18 August 2021

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

EFFECT OF MODELS IN FITNESS MAGAZINES ON VISUAL
ATTENTION AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

Dominic Ang and Leng Ho Keat

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Page | 99

Introduction

The aim of the study was to examine the effect of models in fitness magazines on

visual attention and consumption behaviour. The findings provide fitness magazine

publishers insights on how to attract readers more effectively.

Literature review
Models have been used in print advertisements to attract attention and act as visual

cues of product quality (Hutton & Nolte, 2011). As such, models are usually visually
attractive or demonstrate product expertise. However, there is evidence that average-looking
models can be effective in advertisements as consumers can relate better to models (Asiegbu,
Powei & Iruka, 2012; Pusenius, 2018). Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the
model effect in fitness magazines using an eye tracker.

Method
Sixty male university students, aged 21–28, were recruited for this study and were

randomly split into two groups of 30 participants each. The participants viewed a fictitious
exercise guide, commonly found in fitness magazines. In the control group, the participants
were exposed to an exercise guide featuring an average-looking male model while in the
experimental group, the participants were exposed to a more muscular model. Participants’
attention was measured by average fixation and glance duration using an eye tracker. After
viewing the exercise guide, participants completed a survey measuring perception of quality
and interest in the exercise guide, due to their significant relationship (Saleem et al., 2015), as
a proxy for consumer behaviour. Independent t tests and correlation analysis was conducted
to compare differences and interrelationship among the variables.

Results
Participants (n = 30) in the experimental group was found to have a longer glance

duration viewing the muscular model (9772.06 ± 7649.78 ms) as compared to participants (n
= 30) in the control group (5961.49 ± 2908.08 ms; t = 2.60, p = .012), suggesting muscular
imagery attracted greater attention. Perception of quality and interest of the exercise guide
was also higher for the muscular model group but did not reach statistical significance (pquality
= .255; pinterest = .083). Positive correlation was found between perceived quality and interest,
r = .735, n = 60, p < .001, suggesting that participants who perceived the magazine to be of
high quality also expressed greater interest in the fitness magazine.

Discussion
This study found that fitness magazine publishers should consider using muscular

models as they can attract more attention. However, this may not translate into any
behavioural or cognitive outcome. As this study focused only on male participants, future
studies should examine whether this can be to the wider population.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

References
Asiegbu, I. F., Powei, D. M., & Iruka, C. H. (2012). Consumer attitude: Some reflections on

its concept, trilogy, relationship with consumer behavior, and marketing
implications. European Journal of Business and Management, 4(13), 38–50.
DOI:10.1007/s11002-018-9446-9
Hutton, S. B., & Nolte, S. (2011). The effect of gaze cues on attention to print Page | 100
advertisements. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(6), 887–892.
DOI:10.1002/acp.1763
Pusenius, A. (2018). Effects of the Appearance and Body Type of Models Used in
Advertising Images on the Self-Esteem of Consumers: Comparison Between Males
and Females. http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:aalto-201809105049
Saleem, A., Ghafar, A., Ibrahim, M., Yousuf, M., & Ahmed, N. (2015). Product perceived
quality and purchase intention with consumer satisfaction. Global Journal of
Management and Business Research, 15(1), 2–28.
https://journalofbusiness.org/index.php/GJMBR/article/view/1684
Wedel, M., & Pieters, R. (2008). Eye tracking for visual marketing. Now Publishers Inc.
DOI:10.1561/1700000011

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

A COMPARISON OF COUNTRY-OF-ORIGIN TERMINOLOGY AND
COUNTRY OF ORIGIN EFFECT IN SPORTS PRODUCTS

Yi Xian Philip, Phua, and Leng Ho Keat Page | 101
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Introduction
This study aimed to investigate the effect of country of origin (COO) of a sports

product, as well as the different COO terminologies on consumer behaviour among
Singaporean tertiary students.

Literature review
COO research is a storied branch of research that has been extensively studied for

decades. However, recent research in the field has critiqued the relevancy of the field
(Usunier, 2006). As a result, academics have tried to expand on the concept of COO,
primarily by offering a different perspective of the terminology (Chao, 1998; Thakor, 1997).

Method
146 Singaporean tertiary students aged 18–30 were recruited for this study. An online

questionnaire was administered, where respondents were given a random poster of a sports
running shoe. Participants were randomly assigned to 4 groups (Group 1: Superior Country of
Manufacture (COM); Group 2: Inferior COM; Group 3: Superior Brand Origin; Group 4:
Inferior Brand Origin). Depending on the group they were randomly assigned to, the product
featured was either from a superior/inferior country of manufacture i.e. ‘Made in Country’, or
a superior/inferior brand origin i.e. ‘Founded in Country’. Using the findings from a pre-
study screening, Italy and India were used as anchors for superior/inferior groups.

Results
A two-way between groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore

the impact of COO and COO terminology on perception of quality of a sports product. There
was a statistically significant main effect for Country, F (1, 426) = 8.707, p = .004; with a
small effect size (partial η2 = .054). Post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test
indicated that the mean perception of quality score for the group that had an Italian product
was significantly higher than the group that had a product from India (Mean difference =
3.449, SE = 1.169). There was also a statistically significant main effect for COO term, F (1,
474) = 9.687, p =.002; with a small effect size (partial η2 =.060). Post-hoc comparisons using
the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean perception of quality score for the group that had
an advertisement featuring a product’s COM had a higher score than advertisements featuring
a product’s brand origin. (Mean difference = 3.638, SE = 1.169). This meant that respondents
who were exposed to advertisements where the featured product was from a superior COO
had a higher perception of quality from a country with an inferior COO. In addition,
respondents who were exposed to a sports advertisement featuring a product’s brand origin
had lower scores in comparison to respondents who were exposed to a product’s COM.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

Discussion
This study aimed to investigate the COO effect on sports products, using different

combinations of COO terminology and product origins. The findings suggest that there was
not only a difference between the perception of quality of products of different countries, but
also a difference in the perception of quality between different COO terminologies. This
suggests that advertisers should consider the relevance of different origin terminologies in Page | 102
sports products in their marketing efforts.

References
Chao, P. (1998). Impact of country-of-origin dimensions on product quality and design

quality perceptions. Journal of Business Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-
2963(97)00129-X
Thakor, M. V. (1996). Brand origin: conceptualization and review. Journal of Consumer
Marketing, 13(3), 27–42
Usunier, J. C. (2006). Relevance in business research: the case of country-of-origin research
in marketing. European Management Review, 3(1), 60–73. https://doi.org/ 10.1057/
palgrave.emr.1500049

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ON RAFFLE MARKETING:
FOCUSING ON PURCHASE ORIENTATION, CONSPICUOUS
CONSUMPTION, SATISFACTION, AND REPURCHASE INTENTION

In-Yup Lee1, Jin-Wook Han2, Dong-Kyu Kim3, and Chulhwan Choi4 Page | 103
1, 2, 3Kyung Hee University, Republic of Korea
4Gachon University, Republic of Korea

Introduction
Recently, limited-edition products of various brands are being sold through raffles.

This method is seen as a marketing strategy that can stimulate consumers' spending desires
rather than the existing way of limited-edition product sales. Therefore, the behavior of
consumers who experienced raffles was investigated to determine how it is different from that
of general consumers.

Literature review
Sharing one’s life through social network service (SNS) has become commonplace

with their widespread use in society. A desire to display a more positive image of themselves
than they actually are leads to a unique phenomenon characterized by narcissism, ostentation,
and bragging (Lup, Trub, & Rosenthal, 2015; Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). Accordingly, many
companies have begun using such the desire and social phenomenon to their advantage,
adopting a business strategy of launching limited edition products (LEPs) that can be
recognized as extraordinary by consumers on the Internet (Balachander & Stock, 2009).
Recently, LEPs of various brands are being sold through raffles, a method using online draw
via SNS. While there have been studies showing the positive effects of limited marketing—
advertisements and sale strategies that utilize the appeal of exclusivity on consumers, there
has yet to be any that investigate raffle marketing adopted by numerous brands. Thus, the
behavior of consumers who experienced raffles was investigated to determine how it is
different from that of general consumers.

Method
The purpose of this study was to verify the differences in the following: consumers’

purchasing orientation, conspicuous consumption, satisfaction, and repurchase intention
according to whether they experienced raffle marketing. A total of 365 questionnaires were
used, and exploratory factor analysis, reliability analysis, and multivariate analysis of
variance (MANOVA) were performed using SPSS 25.0.

Results
The results revealed there were differences between consumers who experienced

raffles and those who did not in the purchase propensity, conspicuous consumption, and
repurchase intention. More specifically, there was no difference between the two groups in
the economical purchasing propensity among purchasing experiences. However, the amusing
and premeditated purchasing propensity was higher in the group who has experience of
participating in raffles. Regarding the conspicuous consumption, the group with experience
of participating in raffles showed higher tendencies in buying famous brands, in seeking
recognition of others, and in pursuing trends. Lastly, although the difference between the two
groups was not statistically significant in terms of post-purchase satisfaction, the group

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

participating in raffles showed higher repurchase intention. The result indicated that sales
method of LEPs using raffle marketing can affect the purchase propensity of consumers and
their post-purchase behavior. In other words, it means that the companies need to consider
different perspectives on how their products are sold.

Discussion Page | 104

With the popularization of smartphones and SNS, consumers' purchasing behaviors

and marketing activity that stimulates them are breaking out of their previous norms. In an

information society where people can share their daily life and consumption habits with total

strangers in real time on SNS, raffle marketing using the scarcity of a product is succeeding

by stoking the conspicuous consumption tendency of consumers. The acquisition of an

unlimited amount of information through the Internet has made raffle marketing possible, and

SNS is playing an important role in increasing the effectiveness of the raffle marketing.

Research efforts to understand consumers’ behavior toward these marketing strategies, which

have been attracting attention in recent years, are thus essential.

References
Balachander, S., & Stock, A. (2009). Limited edition products: When and when not to offer

them. Marketing Science, 28(2), 336–355.
Lup, K., Trub, L., & Rosenthal, L. (2015). Instagram# instasad? exploring associations

among instagram use, depressive symptoms, negative social comparison, and
strangers followed. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(5), 247–
252.
Sheldon, P., & Bryant, K. (2016). Instagram: Motives for its use and relationship to
narcissism and contextual age. Computers in human Behavior, 58, 89–97

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

THE FOOTBALL VIEWING BEHAVIOR ON NEW MEDIA Page | 105
DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC IN THAILAND

Pisit Nuttee1, Suttinee Sriburi2 and Sid Terason3
1, 2, 3Faculty of Sports Science, Kasetsart University, Thailand

[email protected]
[email protected]

[email protected]

ABSTRACT
The goal of this study was to explore football viewing behavior among football fans

via the new media during the COVID-19 pandemic. The outbreak has an unprecedented
effect on the sport event and sport industry in Thailand. All events were canceled, postponed,
or suspended. The Football Toyota Thai League event is one of the sport events that were
allowed by the Thai government to start the league competition under the New Normal
policy. The sport spectators must follow the safety requirements. The stadium seat capacity
decreased to 25%; the souvenir shop limited the number of in-store shoppers. In addition, the
food, beverage, and grocery booths were not allowed in the stadium area. Affected by social
distancing regulations, in-depth interviews with nine spectators attending the 2020 Football
Toyota Thai League games were conducted online. We aimed to provide football club
managers with insights, suggestions, solutions and business strategy in order to manage sport
events effectively during the pandemic.

Keywords: football, COVID-19, new media, sport broadcasting, sport consumer behavior

1. Introduction

The spread of the virus SARS-CoV-2 was said to start in December 2019 in Wuhan,
China, where the earliest COVID-19 victim was detected with a new type of coronavirus. The
virus initially spread over different cities in China before crossing over countries. On 11
March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced COVID-19 was an infection
caused by the virus SARS-CoV-2 with a wide range of indicators ranging from mild
symptoms to severe illness. WHO globally confirmed on July 30, 2021 by reported to WHO
about confirming 195,886,929 cases of the coronavirus illness and 4,189,148 deaths over 110
countries around the world and about confirming 561,030 cases of the coronavirus illness and
4,562 deaths in Thailand on July 29, 2021 (World Health Organization, 2021). The COVID-
19 epidemic has disrupted the global economy, health care, resources, and environment, and
has a negative impact on the sports industry at various levels and across various sports
industries.

WHO insisted social distancing and human-to-human contact should be practised to
control the coronavirus (Wong et al., 2020). The football events in Spain, Italy, Portugal, and
the United States were suspended and cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and football
federations issued guidelines for reopening of football events after the COVID-19 epidemic
(Corsini et al., 2020; Gouveia & Pereira, 2020; Herrero-Gonzalez et al., 2020; Parrish &
Lam, 2020). The Union of European Football Association (UEFA) formally chosen to
reschedule the tier of UEFA championship league final and other games on March 2020, as
professional athletes were tested positive (Union of European Football Associations, 2020).
The International Olympic Committee (IOC), along with the Japanese government,
announced on March 30, 2020, that the 2020 Tokyo Olympics will be postponed to July
2021, whereas maintaining the name of 2020 Tokyo Olympics (International Olympic

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

Committee, 2020) and was postponed a second time due to a rise in new cases in Tokyo.

Finally, on June 9, 2021 the IOC’s Executive Board insisted on progressing towards the

opening ceremony on July 23, 2021 with no spectator present in all stadiums and arenas.

In Thailand, the government established the state lockdown policy, causing sport

events to be postponed or canceled. The Ministry of Sports and Tourism of Thailand

announced the sport policy and practices for sport events on July 1, 2020, concerning Page | 106
organizing no-spectators football matches and the protocols for the Football Association of

Thailand, football clubs, football athletes, coaches, referees, staff, and related officials. The

Football Association of Thailand put forth a COVID-19 prevention manual and allowed the

number of spectators to be 50% at the maximum and applied social distancing measures in all

stadiums for Toyota Thai League (Football Association of Thailand, 2020a).

Sport broadcasting proved to be instrumental in viewing football under the agreement

between the Football Association and the Department of Public Relations. Live football

programs were set to continue Toyota Thailand League by broadcasting live matches on

television channels such as NBT, MCOT, Channel 5, and Channel 7 HD, as well as on social

media and over-the-top (OTT) Internet streaming (Football Association of Thailand, 2020b).

Furthermore, the Thai League announced on July 23, 2021 about rescheduling the new

season of football Thai League on September 2021 amid the rapid spread of the virus. (Thai

League, 2021).

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Impact of the COVID-19 on sports

The COVID-19 epidemic has an unprecedented impact on global sports and many
areas. In Spain and France, no spectator was allowed in a stadium since the outbreak of the
epidemic. In Italy, England and Germany, those spectators were depressingly concerned by
confirmed community new cases or deaths (Reade et al., 2020; Reade & Singleton, 2020),
also has the impact on the policy and politics (e.g. be played without spectators and without
the good mood in football games watching, obtains less wealthy in community) and social
(e.g. on community, grass root sport, mass sport, relationship between media and football,
and broader society) (Grix et al., 2021) and a significant economic and financial impacts (e.g.
visible and vulnerable to sponsors and increasing relation of broadcaster rights as business
partners and revenues in football leagues and stock returns) (Drewes et al., 2020; Fühner et
al., 2021; Gouveia & Pereira, 2020; Grix et al., 2021; Manoli, 2020; Parrish & Lam, 2020).

In England, the rescheduling of the English Premier League (EPL) is expected to lost
revenue outcome as over 1.25 billion USD and the postponement of La Liga (Spain),
Bundesliga (Germany), Serie A (Italy), and League 1 (France) was projected to be 970
million USD, 790 million USD, 700 million USD, and 400 million USD, separately.
According to the football reference, the highest soccer league in the United States, Major
League Soccer (MLS), was canceled its season after playing just 2 matches and the
estimations on profits losses for MLS are difficult to estimate given the league’s aspiration to
recovery lost games. In the United States, the effects grown across sports industries. For
examples, in basketball industry, the National Basketball Association (NBA) will be early
expected to lose more than 650 million USD in profits because of the league suspending their
season. At the college stage, the termination of the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) basketball competition resulted in a projected loss more than 1 billion USD. The
forecasts of the National Hockey League (NHL) indicate that teams will achieve losses
around 270 million USD in match day income (or about 8.5 million USD each), regardless of
the number of games in the league reached 85% of the season before all games were
postponed. Especially the adverse financial impact related with the delay of the 2020 Tokyo
Olympic games is estimated with some implying a loss more than 13 USD billion that loss

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

overall, about 5.4 USD billion to 6.4 USD billion will be recognized by host country as Japan
(Drewes et al., 2020; Ehrlich et al., 2020; Parrish & Lam, 2020). Furthermore, the resumption
of football activities must be prepared during and after the pandemic (Buldú et al., 2020;
Herrero-Gonzalez et al., 2020) and make balancing health and the integrity of sports (Garcia-
Garcia et al., 2020).

2.2 Sport and event consumer behavior in sport events Page | 107

Sport consumer behavior represents the attention on sport product or service and

influence attendances in sporting events or participation in specific activities and easily be

broadened to sport tourism and hospitality as well as televised sport and entertainment (Funk

et al., 2003). Sport events can operate in the categories of Mega sport events (global tourism

market, size and scope of participants, target marketplace, community financial contribution,

political properties, media coverage, facilities, financial and public impact are huge e.g.

Olympics, FIFA World Cup), Hallmark events (unique destination or place, significant

improved for that particular attraction e.g., Tour De France, London Marathon, Melbourne

Cup), Major events, ( has no specific place, large monetary benefits, media coverage and

sport participations founded on their size and scope e.g., Rugby World Cup, UEFA Cup, NFL

Superbowl) and Local events (no achieve the criteria of another events, locally areas e.g.,

Triathlon Series, Premier League match) (Funk, 2008).

Sport fans behavior shown in three groups of traveling, first, participate in a sport

event activities, second, watch a sport event activities, and third, visit a sporting attraction

(Gibson et al., 2003). Sport fans make decisions on their properties’ spending of time and

money on sport and event activities, and they spend time to watch live sport event in stadium,

television, radio, internet broadcasting or others in sport competitions and events including

the habits of sport activities in each such as using internet to follow a sport as a topic in

discussion in house, office, and community communication and they still spend money in

actual sport activities including the tickets purchasing in sporting events, clubs’ memberships,

cost of traveling to a sporting event, licensed merchandise, clubs’ souvenir, registration fees,

sport equipment, subscription, media, and so forth (Funk, 2008).

Sport business needs sport consumer in three categories of spectators, participants,

and sponsors in the sport industry (Shank & Lyberger, 2015). Spectators are sport consumers

who earn benefits from sport event viewing and that are indirect spectators get experiencing

by media channel chosen (e.g., radio, television, internet) to view those events and direct

spectators attend the sporting event and the spectators in stadium have 5 levels, first, non-

consumers who do not know the event and have never get the information about event,

second, indirect consumer, third, unplanned consumer, forth, planned consumer and fifth,

heavy consumer (Mullin et al., 2014) that the facilities and services offered by the stadiums

have most effect on spectators (Binjwaied et al., 2015) and considerable televised football can

reduce spectators in stadiums (Solberg & Mehus, 2014) including the lack of security

personnel and uncontrolled the behavior of sport fans in stadiums (Yusoff & Pathamanthan,

2015).

2.3 Football and Sports Media
Sport has become one of the leading monetary industries in the global with

commercial products and services through active participation, facilitated, and spectatorial
consumption, profitable production and promotion, and overall involvement, sport is a
primary institution in societies throughout the world, influenced by sport communication
aspect of the sport industry through the media (such as newspaper sport sections, sport
television and radio broadcasters, sport websites and social media platforms, and sport
magazines), it also impacts social interactions, sport event settings, organizational roles, and

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

any sport industry areas in which communicative activities take place (Pederson, 2016). The

sports media have become incredibly powerful, the sports media now command worldwide

attention, respect, and financial support. Budget is a key factor, because as sports has grown

in economic power and importance, so does the sports media. Sports media as the roundabout

of money, technology, and culture, with each component motivating the other two

components. The sports media have certainly contributed to the financial growth of sports. to Page | 108
From an economic perspective, the sports media business is shifting from print

broadcast and online. That is, more budgets are to be found in these new platforms, meaning

that jobs there will grow while they continue to shrink in newspapers and local television

(Schultz & Arke, 2016). Football is a huge business that top teams and leagues in the UK, the

US, France, Spain, Germany, Italy, China, Japan, and so forth generate billions of dollars in

income and serve fans both in a stadium and on social media. Digital sport media as an online

marketing medium are used in professional football clubs from English Premier League,

German Bundesliga, Spanish La Liga League to boost their international reach in increasing

football markets outside Europe (Fleischmann & Fleischmann, 2019). The future of sport

broadcasting is distinctively positioned between the analogue paradigm of long-standing

television broadcast networks, the demand of digital broadcasting of new generation

participants (López-González et al., 2017; O'Reilly et al., 2012; Turner, 2007) and

commercial success in professional football (Parganas et al., 2017).

The sport coverage on television is appreciated by sport fans, offered by clubs and

leagues, bought and sold by media companies, and influenced by advertisers. Technological

change has been a significant driver in the interactions between the media and all parts of

society, not to cite the association between sport and media. Convergence states to a

multitude of drives in the sport media scenery and reference to, first, technological change,

whereby the means of distribution that are becoming integrated, second, the phenomenon of

growing cross media ownership, third, the cumulative nationwide and international

domination for large media organizations, otherwise known as media corporations or

international media businesses, forth, and finally, ownership of contents and the means of

distribution (Friedman & Friedman, 2008; Nicholson et al., 2015; Ryu et al., 2019) and sport

broadcasting right and digital media right under the digital paradigm develop and consider

the impact of digital technologies on the business models of broadcasters, sport content

owners and sport consumers (López-González et al., 2017; Stan, 2020; Taylor & Thomass,

2017) as sport fans in sports broadcasting industry that classified the characteristic of fanatic

viewers, common viewers, entrainment viewers, and information seekers (Oh & Kang, 2020).

The modern chronicle of association football or soccer in United State began in

England during the mid of eighteenth century and in the early nineteenth century, the football

games were being played among students with their own developed rules in competitions at a

few elite public schools in England and communities led to football being played during the

times of leisure. London Football Association was established along with the first published

and delivered the rules of association football (the originated name of the Football

Association). The Football Association (FA) announced the agreements with local and

regional associations in England and in 1867, the FA had only ten member clubs and fifty

clubs by 1871, one thousand clubs by 1888, and ten thousand clubs by 1905. The diffusion of

modern football in global and in Asia was extended and led by the Fédération Internationale

de Football Association (FIFA). By the end of the nineteenth century, the football associations

existed around the world (Parrish et al., 2020). In Thailand, the Football Association of Siam
under royal patronage of his majesty the King Rama 6th was established on April 25, 1916,

and was the member of FIFA since 1925, the Football Association of Thailand under royal

patronage of his majesty the King was announced in 1939 and join the Asian Football

Confederation (AFC) since 1957 (Football Association of Thailand, 2021).

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

2.4 New Media

New media technologies have become a core of the sports media scenery. Sport fans

use new media to watch games, talk about sports issues with fan-based communities, and

secure contents about their favorite players and teams. fans have known so much about

athletes, that happened via Twitter feeds, fan web sites, or blogs and have the lines Page | 109
communication between producer, consumer, enactor, fans, and athletes been beyond

misleading. The internet has made virtually everything accessible for sports media

consumption, it has also made insight sports media considerably more complex. The media

demonstrates both the methods of transmission and their contents, for example, the internet

with its sites, blogs, forums, social networks, online games (Larchet, 2019) and refers to the

technical means through which a message is sent and received and associated questions of

how message are stored and distributed over time and space. Technical media have been

valuable through human history have included print (paper and movable type) broadcasting

(radio and television), telecommunications and the internet (Flew, 2018). It is difficult to

review new media innovations without debating traditional media formats and standards that

this tends to be in additional to traditional media consumption (Billings & Hardin, 2016) and

understanding of new media online platform as digital medium with foundation technologies

(Lesage & Natale, 2019; McMullan, 2020).

The essential attributes of new media technologies concern the Five C’s

(communication, collaboration, community, creativity, and convergence) (Friedman &

Friedman, 2008) that push the Three C’s (consumption, contribution, and creation) (Vale &

Fernandes, 2018) and the advantage of new media in communications, information, and

access the culture in all its forms, and soon, no one will be able to do without it. For society

has incorporated them into the way its different structures work, be they social,

administrative, commercial, educational, even religious. The digital transformations of new

media are through the concept of convergence, the definition of media convergence as

involving the combination of computing (digital media and information technologies),

communication (network, artefacts, and practices) and content (media and information) and

media convergence as operating across four dimensions of technological, industrial, social

and textual that can be added other key elements of user-created content and policy

convergence (Flew, 2014).

Traditional media are being substituted by internet media contents, and social

mobilization (e.g. websites, blogs, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram), accessed by

multiple internet-enable devices (Ha et al., 2015; Ha et al., 2017; Hutchins, 2019), to be

watched anywhere and anytime especially during the night-time as prime time, for streaming

media services as new media have replaced the prime time of television and disruptive

implications in post-television era on behavioral patterns and habit both individual and socio-

economic (Menke & Schwarzenegger, 2019; Tana et al., 2020; Weiss, 2013) as televisual

ubiquity (Stewart, 2016) and the significant transformation (Mehta, 2021; Siguencia et al.,

2017). The combination of new media technologies has changed the innovation in fan

engagement (Meng et al., 2015), consumer-to-consumer communications and the relationship

between new media and sponsorship (Santomier, 2008).

Nowadays, new media such as social networking platforms and video sharing and

digital live streaming are used and targeted sport fans and seem to offer functional and

hedonistic value to fans (Barelka et al., 2013; Kharmalki & Raizada, 2020) and multi-screen

viewing (Hutchins & Sanderson, 2017), and have offered a stadium for sport clubs and

athletes to maintain and participate with their sport fans and boost physical activities during

the lack of live sport and COVID-19 shutdown, new media still let clubs, athletes and fans to

communicate, create and share user-generated contents and facilities interactively (Filo et al.,

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

2015; Hayes, 2020; Kharmalki & Raizada, 2020; Kim & Hull, 2017; Li et al., 2018;
Siguencia et al., 2017).

3. METHOD

This study will employ a qualitative content analysis to investigate and gather the

football viewing behavior during the COVID-19 epidemic in Thailand with football fans of Page | 110
professional football clubs in Toyota Thai League by using in-depth interview to collect

answers related to their behavior which helped us discover the deeper underlying context

(Hodges, 2011).

3.1 Participants
The survey was implemented by using in-depth interviewing and the criteria for

choosing participants were: Thais, at least 20 years old, and football fans of professional
football club in Toyota Thai League. The participants of the survey were represented by nine
football fans.

3.2 Instrument
This instrument used in this study consisted of open-ended six questions to determine

how football fans view the football games and four demographic questions. All open-ended
questions were analyzed using qualitative analysis. We met the interviewees for the interview
at certain locations outside the football stadium or made calls to them. Each participant was
asked to communicate his or her opinions in responding to six open-ended questions and each
interview took about 20 minutes (see Appendix for interview questions). The participants
were asked the same starting questions and the answers revealed how respondents viewed the
football games, purchased souvenirs or merchandise from football clubs. Suggestions about
the regulations and rules for football watching in a stadium during the pandemic in Thailand
were proposed. The interview process continued until no new themes occurred. All data from
the interviews were analyzed and coded.

3.3 Data analysis
The information of qualitative data was analyzed, and qualitative content analyses are

focus on the football fan behavior of viewing football games, purchasing goods and respond
to government’s regulation and practices. The pseudonyms were appointed to participants and
thematic analysis was used to explain the interview data (Spiggle, 1994). There were six steps
to analyze the set of data: (1) all participants were interviewed by researchers in Thai and
completing the interview by collected into transcript, (2) the researchers refined the overall
participant’s opinions and comments, (3) assisted in simplifying the themes of this study and
examined each transcript to identify the common and different from participant’s tone and
wording from interviews till the key themes emerged, (4) categorized the information into the
appropriate themes, (5) analyzed the qualitative data to describe narrative results, and (6)
analyzed the finding for limitation and future research.

4. RESULTS
According to the interviews about the Toyota Thai League season 2020 watching

channel during the pandemic. Four themes were watching at the stadium, watching out of
stadium, impact of COVID-19 epidemic, and purchasing merchandize and souvenir on Thai
League spectators’ behavior. The results in each theme show the football fans’ reasons of
choosing their watching football matches channel during the pandemic. Kırcova and Aksoy
(2018) stated that spectator behaviors reveal people’s perceptions of football’s entertainment
value, characteristics of people in relative to football and sport media consumption (Koronios

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

et al., 2020) included the individuals’ decisions of watching games in a stadium, watching at
home, watching with community, or not watching the games.

4.1 The place that football fans watching the games

Watching Thai league games at the stadium during COVID-19 situation still being the

preference of football fans when making a decision of where to watch the games. One Page | 111
respondent preferred to experience the excitement and fans cheering atmosphere at the

stadium. Though, the virus transmission is risk of spreading at the crowd, but the virus

protection policy and the club management are managed effectively. “I prefer watching Thai

league at the stadium rather than other channel because the noise and feeling of fans cheering

are more excited. I usually go to the stadium with my friends and family.” [Sakol] During

COVID-19 pandemic, the football club strictly and effectively applied social distancing and

virus protection policy.

In this theme, there are many platforms that offer audiences to access live sport events

especially football matches, for example, Free-TV, satellite and internet streaming TV box,

and social media and application on mobile phone. These platforms might have some point

that affect their enjoyable feelings, but they still decided to watch the games out of stadium.

Participants showed their different watching platforms and the reasons of choosing them.

The participants shared their watching behaviors when they watched the games at

home. Wipa: Since COVID-19 pandemic, I watched every game on Free-TV and on mobile

phone as second screen at the same time during the pandemic . However, when I watched the

matches at home, I can see only in the small screen and cannot feel the game excitement.

Sirichai: Since the competition continued, Thai league started to broadcast on Free-TV that

help to provide more watching channel options for fans. I can watch multiple games at the

same schedule which is more convenient than watching on the internet. Watching on Free-TV

also provides team’s information, player’s system and show slow motion of important actions

that football fans can clearly watch again.

Similarly, Pramote, who watched more than one football matches at the same time,

accessed the games through Free-TV. “Before and during the pandemic, I watched games

through True Vision TV Box and Free-TV. Broadcasting on Free-TV provides alternative

choices for consumers to watch multiple matches that play at the same schedule.” [Pramote]

“Since COVID-19 pandemic, I prefer to watch matches at home because of the virus

protection policy.” [Aom] “If I stayed at home, I watched matches through Free-TV on

True4U channel.” [Bank] “I always watched football matches through Free-TV alone which

is very convenient for me.” [Oak] Most of the respondents who watched the matches at home

choose Free-TV platform as the main option and mobile phone as the second screen. They

can watch more than one match at the same time. Moreover, they feel safe from COVID-19

spreading to the crowd at the stadium.

Sakol who preferred to watch the games at the stadium, when he cannot be there,

access the games through mobile phone becomes his solution. He watched the games through

mobile application streaming. Sakol: I sometimes watched the matches through AIS PLAY

application on mobile phone when I went outside. Aom, 28 years old, is another interviewee

who watched the games on mobile phone when she cannot stay at home. She accessed the

live games through social media application. She also concerned about the risk of attending

the games at the stadium. Aom: I watch Thai league games on mobile phone through

True4U’s Facebook fan page which is free of charge, more convenient and safer from

COVID-19 pandemic. However, the problem is internet signal is unstable and audio and

visual system of mobile phone is not as good as TV. Bank: I can watch football match

anywhere on mobile phone.

The participants prefer to watch the games out of the stadium because of their

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

convenience and to avoid the risk of COVID-19 pandemic. Even though, these channel
decreases the excitement of the games, watching Thai league football matches through these
platforms is the best solution for the present situations.

4.2 The Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on Thai League spectators’ behavior

When Toyota Thai League 2020 can continue the competition, there are the virus Page | 112
protection policy from sport authorities to apply strictly at the football stadiums when

organizing the matches. These policies affected the spectator’s behavior of watching the

games. “The social distancing policy that allowed only 50% spectators changed the

competition atmosphere and environment to be less exciting.” [Sirichai] “during the COVID-

19 pandemic, the number of spectators is limited to 25%, then increased to 50%, this policy

dampened the atmosphere and lowered the game quality.” [Pramote] “Watching football

matches at the stadium is more exciting and real but might be at risk for COVID-19.” [Aom]

4.3 Purchasing merchandize and souvenir
At shop stadium
“I always visit souvenir shop at the stadium because I can see the actual material of

merchandize and I can try team jersey in each size.” [Oak] “I always visit souvenir shop
when I went to see the games. I bought every edition of team jersey because the price is not
high. When the price is low, it is easier to decide of buying.” [Pramote]

Online purchasing
“Purchasing club souvenir online is more convenient and free delivery. It helps me to
save traveling cost, avoid traffic jam, and take no risk of COVID-19 pandemic.” [Aom] “I do
not have to wait in line to get into the shop. It is convenient and no need to concern about
social distancing policy. I can access shop online anywhere and anytime via e-commerce
application such as Lazada and Shopee and can check the available stock directly.” [Bank]
Not purchasing
“I have never bought souvenir at both shop at the stadium and online shop because
the price is too expensive for me.” [Sakol] “I visit the shop when I went to see the matches,
but I have never bought them because the design is not satisfied me.” [Wipa]

4.4 The channel that football fan watching the games
Watching Thai league games at home before COVID-19 situation still being the

preference of football fans when making a decision of how to watch the games. Sakol, 54
years old, usually watch the games from Free-TV like True4U via Digital TV through internet
streaming box. Wipa, 25 years old, usually watch the games from Free-TV like True4U via
Digital TV through internet streaming box and has second screen on mobile phone to watch
the games via Facebook Live and YouTube Highlight. Some respondents watched the games
from Free-TV like True4U via Digital TV through satellite box and had a second screen on
mobile phone to watch the games via Facebook Live. Sirichai, 54 years old, usually watch the
games from Free-TV like True4U via Digital TV through satellite box and has a second
screen on mobile phone to watch the games via Facebook Live. Aom, 28 years old, always
watch the games on mobile phone to watch the games via Facebook Live and Facebook Fan
page of True4U. However, Bank, 30 years old, always watched the games on a mobile phone
via YouTube Live of True4U channel. Oak, 35 years old, tended to do the same.

Watching Thai league games at home during the COVID-19 situation was the
prefered mode of football viewing among fans. Sakol, usually watch the games on free TV
channels 5, 7, 9, or NBT through Internet streaming box. Wipa did the same, but had an
alternative screen on mobile phone to watch the games via Facebook Live and YouTube
Highlight. Pramote, 52 years old, always watch the games from Free-TV like 5, 7. 9, NBT via

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

Digital TV through satellite box and has a second screen on mobile phone to watch the games

via Facebook Live. Sirichai, 54 years old, usually watch the games from Free-TV like 5, 7. 9,

NBT via Digital TV through satellite box and has a second screen on mobile phone to watch

the games via Facebook Live. However, Aom, 28 years old, always watch the games on

mobile phone to watch the games via Facebook Live and Facebook Fan page of True4U.

Bank, 30 years old, always watch the games on mobile phone to watch the games via Page | 113
YouTube Live of True4U channel. Oak, 35 years old, always watch the games from Free-TV

like True4U via Digital TV through internet streaming box and on mobile phone to watch the

games via YouTube Live of True4U channel.

5. DISCUSSION
Based on the results from the interview of nine people, it can be seen that 4Cs

elements which are consumer, convenience, cost and communication influence watching
behavior of the Toyota Thai League fans. It can be implied that these four components are
important factors for marketers when planning strategies to increase fans.

According to the findings of consumer needs and wants during the COVID-19
pandemic, consumer demand is significant for every football club in Thai league. The quality
of the game, the player’s performance, and the atmosphere of the fans in the stadium affect
the decision making of spectators to watch football matches at the stadium. The support was
provided from previous research that the excitement is important for spectators who came to
watch games at the stadium (Kırcova & Aksoy, 2018). The lively atmosphere of singing and
shouting from thousands of supporters with flags, banners, and mufflers waving on the
stadium during the games can only be seen and felt in stadium (Yusoff & Pathamanthan,
2015). It can be seen from the findings that people prefer to watch the matches at the stadium
because of the excitement. Team performance is another influencing factor of spectator
stadium attendance (Binjwaied et al., 2015) as Solberg and Mehus (2014) showed that fans
who disappointed with their team’s result watched games at the stadium less frequently.
Furthermore, famous teams or players of visiting team can attract spectators to a match at the
stadium. In COVID-19 pandemic, going to see the games at the stadium might be risky as
studies show that even if the social distancing policy is applied and the stadium capacity is
limited, the virus can spread to congregated fans. Fans need to act and follow the regulations
strictly while attending the games (Reade et al., 2020) which might drop the game excitement
and make fans feel uncomfortable. However, one of the most significant factors influencing
the spectator’s motivation of stadium attendance is stadium service (Binjwaied et al., 2015).
If the club can manage and applied COVID-19 protection policy effectively, the fans would
feel safe and decide to watch the matches at the stadium.

However, many fans change their watching football match behavior from going to
watch the games at the stadium to watching on other platform such as television and internet.
According to the development of sport media, sport customers can reach sport product
through media such as internet, television, and radio (Kim & Trail, 2011). Mobile phone has
been an important tool of social practice to attend live sport. It provides information, connects
friends who are not at the live event together and also review actions and highlights from the
games (Boyle, 2004). Watching Thai league games out of stadium become even more popular
since Thai league games have been broadcasted on Free-TV especially during the pandemic .
Binjwaied et al. (2015) stated that the matches that are televised affect the spectator stadium
attendance. More people can watch games on TV and other channel easier. The match
information, statistics, and important actions that appeared on the screen provide knowledge
and lesson to spectators. Watching sport on social media and internet streaming platform
become a key that help to disseminate sport and physical activity participation to sport
audience and bring opportunities from athletes and sport organization to engage with sport

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

fans during the pandemic (Hayes, 2020). The social media and internet applications platform

can be done anywhere.

Moreover, attending games at the stadium not only includes ticket cost and travel

costs, but also time costs. Time-consuming is lower when watching matches on television

than going to the stadium (Funk, 2008; Solberg & Mehus, 2014). Besides, when people

decided to go to the stadium to support their local team, they prefer to take their friends or Page | 114
family to the game rather than watching alone but taking them to the stadium might not be

feasible for every game. Staying home and watching game at home is easier to access more

activities at the same time (Kırcova & Aksoy, 2018). They also have more chances to watch

more than one matches at the same time. Even though, watching the matches out of stadium

are safe from COVID-19 transmission and more convenient. It might provide less excited

atmosphere. People who want to experience lively atmosphere and excitement still prefer to

go to stadium rather than stay at home. For the club communication, most of the football club

use social media to be the main communication way between club and fans. Social media

connect club and customers more personal by using two-way communication (Hajli, 2015).

Before the games, if football clubs announce COVID-19 pandemic protection policy clearly

on social media and interact with their fans, it can help to make their fans feel more

comfortable and reduce the misunderstanding of club management plan and regulations that

can be appeared at the stadium.

6. CONCLUSION
The COVID-19 pandemic is affecting fans behavior of watching Toyota Thai League

season 2020. Many spectators importantly responded the risk COVID-19 virus spreading and
change their decision from attending the matches at the stadium to watching the games on
Free-TV and internet platform. The club revenue that mainly received from selling ticket,
merchandize, and souvenir included food and beverage are affected significantly. Though, the
pandemic situation in Thailand seems to be relieved and the governing bodies allow football
club to increase their stadium capacity, the risk of virus spreading is still remained. The
football club manager should plan strategies and looking for new business model that can
overcome the decreasing of fans stadium attendance and find the way to improve
communication, to generate more revenue from other platform such as internet broadcasting
and shopping online. For future research, the researchers may take advantage on new era of
technology and communication to study and focus on new channel and model to survive and
generate new income in sport business. In addition, there are other stakeholders such as
football clubs, athletes and sponsors that are affected by the pandemic . Focusing on them
might provide different perception and information that can lead to different findings.

The challenge for the future about survival and sustainable solutions by using the
digital technologies on sports during and post-Covid 19 (Skinner & Smith, 2021), needs to be
discussed in widely stakeholders. For example, Virtual Reality Spectatorship (VRS) is
charming and developing sport media consumption trends as it delivers such finest
experiences that maximizes consumer satisfaction and involved sport fans satisfaction (Kim
& Ko, 2019; Kunz & Santomier, 2020).

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APPENDIX
Interview Questions
1. By which channel did you watch the 2019/2020 Toyota Thai League games during the
COVID-19 pandemic?
2. What do you think about watching the games via this channel?
3. How did you purchase souvenirs or merchandise of your favorite team during the
pandemic?
4. What do you think about purchasing souvenirs or merchandise via this channel?
5. What do you think about the safety regulations imposed by the government concerning
football watching during the pandemic?
6. What is your suggestion about management of sport fans when it comes to watching the
games at the stadium during the pandemic?

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

THE ACADEMY OF OLYMPISM: THAILAND OLYMPIC ACADEMY

Suriyan Somphong1 and Komkrit Rattamanee2 Page | 120
1, 2Faculty of Science and Technology, Suan Sunandha Rajaphat University

[email protected]

[email protected]

The Thailand Olympic Academy, which marked the 19th anniversary of its operations
in the dissemination of the Olympic values and development of Olympic education, presents
the main focus of this article. Based on scientific research and historical context, it is trying to
determine the significance of the Thailand Olympic Academy for the Olympic Movement.
The significance of the Thailand Olympic Academy is reflected in its definition as a
multicultural and interdisciplinary scientific and educational centre aiming at studying and
teaching Olympism in Thailand. The foundations of the Thailand Olympic Academy are
recognized in the Olympic ideal inspired, which formed the Olympism, through balanced
cultivation of the body, will and mind.

Keywords: Olympic Movement, Thailand Olympic Academy, Management, Olympic Values,
Olympic Education.

INTRODUCTION
Originally, the Olympic Games were intended as a vehicle for the promotion of

Olympism, the philosophy which calls for international understanding, intercultural
awareness, mass participation, fair play, greater education through sport and the pursuit of
excellence in all endeavours. The Games aimed to be a show-case for these ideals in action
with an accompanying message that everyone should incorporate the philosophy into their
own lives. However, there are perceptions that the philosophical message has become
clouded by problems such as political intervention (Leiper, 1988) excessive commercialism
(Gruneau, 1984), unethical behaviour (Dubin, 1990), elitism (Kidd, 1988), gender inequality
(Hargreaves, 1984) and obsessive media presence (Sage, 1990). Some have even suggested
that the Olympic philosophy and the Olympic Games are not necessarily related (Leiper,
1988), which is to say that the Olympic ideals are not inherently present in the Games. While
there is doubt regarding the effectiveness of the Olympic Games as a method to promote the
Olympic philosophy, there are other programs within the Olympic Movement that have the
promotion of Olympism as their primary goal. One such program is the Thailand Olympic
Academy (TOA).

The TOA is an annual residential workshop for selected sports-minded Thais and its
philosophical base is Olympism. This workshop provides an opportunity for the participants
to examine their own values and beliefs concerning sport and the Olympic Movement. The
participants are chosen based on their interest and experience in the Olympic Movement and
are selected to provide a balance between women and men; Francophones and Anglophones;
and to furnish representation from all regions of Thailand. Sport scholars, sport
administrators, international speakers and Olympic leaders contribute to a setting in which
participants learn about the Thailand amateur sport system, the Olympic Movement and the
issues which confront the Olympic Movement today. The TOA is a leadership development
program in the sense that one of its objectives is to encourage its participants to effect change
in sport. In essence, the TOA strives to develop ambassadors of the Olympic Movement in
Thailand communities.

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The Olympic Philosophy
The Olympic philosophy developed from the work of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, one

of the primary individuals behind the emergence of the Olympic Movement. Coubertin
believed that physical activity could be an important tool in an individual’s quest to reach
overall personal excellence which, in turn, would lead to the betterment of society in general.
His initial motivation was based on his feeling that the youth of France at that time (late Page | 121
nineteenth century) were in need of social reform. He felt that if the nation’s youth were
committed to athletic excellence, the nationalistic fervour of French society would be aroused
(Czula, 1975).

In 1 8 9 4 at the International Congress of Paris, at Coubertin’s suggestion, the
International Olympic Committee (IOC) was formed and the foundation of the modern
Olympic Movement evolved. Two years later, the first modern Olympic Games were held in
Athens, Greece. In 1894, de Coubertin explained:
Why did I restore the Olympic Games? To ennoble and strengthen sports, to ensure their
independence and duration, and thus to enable them better to fulfil the educational role
incumbent upon them in the modem world. For the glorification of the individual athlete,
whose muscular activity is necessary for the community, and whose prowess is necessary for
the maintenance of the general spirit of competition (IOC, 2021).
Baron Pierre de Coubertin felt that an athletic competition would provide the appropriate
atmosphere for the conveyance of his Olympic philosophy.

This philosophy has evolved somewhat over the last century but, in essence, the
philosophy of Olympism concerns the pursuit of excellence in all aspects of one’s life. In the
Olympic Charter, the governing document of the International Olympic Committee,
Olympism is defined as:

A philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of
body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a
way of life based on the joy found in effort and the educational value of good example and
respect for universal fundamental ethical principles (IOC, 2020).
For further clarification, the Thailand Olympic Academy has interpreted the Olympic
philosophy as a set of ideals. These ideals are: ( a) mass participation: the expansion of
opportunities for sport and play for all people; (b) sport as education: the creation of the
opportunities for personal growth through lessons learned on the playing field as well as
through the application of sport in the classroom; (c) fair play: integrity, fairness and respect
are the principles of fair play. With them, the spirit of competition thrives, fuelled by honest
rivalry, courteous relations and a graceful acceptance of results; (d) cultural exchange: the
creation of opportunities for the international appreciation of cultures by making the visual
and performing arts part of the Olympic celebrations; (e) international understanding: a
movement that transcends racial, religious, political and economic differences, that promotes
understanding, and thus contributes to world peace; (f) excellence: the pursuit of excellence
in any endeavor (TOA, 2000).

The Olympic Movement
Today, the Olympic Movement has become a large entity in the sporting world. It

encompasses all aspects related to the Olympic philosophy, the Olympic Games and other
activities and programs concerned with the promotion of Olympism. However, there is a
perception by many that the Olympic Movement is made up solely of the Olympic Games.

Theoretically, the purpose of the Games is to act as a quadrennial show-case for the
Olympic philosophy as the following quote explains:

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

The Olympic Games were not simply to be an athletic event, but the focal point for a broadly

based social movement which, through the activity of sport and play would enhance human

development and generally make the world a better place to live. It is debatable if the

Olympic Games do show-case Olympism (Leiper, Segrave, & Chu, 1980) or if they are

simply an athletic event. Nevertheless, the administration of the Olympic Games and the

Olympic Movement has a substantial structure worldwide. Page | 122

The Structure of the Olympic Movement
The Olympic Movement is the responsibility of the International Olympic Committee

(IOC) and is aided at the national level by National Olympic Committees (NOCs). The
Olympic Charter states that the IOC: (a) encourages the coordination, organization and
development of sport and sport competitions; (b) collaborates with the competent public or
private organizations and authorities in the endeavor to place sport at the service of humanity;
(c) ensures the regular celebration of the Olympic Games; (d) fights against any form of
discrimination affecting the Olympic Movement; (e) supports and encourages the promotion
of sport ethics; (f) dedicates its efforts to ensuring that in sports the spirit of fair play prevails
and violence is banned; (g) leads the fight against doping in sport; (h) takes measures the goal
of which is to prevent endangering the health of athletes; (i) opposes any political or
commercial abuse of sport and athletes; (j) sees to it that the Olympic Games are held in
conditions which demonstrate a responsible concern for environmental issues; (k) supports
the International Olympic Academy (IOA); (l) supports other institutions which devote
themselves to Olympic education (IOC, 2020).

The above are all objectives which well reflect the Olympic philosophy well.
However, it is difficult to assume that these objectives are attained. The same problem exists
for NOCs.

The mission of the NOCs, according to the IOC, is “to develop and protect the
Olympic Movement in their respective countries in accordance with the Olympic Charter”
(IOC, 2020). The role of NOCs, as stated in the Olympic Charter, is to: (a) propagate the
fundamental principles of Olympism at national level within the framework of sports activity
and otherwise contribute, among other things, to the diffusion of Olympism in the teaching
programmes of physical education and sport in schools and university establishments. They
see to the creation of institutions which devote themselves to Olympic education. In
particular, they concern themselves with the establishment and activities of National Olympic
Academies, Olympic Museums and cultural programmes related to the Olympic Movement;
(b) ensure the observance of the Olympic Charter in their countries; (c) encourage the
development of high performance sport as well as sport for all; (d) help in the training of
sports administrators by organizing courses and ensure that such courses contribute to the
propagation of the Fundamental Principles of Olympism; and (e) commit themselves to
taking action against any form of discrimination and violence in sport, and against the use of
substances and procedures prohibited by the IOC or the IFs [International Federations] (IOC,
2020).

Again, the Olympic philosophy is evident in the above roles, yet there is little
assurance that these roles are addressed by the NOCs.

Specifically regarding the Thailand situation, the NOC is the National Olympic
Committee of Thailand (NOCT). According to its General By-Law, the NOCT has the
following objectives (a) to arouse and maintain the interest of the people of Thailand in, and
to obtain their support of, creditable and sportsmanlike participation and representation of
Thailand in the Olympic Games, Asian Games and SEA Games; (b) to develop and protect

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

the Olympic Movement and amateur sport in Thailand and to establish and operate
programmes in furtherance there of; (c) to stimulate the interest of the people, particularly of
the youth of Thailand, in healthful, physical, moral and cultural education through
sportsmanlike participation in competitions in accordance with the rules of the sport; (d) to
exercise exclusive jurisdiction, either directly or through its constituent members or
committees, over all matters pertaining to the participation of Thailand in the Olympic Page | 123
Games, Asian Games and SEA Games, including the representation of Thailand in such
Games, and over the organization of the Olympic Games, Asian Games and SEA Games
when celebrated in Thailand; and, in furtherance of such participation and organizing
activities, to comply with and enforce the governing rules, regulations and by-laws of the
International Olympic Committee; (e) to select and obtain for Thailand the most competent
representation possible in the competitions and events of the Olympic Games; (f) to provide
financial assistance, as NOCT deems appropriate, in the development and selection of
competitors for the Olympic Games, Asian Games and SEA Games; and (g) to seek and
accept donations, gifts, legacies and devises in furtherance of its corporate purposes
(Somphong, Kutintara, & Rattamanee, 2019).

The official literature on the IOC, the NOCs and specifically the TOA shows that the
Olympic philosophy is reflected in their stated roles and that these organizations have a
mandate to increase awareness of the Olympic philosophy.

However, it is questionable if these mandates are achieved in reality. (Leiper, 1977),
after studying the IOC and its actions, concluded that Olympism is “no better known today
than it was at the outset of [the Olympic Games] modern revival”. Whether or not this is still
valid in 1994 is yet to be proven. It can be said, however, that there have been concrete
efforts, recently, to develop programs that deal with education about Olympism with the
objective that the Olympic philosophy will become better known and operationalized.
Olympic Education

Education about Olympism, or Olympic education, is designed to increase awareness
of the Olympic philosophy, its role within sport and the Olympic Movement and how it is
applicable to all individuals. The goal of Olympic education is that more people will
incorporate Olympism into their lives which ideally will transform society in a positive
manner.

As well, Olympic education deals with issues that are currently threatening the
Olympic Movement. It is apparent that there are many overt and covert contradictions
between the philosophy of Olympism and the reality of the Olympic Games (Leiper, Segrave,
& Chu, 1980). Olympic education studies the problems which have caused such a
discrepancy between the actual and the ideal. The late Nicolaos Nissiotis who was a professor
and an IOC member in Greece, suggested that Olympic education deal with the history and
philosophy of the Olympic Movement as well as try to gain an understanding of the problems
which challenge its future:

“Both sides of Olympic education are now the two sides of the coin. We cannot have
one without the other. They make a whole” (Leiper, Segrave, & Chu, 1980). He also stressed
that Olympic education should not search only for simple band-aid solutions: Olympic
education should not concentrate on preventing or correcting abuses only.
Its work must be more a constructive one, by trying to influence, by means of the Olympic
principles and ideals, the large masses of young people or educators of all professions and
social classes (Leiper, 1988).

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Olympic education constitutes a substantial task yet, it is important if one hopes to
promote Olympism and actively work toward solving existing problems within the Olympic
Movement.

Olympic education takes a number of forms. A few examples of Olympic education
programs in Thailand include the Olympic Resource Kits, the Youth Olympics, and the
Resource and Information Centre. Briefly, the Olympic Resource Kits are distributed to every Page | 124
elementary school in Thailand for use in the classroom. These kits address many aspects of
the Olympic Movement, in the Olympic Values Education Programme. The Youth Olympics
is a mass participation program designed to educate youth about the Olympic values through
sporting events. The Resource and Information Centre is a library of Olympic related books
and articles housed at the TOA headquarters in Bangkok. This library is accessible to all
interested researchers. Another form of Olympic education is an Olympic academy.
The Olympic Academy Concept

An Olympic academy should provide a setting for interested individuals to come
together and study the Olympic Movement from a number of perspectives (i.e., its history, its
philosophical underpinnings, its present state and its future).
Nissiotis claimed that studying the history of the Olympic Games helps us to understand what
is happening within the Movement by studying our common history of Olympics we are
more united in our present struggles to further and develop the Games and their impact in
today’s education as a whole, one has to research within the renovation of the Games and
explain how this has been allowed to happen; whether this makes the Games deviate from
their original purpose and what should be done to counter it (Nissiotis, 1984).

As well, an academy should allow for a setting which permits the development of
potential Olympic leaders to work toward an improved Olympic Movement in the future. It is
an ideal situation for educators but the term educator must not be restricted only to teachers.
Educators can also be journalists, administrators, officials, volunteers, etc. Basically, anyone
in a position of leadership can educate those whom he or she leads. The point here is that
educators need to be aware of Olympism before they can incorporate it consciously into their
teaching/educating.

According to Nissiotis, a potential weakness of the Academy concept is that the future
Olympic leaders are from the younger generation and this generation is not necessarily
equipped to deal with the vast array of issues and problems of the Olympic Movement: It
becomes equally clear that the Olympic movement as a whole, i.e., practice of sports,
physical education, Olympic Games and their educational purposes in the past and present
times, requires at this moment a careful deepening into its spiritual presuppositions. This is
perhaps the most difficult area for the educational program of the Olympic Academies. It is
difficult, because we are asking young people, born and grown within a technical and
materialistic society of production and consumption, to reflect upon ideals and principles
which look as if they belong to another, ancient world (Nissiotis, 1984).

Ideally TOA brings together like-minded individuals from around the country and
gives them the opportunity to share and exchange values and ideas about sport and the
Olympic Movement.
The International Olympic Academy

Establishment of the International Olympic Academy (IOA) can be traced back to
1927 when Coubertin was invited by the Greek government to preside “Coubertin Grove and
Commemorative Stele” at the Olympia. Discussion of the need for a study center of
Olympism and Olympic Movement was done between Coubertin and Ioannis Chrysafis at the
beginning; however, it were John Ketseas and Carl Diem whose draft of then called “the

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

Academy” was submitted to the 41st IOC Session at Stockholm in June 1947 and later

approved during the 44th IOC Session in Rome, 1949. The commencement of IOA is on 14th

June 1961 with the 1st annual International Session for Young Participants; Ioanis Ketseas

chaired the first presidency of the IOA. Otto SZYMICZEK becomes the first Dean serving

from 1962 to 1990 and Konstantinos GEORGIADIS the second until the present time (IOA,

2021). Page | 125

Through the encouragement of the IOA, National Olympic Academies (NOAs) were

organized. Nissiotis suggested that the creation of NOAs was important because “the

educational activity in the Olympic movement could then be expanded universally in order to

serve properly more people in their environment”. Today, there are approximately 162 NOAs

of various formats. Some are open to all interested individuals while others require potential

participants to go through a selection process. Some academies use more of a lecture format

while others involve active participation from the attendees. The NOA in Thailand is the

Thailand Olympic Academy (TOA).

The Thailand Olympic Academy

The Thailand Olympic Academy has unofficially been undertaking this matter ever

since 1991. We had an opportunity to conduct training, seminar, publishing article in journals,

newsletters, printed materials and leaflets to disseminate information concerning the Olympic

Movement.

On the 25th of March 2002 when the Thailand Olympic Academy has officially been

established, become the 103rd Member Countries of the IOA and registered itself with the

IOA at Olympia, Greece.

Finally, on the 26th of March 2002 by the order No.4/2545 of the National Olympic

Committee of Thailand, Prof. Dr. Supitr Samahito has been appointed as the Director of

Thailand Olympic Academy.

In 19 years, the TOA organized the Sport Administration Course attended around 900

sport administrators, and other activities such as;

1. The TOA had an opportunity to screen athletes participated in the Olympic Youth Camp

and the Asian Youth Camp under the patronage of the International Olympic Committee

(IOC), Olympic Solidarity (OS) and Olympic Council of Asia (OCA).

2. Propelling and introducing Olympic education to be taught in the universities.

Presently, more than 10 universities have already included Olympic education as past of their

curricula.

3. Organizing the Olympic Culture and Education Activities at the yearly Olympic

Day to enhance knowledge and understanding among children and youths at the ages of 8–15

years participated around 1,000 people each time.

4. Building networks among NOAs as to exchange knowledge and experiences, such

as China, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Mongolia, Cambodia and Vietnam.

5. Thai students learn about Olympic values. Thailand continued its Olympic Day in School

campaign by visiting Montrisuksa School in Khonkaen Province from 5-7 April 2021. The

Olympic culture and education activities included a general sports knowledge quiz and

Olympic values. Students had the opportunity to learn about the Olympic symbols and to

understand the importance of applying Olympic values in everyday life, as well as studying

the continents that make up the five rings of the Olympic flag (OCA, 2021).

6. NOC Thailand organises advanced sport management course, translates manual into Thai

language. The Thailand Olympic Academy of the National Olympic Committee of Thailand

is organising its fourth Advanced Sport Management Course (ASMC) with the continuous

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

support of Olympic Solidarity. The course will be conducted in two sessions - from June 20-
25 and July 4-9 at the Holiday Inn Resort Vana Nava, Hua Hin and Kanchanburi Province.

7. The Sport Administration Manual, which is the basic textbook for the sport
administrators’ courses organised by NOCs under the auspices of Olympic Solidarity, has
been translated into the Thai language by the TOA and NOC Thailand (OCA, 2021).

8. The TOA continues its sterling work in translating important Olympic textbooks Page | 126
and manuals into the Thai language to develop Olympism and promote the Olympic values in
the Kingdom. The latest documents to be translated into Thai, and to be published in book
form, are the new Olympic Agenda 2020+5 and the Olympic Charter.
The Olympic Agenda 2020+5 builds on the initial Olympic Agenda 2020–the strategic
roadmap of the IOC President, Thomas Bach, to reform the Olympic Movement. The update
includes 15 recommendations for 2021, building on the 40 recommendations from the
original document. Both the translated Olympic Agenda 2020+5 and the Olympic Charter–
which lays the global groundwork for the organisation, governance and management
structure of the Olympic Movement around the world–were presented to the NOC Thailand
on Wednesday, April 28, 2021.
The books will assist the development of sport, especially within the sports organisations.
The two new publications build on the earlier translated works of the Sports Administration
Manual and Managing Olympic Sports Organisations, as well as an Olympic encyclopedia of
the Olympic Movement written in Thai (OCA, 2021).

9. The TOA continued their work in promoting Olympic values in their school
orientation programme on Thursday, June 10, 2021. The Olympic Academy was invited to
take part in the programme via the zoom online platform and made a presentation on
Olympic values to 500 students from Chitralada School in Bangkok. The guest speaker was
Prof. Dr. Supitr Samahito, Vice President of the National Olympic Committee of Thailand
and Director of the Thailand Olympic Academy. Dr. Nipat Ungpakornkaew, Academic
Administration of the TOA, was invited to share experiences with the students (OCA, 2021).

Future Plans of the Thailand Olympic Academy
1. Olympic Movement in Thailand takes big step forward with Ministry of Education

agreement. For the first time in the history of the Olympic Movement in Thailand and the
Ministry of Education, a framework agreement has been made to promote an Olympic School
Programme as a tool for youth development. The agreement was made between the Thailand
Olympic Academy and the Ministry of Education at a meeting on Monday, March 29, 2021.
According to the ground-breaking agreement, TOA will organise an Olympic School
Programme on Olympic values for students and teachers of the Ministry of Education. The
programme targets teachers and students of the Ministry of Education, which the MoE says
confirms the integration of the Olympic School Programme into the national curriculum for
youth development in the country.
This programme aims to develop students' understanding and encourage them to participate
in Olympic values activities, especially the Olympic Games, and to promote an Olympic
culture and healthy lifestyle, according to (OCA, 2021). The TOA believes that schools are
the true nucleus of learning and that the Olympic Movement should instill Olympic values
into students.

2. Planning to organize the Thailand Olympic Youth Camp as to transfer knowledge
and enthusiasm about the Olympic Movement and Olympic values, such as sportsmanship,
fair play, friendship, respect and solidarity to childrens and youths of the Schools in Thailand.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

3. Creating networks with educational institutes, sport organizations and exchange of
knowledge as concerned the Olympic Movement process in line with Pierre de Coubertin
who wished to see educational institutes as a knowledgeable base of learning about
Olympism.

4. Creating the network with other NOAs, especially in the Asian countries.
5. Orienting, following–up and monitoring the course instruction of Olympic Page | 127
education in educational institutes as to inquire about problems and obstacles; while
strengthening knowledge to update information.

Discussion
The significance, importance and role of the Thailand Olympic Academy for the

Olympic Movement is maybe best described by the national’s leading researchers in the field
of Olympism and the TOA’s activities. The mixture of recognized academics from basic
specialized areas, well known sports scientists, practising athletes and sport officials have
extended the TOA clearly beyond the framework of other types of scientific congresses. No
sports university or institute and no academic seminar has a similar, permanent framework
and none is as meaningful: nowhere else can modern sport be discussed against such a
stimulating backdrop as that of the Stadium in Olympia“ (Georgiadis, 2011). On that note,
one can say that the Thailand Olympic Academy was founded as an academic and
educational centre for studying and teaching Olympism with a strong in Thailand and
multicultural orientation focusing on the promotion of the Olympic ideal based on research
and scientific and academic context. One of the main goals of the Thailand Olympic
Academy is to increase the number of Olympic Studies Centre in the university and their
educational activities, especially Olympic education. As the International Olympic Academy
provides strong support to the National Olympic Academies operation–further development
of the Olympic Movement based on humanism and educational context presents the TOA’s
core area of activities and the intellectual network of the Thailand Olympic Academy in
cooperation with National Sport Associations is of outmost importance for the propagation of
these ideas world wide. In line with that, it is necessary to point out that connecting culture,
arts, education and sport will continue to be an important area of activities of the Thailand
Olympic Academy, with a special emphasis on the fact that the Thailand Olympic Academy
and Educational Institutes, through their activities, will continue to play a leading role for the
Olympic Movement, especially in the field of the fundamental moral principles of respect for
others, fair play, equality, democracy and peace in the world.

REFERENCES
Czula, R. (1975). Pierre de Coubertin and modern Olympism. Santo Domingo: Rural

schoolwide project success.
Dubin, C. (1990). Commission of inquiry into the use of performance enhancing drugs and

banned practices intended to increase athletic performance. Ottawa: Canadian
Government Publishing Centre.
Georgiadis, K. (2011). 50 years International Olympic Academy. Athens: International
Olympic Academy.
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Tomlinson & G. Whannel (Eds.), Five ring circus: Money, power and politics at the
Olympic Games (pp. 1-15). London: England: Pluto.
Hargreaves, J. (1984). Women and the Olympic phenomenon. London, England: Tomlinson
& G. Whannel (Eds.).

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

IOA. (2021). History of the IOA. Olympia: International Olympic Academy.

IOC. (2020). Olympic Charter. Lausanne, Switzerland: International Olympic Committee.

IOC. (2021, June 21). Retrieved from https://olympics.com:

https://olympics.com/ioc/celebrate-olympic-games

Karaiskou, A. (2012). Directory of National Olympic Academies. Athens: International

Olympic Academy. Page | 128

Kidd, B. (1988). The philosophy of excellence: Olympic performances, class power, and the

Canadian state. Toronto: Canadian Scholar’s Press.

Leiper, J. (1977). The International Olympic Committee: The pursuit of Olympism 1894-

1970. Edmonton: University of Alberta.

Leiper, J. (1988). Politics and nationalism in the Olympic Games. In J. Segrave & D. Leiper,

J., Segrave, & Chu. (1980). The Olympic ideal–Is it valid as a philosophy basis of

the Olympic Games. Review of the International Council of Sport Sciences and

Physical Education.

Nissiotis, N. (1984). Olympism and Today’s Reality. Ancient Olympia, Greece: International

Olympic Academy.

OCA. (2021, April 26). Retrieved from Olympic Council of Asia:

https://www.ocasia.org/news/1865-thailand-noc-organises-advanced-sport-

management-course-translates-manual-into-thai-language.html

OCA. (2021, April 29). Retrieved from Olympic Council of Asia:

https://www.ocasia.org/news/1878-thailand-olympic-academy-presents-thai-

translations-of-key-olympic-books-to-noc.html

OCA. (2021, June 11). Retrieved from Olympic Council of Asia:

https://www.ocasia.org/news/1989-thailand-olympic-academy-presents-values-

programme-to-500-students.html

OCA. (2021, April 9). Retrieved from Olympic Council of Asia:

https://www.ocasia.org/news/1989-thailand-olympic-academy-presents-values-

programme-to-500-students.html

OCA. (2021, March 31). Retrieved from Olympic Council of Asia:

https://www.ocasia.org/news/1772-olympic-movement-in-thailand-takes-big-step-

forward-with-moe-agreement.html

Sage, G. (1990). Power and ideology in American sport: A critical perspective. Champaign,

IL: Human Kinetics.

Somphong, S., Kutintara, I., & Rattamanee, K. (2019). The impact of the Thailand Olympic

Academy on the Olympic Movement in Thailand. African Journal of Hospitality,

Tourism and Leisure, 8(2), 1-9.

TOA. (2000). Report of the Thailand Olympic Academy. Bangkok: Thailand Olympic

Academy.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

INITIATIVES FOR GENDER EQUALITY IN THE OLYMPIC Page | 129
MOVEMENT IN JAPAN TOWARD THE IOC'S 25
RECOMMENDATIONS

Mika Takezawa1 and Etsuko Ogasawara2
1, 2Juntendo University

[email protected]

Introduction
In 2014, the IOC included the promotion of gender equality in its Agenda 2020, which

sets out the strategy for the Olympic Movement. Furthermore, in 2018, the IOC Gender
Equality Review Project presented 25 recommendations to achieve their goals. These
recommendations incorporate gender equality into all activities of the Olympic Movement
and provide detailed actions. As the host of the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics, Japan has
been drawing attention to gender equality initiatives in Japanese sports organizations.

Literature review
It is necessary to compare the IOC 25 recommendations with the gender equality

efforts in Japanese sports organizations in order to clarify Japan's gender equality efforts in
the Olympic Movement, Therefore, the purpose of this study is to clarify the status of efforts
by Japanese sport organizations in the IOC Gender Equality Review Project, where 25
recommendations were made.

Method
This study focused on the Japanese Olympic Committee (JOC) and the Tokyo

Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games (TOGOC) as organizations
directly related to the Olympic Movement in Japan. For TOGOC, the information was
collected from the Gender Equality Promotion Team's materials on its website, and for JOC,
the information was collected from the questionnaire survey (Google Form) conducted in
November 2020, the minutes of the JOC Executive Board meetings, and the Articles of
Incorporation.

The survey items were extracted from the 25 recommendations made by the IOC to
NOCs and Olympic Movement officials. Then, the status of TOGOC's and JOC's efforts to
date (13 actions in 4 categories) on these items was surveyed. Content analysis was used to
analyze the data.

Results
The JOC had implemented 12 out of the 13 items in the four categories. However, it

had not implemented the "Funding“and “Election process for IOC members in Governance ”.
In addition, the IOC has indicated that the Women's Sports Commission should be given an
oversight role in order to realize the IOC Gender Equality Review Project, but the JOC
Headquarters Rules do not give the Women's Sports Commission any authority on gender
equality.

In TOGOC, 12 out of the 13 items in the four categories had been implemented. The
achievement of 42% female board members and the formation of the Gender Equality
Promotion Team were major changes due to the new female president and external voices.
However, the implementation of two of the "Portrayal" items could not be confirmed.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

The lack of implementation of these initiatives can be attributed to the fact that the
content required by the IOC 25 recommendations has not penetrated the organization, or that
the organization does not have a detailed understanding of what is required by the IOC 25
recommendations.

Discussion Page | 130

In some respects, the hosting of the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics has promoted

gender equality initiatives in Japan. However, in order for Japan to continue to realize gender

equality in the Olympic movement in the future, it is necessary for organizations to be

sensitive to overseas indicators on gender equality and to have a deep understanding of them.

References
International Olympic Committee. (2018). IOC Gender Equality Review Project. Retrieved

from November ,29,2019. https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library
/OlympicOrg/News/2018/03/IOC-Gender-Equality-Report-March-2018.pdf

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

DEVELOPING A NEW OLYMPIC VALUE SCALE FOR THE
OLYMPIC GAMES TOKYO 2020 DURING THE COVID-19

PANDEMIC

Risato Ando Page | 131
Faculty of Sport Science, Kasetsart University, Thailand

[email protected]

Introduction
This study will develop a new Olympic Value Scale (OVS) that can assess individuals'

perceptions of the values that explain the Olympics under the COVID-19 pandemic.

Research Questions
In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has fundamentally changed the lives of people

around the world. The relationship between the values and variables of Olympic values may
have changed by the COVID-19 pandemic. It may be increased in negative opinions about
how the Olympics promote positive values and contribute to society. The researcher
elucidates whether the Olympic Value Scale that was presented by Koenigstorfer and
Preussbin in 2018, is invariant under the COVID-19 situation. And by clarifying the
relationship between values and variables under the COVID-19 pandemic, the researcher will
develop a new OVS and make recommendations that will help the idea of the Olympics and
sport turn problems into opportunities.

Literature review
When it comes to Olympic Values, there are two viewpoints. One is that the Olympic

Movement should stand for a set of values. This is reflected in the opinions of Pierre de
Coubertin and the International Olympic Committee (IOC, 2020). The other is that particular
values may be associated with the Olympic Movement. The latter is concerned with people's
perceptions of their own worth. A study from Chatziefstathiou (2005) demonstrated how the
values associated with the ideology of Olympism at the time Coubertin started the Olympic
Movement have changed until today. Before the COVID-19 Pandemic, Koenigstorfer and
Preuss (2018) developed and validated the OVS concerned with the perception of values in
relation to the Olympic Games. This OVS contains 12 items that load onto three factors that
consists of appreciation of diversity, friendly relations with others, and achievement in
competition. The scale is valid and reliable in both USA and Germany. However, this OVS
was conducted in European culture before the COVID-19 pandemic, and it may be that the
factors will be different for the Tokyo Olympic Games under the COVID-19 pandemic and
strongly influenced by Eastern Asian culture.

Method
The researcher uses questionnaires during the Olympic Games period (From July 23

to August 8, 2021). Available subjects will be entered into the study until a sample size
(n=666) will be reached. Participants will rate the extent to which each of the 50 items, which
consist of 28 items from Koenigstorfer and Preuss (2018) model and 22 items related to the
Olympic Values affected by COVID-19, could be used to accurately describe the values in
relation to the Olympic Games, measured on a 7-point scale. The researcher first conducts an
exploratory factor analyses, using maximum likelihood estimation with Promax rotation, on

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

all 50 items. The analysis will be revealed factor structure. The data will be assigned the
identified factors and CFA is conducted to determine the validity of the analysis.

References

Chatziefstathiou, D. (2005). The changing nature of the ideology of Olympism in the modern

Olympic era. Loughborough University, Loughborough. Page | 132

IOC. (2020). Olympic Charter. International Olympic Committee.

Koenigstorfer, J., & Preuss, H. (2018). Perceived Values in relation to the Olympic Games:

development and use of the Olympic Value Scale. European Sport Management

Quarterly, 18, 1–26.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

REVIEW OF PARTICIPATION PATTERNS OF WOMEN IN
OLYMPIC MOVEMENTS

Pathum P. Weerakkody Page | 133
Kasetsart University, Thailand

[email protected]

Discriminating each other’s by labeling men and women have been happening since
ancient eras in different ways and volumes. Religions, customs, cultures, philosophies,
physical abilities are might be lead to these kinds of discriminations. Women were considered
as underdogs in many professional fields including field of sports. Though it is amateur sport
or professional sports, there are lack of women participation than men in most of the roles.
The objective of this study was reviewing the participation patterns of women in olympic
movements from both athletes and administrative perspectives. The data were collected as
secondary data and via previous studies, research articles and official websites which are
relevant to Olympic movements. In the ancient Olympic era women were excluded from
Olympic games by the roles of competing as athletes and viewing as spectators. Even in the
modern Olympic games, in 1896, were quite different from the ancient games, one of the
similarities may be a shared interest in investigating the role or absence of women in this
historically male-dominated event. Due to the women movements for long period of time,
participation of women in many fields have been increased including the field of sports.
Though the father of modern Olympic against with women participation, Former president of
International Olympic Committee (IOC) Jacques Rogge vociferous for be 50-50 women
participation along with men with every Olympic movements. In present women have more
enough opportunities to participate in Olympics movements than past. Though women athlete
participation in sports were increased over the decades as Paris 1900 2.2%, London 1948
9.5%, Los Angelis 1984 23%, and Tokyo 2021 (expected) 48.8% but the roles of
administrative and leadership position in Olympic movements are still dominate by men.
Women's right to compete in sports was officially included in an international conference in
1979 which was the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women and this convention gave massive attention to the all the sectors including sports.
IOC always tries to grow the women participation of Olympic movement in all aspect from
grass root level to top positions. The Women athlete participation of Olympic games are
almost reached the 50% compared to the men and that is going to be milestone in women
Olympians history. On the other hand that decision making positions are still leading by the
men and women executive percentages still not exceed the level of 30%. Further non-athlete
women participation in Olympic movement also have been increase during the last few
decades and that is not speed up as much as athlete women participations in Olympic games.

Keywords: olympic movements, women participation, discrimination

References
Statista.com. (n.d.). Female athletes share at the Summer Olympics. Retrieved May 7, 2021,

from https://www.statista.com/statistics/531146/women-participants-in-olympic-
summer-games/
Factsheet. (2020). Women in the Olympic Movement. International Olympic Committee.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

Gender Equality Recommendations. (2018). Gender Equality Review Project. International

Olympic Committee.

Nunes, R.A. (2018). Women athletes in the olympic games. Journal of Human Sport and

Exercise, 1(1). 1–10.

Vujović, M., Mitrović, M., & Obradović, N. (2017). Women and olympic games: Media

coverage. Тeme, 6(4). 1113–1137. Page | 134

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

MENTAL HEALTH AMONG ADULTS DURING THE COVID-19
CIRCUIT BREAKER IN SINGAPORE

Ng Yew Cheo, Govindasamy Balasekaran and Say Jun De Edward

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Page | 135

Introduction

To investigate the psychological responses and coping mechanisms among adults in

Singapore during the circuit breaker or globally known as a “lockdown” due to the

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Literature review
The World Health Organisation (WHO) declared COVID-19 a global pandemic on 11

March 2020 (Ding et al., WHO, 2020; Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020). Many governments in
various countries enforced “quarantines”, “lockdowns”, policies and rules over weeks and/or
months (Ding, et al., 2021; Anderson, Heesterbeek, Klinkenberg & Hollingsworth, 2020).
Singapore’s government implemented a similar “lock down”, a circuit breaker period, from 7
April to 1 June 2020.

Method
A total of 1000 adults (≥21 years old) voluntarily participated in this cross-sectional

survey study in Singapore (males: 48.6%, females: 51.4%; Ethnicity: Chinese: 66.0%, Malay:
18.1%, Indian: 15.1%, Caucasian: 0.1%, Arab: 0.6%, Boyanese: 0.1%) that collected
psychological responses (anxiety and depression, resilient coping and hope responses). The
Adult Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information Systems (PROMIS®) short
form v1.0-Anxiety 4a, PROMIS® short form v1.0-Depression 4a, 4-item Brief Resilient
Coping scale and 12-item Herth Hope Index were used to collect these psychological
responses respectively. This survey study was also conducted in a total of 11 countries and
ethical approval was granted by the Institutional Review Board (IRB), Nanyang
Technological University (NTU), Singapore. Informed consent was obtained from
participants and the online Google survey link was sent to them. It took approximately 15
minutes to complete the survey. Thereafter, 997 participants’ survey data were used for
analysis.

Results
Results indicated that Singapore adults had low scores for anxiety (48.2) and

depression (48.7), medium resilient coping scores (15.9) and high hope scores (38). There
were significant correlations between anxiety and depression scores (p = 0.00, r = 0.99),
resilient coping and hope scores (p = 0.00, r = 0.438). There were also significant negative
correlations between anxiety and resilient coping scores (p = 0.00, r = -0.421), anxiety and
hope scores (p = 0.00, r = -0.416), depression and resilient coping scores (p = 0.00, r = -
0.418), depression and hope scores (p = 0.00, r = -0.407). The general population in
Singapore may have lesser personal COVID-19 exposure, which may explain the lower
anxiety and depression scores. Higher resilient coping and hope scores were also associated
with reduced anxiety and depression scores. This may suggest that the majority of the
participants had different coping mechanisms to help them through the circuit breaker.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

Discussion
The stringent responses, policies and measures that the Singapore government had put

in place helped to slow down the spread of the disease, which may have led to reduced
anxiety and depression levels. This could have greatly helped the citizens cope during the
pandemic. Support, mental health awareness and service availability were also readily
available during the circuit breaker that could have also provided assistance to the citizens Page | 136
during this period of time. This study could be further extended to a wider sample of
Singapore citizens.

References

Anderson, R. M., Heesterbeek, H., Klinkenberg, D., & Hollingsworth, T. D. (2020). How will

country-based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID-19 epidemic?.

The lancet, 395(10228), 931-934.

Wong, A. Y. Y., Ling, S. K. K., Louie, L. H. T., Law, G. Y. K., So, R. C. H., Lee, D. C. W.,

& Yung, P. S. H. (2020). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports and exercise.

Asia-Pacific journal of sports medicine, arthroscopy, rehabilitation and technology,

22, 39-44.

Cucinotta, D., & Vanelli, M. (2020). WHO declares COVID-19 a pandemic. Acta Bio

Medica: Atenei Parmensis, 91(1), 157.

Ding, K., Yang, J. Chin, M. K., Sullivan, L., Demirhan, G., Violant-Holz, V., Uvinha, R.R.,

Dai, J., Xu, X., Popeska, B., Mladenova, Z., Khan, W., Kuan, G., Balasekaran, G.,

Smith, G. A. (2021). Mental Health among Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Lockdown: A Cross-Sectional Multi-Country Comparison. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public

Health: 18, 2686. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052686

World Health Organization. (2020). WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media

briefing on COVID-19-11 March 2020.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

LEVELS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AMONG ADULTS DURING
COVID-19 IN SINGAPORE

Govindasamy Balasekaran

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Page | 137

Introduction

To investigate the effects of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) on locals’

levels of physical activity (PA) in Singapore.

Literature review
The World Health Organisation (WHO) declared COVID-19 a global pandemic on 11

March 2020 (Ding et al., WHO, 2020; Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020). Many governments in
various countries enforced “quarantines”, “lock downs”, policies and rules over weeks and/or
months (Ding, et al., 2021; Anderson, Heesterbeek, Klinkenberg & Hollingsworth, 2020).
Singapore’s government implemented a similar “lock down”, a circuit breaker period, from 7
April to 1 June 2020.

Method
A total of 1000 adults (≥21 years old) voluntarily participated in this cross-sectional

survey study in Singapore (males: 48.6%, females: 51.4%; Ethnicity: Chinese: 66.0%, Malay:
18.1%, Indian: 15.1%, Caucasian: 0.1%, Arab: 0.6%, Boyanese: 0.1%). This survey study
was also conducted in a total of 11 countries. Upon participant’s consent, he/she received the
online Google survey link, and it took approximately 15 minutes to complete it. Following,
survey data was collated for analysis. Moreover, ethical approval was granted by the
Institutional Review Board (IRB), Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore.

Results
Results indicated that participants engaged in PA during the circuit breaker (vigorous

PA: 75.9%, moderate PA: 78.6%, walking 1 day and/or more: 76.2%). A higher number of
participants indicated that their PA levels remained the same (40.3%), 25.5% of participants
indicated decrease in PA, 23.8% of participants indicated increase in PA, and 10.4% indicated
that they were unsure. Furthermore, 61.5% of participants expanded more than the
recommendation of 500 METs-minute/ week. 13.1% of participants had 251-500 METs-
minute/ week, 5.4% of participants had 1-250 METs-minute/ week, 20% had 0 METs-minute/
week. Results also revealed that 94.8% of participants with children (n = 287) engaged in PA
at least once a week. Additionally, 8.2% of participants utilized online visual programmes
(OVP) to assist with their PA. 49.5% of participants did not rely on OVP, 30.0% of
participants sometimes relied on OVP, 4.0% of participants relied on OVP about half the time
and 7.4% of participants always relied on OVP. Participants may have needed some form of
movement during the circuit breaker, as locals could only leave their homes for essential
services (e.g., essential work/services, buying groceries and buying food). This may have
resulted in increased PA for 23.8% of participants.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

Discussion
There was a higher percentage of participants who maintained their levels of PA

despite the circuit breaker. It is encouraging to have 61.5% of participants (n = 795) that
participated in PA and expend more than 500 METs-minute/ week. Staying physically active
is essential during a pandemic, however, individuals should also adhere to the guidelines
implemented to ensure the safety of those participating in PA (Wong et al., 2020). Singapore Page | 138
has managed the participation of PA with a variety of safe management measures which may
have greatly contributed to the results (Sport Singapore, 2020).

References
Anderson, R. M., Heesterbeek, H., Klinkenberg, D., & Hollingsworth, T. D. (2020). How will

country-based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID-19 epidemic?.
The lancet, 395(10228), 931-934.
Wong, A. Y. Y., Ling, S. K. K., Louie, L. H. T., Law, G. Y. K., So, R. C. H., Lee, D. C. W.
& Yung, P. S. H. (2020). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports and exercise.
Asia-Pacific journal of sports medicine, arthroscopy, rehabilitation and technology,
22, 39-44.
Cucinotta, D., & Vanelli, M. (2020). WHO declares COVID-19 a pandemic. Acta Bio
Medica: Atenei Parmensis, 91(1), 157.
Ding, K., Yang, J. Chin, M. K., Sullivan, L., Demirhan, G., Violant-Holz, V., Uvinha, R.R.,
Dai, J., Xu, X., Popeska, B., Mladenova, Z., Khan, W., Kuan, G., Balasekaran, G.,
Smith, G. A. (2021). Mental Health among Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Lockdown: A Cross-Sectional Multi-Country Comparison. Int. J. Environ. Res.
Public Health: 18, 2686. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052686
Sport Singapore. (2020). Advisory for resumption of sport and physical exercise & activity
for phase two (‘safe transition’).
World Health Organization. (2020). WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media
briefing on COVID-19-11 March 2020.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

THE EFFECT OF COVID-19 RISK PERCEPTION ON PERCEIVED
ANXIETY CONTROL AND PARTICIPATION MOTIVATION FOR

SPORT PARTICIPANTS

Dong Il Lee and Sang Back Nam Page | 139
Hanyang University

Introduction
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of COVID-19 risk perception on

perceived anxiety control and participation motivation for sport participants. Preparing for
next pandemic like COVID-19, this study is to provide a guideline to motivate sports
participants in a pandemic era, and to contribute for a strategy setting regarding to market
needs.

Literature review
COVID-19 is a new type of virus that is a respiratory infection. COVID-19 is spread

through droplets made by coughing into eyes, nose and mouth. Symptoms include fever,
cough, shortness of breath, and pneumonia. As a preventive measure, you should wash your
hands frequently with soap for at least 30 seconds (Korea Disease Control and Prevention
Agency, 2020).

Perception is the process of identifying and interpreting information in an
environment (Schacter, 2011). Perception of risk is a subjective perception of the risk of a
situation, and when an event is thought to be out of control, it is perceived as more dangerous
(Gronhaung, Stone, 1995).

Perceived anxiety control is the degree to which people perceive that they can have an
influence in a specific environment (Chorpita & Barlow, 1998). SARS studies have reported
that people who experience survival threats in an epidemic pandemic suffer from anxiety,
depression, and traumatic stress disorder.

Motivation means a psychological factor that makes an individual be able to select
and determines to reach an goal considered as a value. (Jung, 1997). There are three types of
motivation: internal motive, extrinsic motivation, amotivation.

Method
The method used in the study is questionnaire, it was conducted for Adult men and

women over 20 years of age. 470 of 500 data were used for analysis, the data was analyzed
by SPSS 26.0. Frequency analysis, reliability analysis with Cronbach’s a, EFA, correlation
analysis, and multi-regression analysis were conducted. The significance level was set at
a=.5, and the result were as follows.

Results
First, economic, social environment, physical, interpersonal relation perception in

COVID-19 risk perception variable has partial influence on perceived anxiety control.
Second, emotional control, threat control, learned helplessness in COVID-19 perceived
anxiety control variable has partial influence on participation motivation. Third, economic,
social environment, physical, interpersonal relation perception in COVID-19 risk perception
variable has partial influence on participation motivation

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

Discussion

According to this study, the result shows that COVID-19 risk perception has positive

partial influence on perceived anxiety control and participation motivation for sport

participants. It indicates that sport participants can be provided with promotion and marketing

based on their participation motive in COVID-19. Therefore, it is important to make new

sport management environment in the post-COVID Page | 140

References
Chorpita, B. F., Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). Perceived control as a mediator of

family environment in etiological models of childhood anxiety. Behavior therapy,
29(3), 457–476.
Gronhaug, K., & Stone, R. N. (1995). Why perceived risk failed to achieve middle range
theory status: a retrospective research note. ACR European Advances.
Jung, Y. G. (1997). The influence of sport participation motivation, arousal seeking and
affects on the behavior of sport commitment. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation,
Pusan National University.
Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency. (2020). About COVID-19, Retrieved from
https:// www.ncov.mohw.go.kr/
Schacter, D. L., Guerin, S. A., & Jacques, P. L. S. (2011). Memory distortion: An adaptive
perspective. Trends in cognitive sciences, 15(10), 467–474.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

RUNNERS’ EXPERIENCES IN ONLINE MARATHONS: A CONTENT
ANALYSIS OF ONLINE COMMENTS TO THE 2021 KYOTO
MARATHON

Chin-Kuang Chen Page | 141
Faculty of Human and Social Studies, Nagasaki International University

[email protected]

Introduction
The emergence of online marathons during the COVID-19 pandemic raises a natural

question as to whether running marathons online is just a temporary substitute during the
pandemic or an ideal complement to the usual in-person marathons even after COVID-19. In
addressing the question, this study aims to explore the runners’ experiences in an online
marathon. The results are then placed into context to discuss their implications.

Literature review
Regarding runners’ experiences in a typical in-person marathon, Shipway and Jones

(2008) showed that a marathon functions as a social gathering for the runners to confirm their
social identities as serious runners, which was shown in the homogeneity of their behavior,
appearance, and language used, and was confirmed by their personal efforts, perseverance,
and running careers. Bridging the online and offline experiences, El-Said and Aziz (2021)
identified the factors influencing the users’ intentions to adopt virtual tours and the ex-post
tendency to visit the actual location. Among those factors, the perceived enjoyment, ease of
use, and usefulness of a virtual tour serve as a basis to discuss runners’ experiences in an
online marathon.

Method
The research setting was the 2021 Kyoto Marathon. Comments made by the runners

(N = 451) were collected from RUNNET, one of the largest marathon race portal sites in
Japan. The narrative data were analyzed using a conceptual content analysis approach to
identify and categorize the runners’ experiences.

Results
Marathon running has been considered as a serious leisure activity. While marathon

runners were found to invest a great deal of personal effort to maintain their identities as
serious runners, their experiences in an online marathon have implications for an expanded
interpretation of seriousness. Compared with their in-person counterparts, online marathons
are characterized by relaxed rules and the use of a smart phone app to track the runs. First, the
relaxed rules allowed for varied expressions of personal efforts and perseverance. Runners at
the online Kyoto Marathon were allowed to finish the race with multiple runs within a month,
from anywhere at any time. Thus the runners’ personal efforts and perseverance were shown
not in terms of hard and consistent training but in terms of imagination, collaboration, and
sustained motivation. Such personal efforts have attached significant meaning to an otherwise
mundane run that may have taken place in the runner’s own neighborhood. Second, the use of
a smartphone app to track the runs signifies the app’s roles in facilitating a great experience.
The app must be easy to install and use, as well as reliable in keeping the records. In addition

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

to its usefulness and ease of use, the runners’ and race organizer’s efforts and ingenuity
enhanced enjoyment.

Discussion
This study extended the extant literature on runners’ experiences to a virtual realm.

Further works need to examine how the specific characteristics of the marathon and the Page | 142
hosting city may influence runners’ experiences.

References
El-Said, O., & Aziz, H. (2021). Virtual tours a means to an end: An analysis of virtual tours’

role in tourism recovery post COVID-19, Journal of Travel Research. Advance online
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16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

CRITICAL FACTORS IN ORGANIZING INTERNATIONAL Page | 143
BADMINTON TOURNAMENTS AMID THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Suttinee Sriburi1, Pisit Nuttee2, and Sid Terason3
1, 2, 3Faculty of Sports Science, Kasetsart University, Thailand

[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
A sport event is one of many social activities greatly disrupted by the worldwide

COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to explore factors that were crucial to organizing the
international badminton tournaments held during Thailand’s public health crisis in 2020. The
data for this study were sought from websites and social media platforms that reported on
badminton tournaments, and then analyzed using content analysis technique. Interrater
reliability was assessed to ensure the trustworthiness. Six key factors were found to be
associated with organizing an international sporting event. They included planning and
control, government cooperation, financial support, interorganizational communication,
leadership, and technological aid. A sport manager can learn from the management of the
event affected by such a crisis. Moreover, regulations and guidelines for future sport events
that coincide with such a global crisis can be set accordingly.

Keywords: success, sport event, COVID-19, badminton, bio-bubble

1. INTRODUCTION
The COVID-19 epidemic has a devastating impact on our life and society. The sport

sector is also hit hard by the plague. The impact of COVID-19 spread has considerably
changed the sport management arena in various ways. Specifically, sport events and leagues
were preempted, disrupted, or even cancelled, for example, the Tokyo 2020 Summer
Olympics, The World Games, the 2020 ASEAN Para Games, the 2021 Summer World
University Games, and other worldwide competitions. Many sport leagues, clubs and teams
faced huge loss (Madray, 2020), especially a decline in their ticket sales revenue (Drewes et
al., 2021). Bringing people together for a sporting event was considered a high-risk venture in
terms of disease prevention.

In times of national public health crisis, the Badminton Association of Thailand (BAT)
hosted three consecutive international badminton tournaments: Yonex Thailand Open (Super
1000), Toyota Thailand Open (Super 1000) and HSBC Badminton World Federation (BWF)
World Tour Finals 2020. The events were held under the strict condition of bio-secure bubble
and protocols that permitted no spectators during the games (Sukumar, 2020) as the bio-
secure bubble protocols and safety practices of the event are recognized by many
international sport organizations to be a blueprint for organizing present and future sports
tournaments. This research study aimed to explore factors that are crucial to organizing
international badminton tournaments during the COVID-19 pandemic.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Success of sport events

Event success can be described as the achievement of anything desired, planned, or
attempted. One of the criteria that determines event success is whether or not the event
achieves its goals (Northouse, 2004). The application of best practices and management
procedures that are appropriately applied in sport event can often ensure the success of

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

project (Cserháti & Polák-Weldon, 2013). Many previous studies researching success factors

in managing an event effectively. Waeffler and Pfister (2008) proposed that the key factors in

successful event management required proper planning about scope, cost, time and risks,

staffing and communicating with team members and partners such as media and sponsors.

Other elements are identified including clear aims and objectives; venue location; financial

resources; proper practices and rules; marketing promotion, and event sponsorship (Yusoff et Page | 144
al., 2015).

Success can be classified into two categories. Task focus areas aim to achieve goals,

to solve problems, and to make decisions (Diberardinis et al., 1979) and involve objective

setting, task planning, and finances. Human resources areas focus on gaining better

understanding of another party (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999) and include leadership, team

member relationship, organizational culture, co-operation and communication, contract, and

partnership. However, the previous studies about organizing sport events during a health

crisis are limited. Therefore, it is important to study the success factors to be guidelines and

practices in organizing international sports events during the COVID-19 pandemic for future

event organizers to organize successful international sports events.

2.2 Sport events protocols
The protection guidelines are needed to impose COVID-19 controls including event

cancellation, audience size restriction, and work-from-home policy (Wibbens et al., 2021). To
organize sport events effectively, some protocols must be instituted to prevent the virus from
spreading via bodily secretions and physical contact. The risk of contracting COVID-19 can
increase by engaging in indoor activities such as singing, shouting, and cheering because
respiratory droplets are airborne (CDC, 2021). Sport spectators convening in one venue
heighten the risk of virus transmission (Abubakar et al., 2012). Therefore, we are requested to
avoid staying close to people who are ill or contagious (Dickman, 2013). Organizing sport
tournaments by managing closed matches or prohibiting spectators in a stadium is considered
a solution to safely hosting an event. According to the Sports Grounds Safety Authority
(2020), paying attention to safety and security is most needed to minimize such risks.

In case of allowing a small number of fans to attend the games, the number of
spectators should be restricted and limited to fewer than 100 people (Wibbens et al, 2021).
The authorities must follow the guidelines, especially the safety and security regulations.
Social distancing and mask wearing protocols are significant (Dover et al., 2020). Spectators
will not attend sporting events and professional leagues if the stadium or venue does not have
virus prevention policies including social distancing (Vegara-Ferri et al., 2020). In addition,
each area needs to determine the users appropriately because a limited number of people in
the venue is significant and effective in the requirement of bio-security protocol, for example,
ground staff or the press cannot access to the player’s facilities. Those who are allowed to
admit the event venue need to receive official accreditation for permitted access to controlled
area. The main purpose is to eliminate the interaction between sport event participants and
people from the outside in order to reduce the risk of virus infection from outside (Mint,
2020).

2.3 Bio-secure bubble
Many professional leagues returned to play without spectators on the stand. This

measure was expected to help reduce virus spread. Returning the competition without
spectators leads to creating bubble for athletes continue competing the games (Dove et al.,
2020). This strategy is for allowing a fixed population number staying together in a closed
environment (Baggaley, 2020). This bubble isolated players and staff from the community to
help reduce risk of the virus spreading (Dove et al., 2020). Wearing mask and practicing

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

social distancing are still important for all staying in bubble (Baggaley, 2020). Athletes,

coaches, staff, and other personnel are required to test for COVID-19 regularly. One with a

positive test result should be removed from the bubble immediately (Bansal, 2020). The

National Basketball Association (NBA) firstly started creating bubble for NBA league with

22 participating teams at Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando for 2019–2020 season with

113 pages protocols and procedures document. Page | 145

3. METHOD
This study used a qualitative approach by adopting content analysis method. We

collected and analyzed data related to the international badminton events and investigated the
text for organizing them. The websites that presented the reported event information were
searched and reviewed. It resulted in a list of local and international websites and social
media channels including website of BWF, BAT, Nation TV, Thairath, Siamsport, SMM
Sport, The Standard, Matichon, Thaisaeree News, Impact, Ministry of Tourism and Sports;
and Youtube channels of Badminton Thailand Official and Thailand Sport. We examined and
evaluated text and messages from online sources and coded related contents on those
websites and presented the findings as categories and sub-categories. To conduct the analysis,
we created a list of texts and analyzed how those texts would be accessed, and took into
consideration political and ethical issues in terms of confidentiality and privacy. Then, we
proceeded to identify relevant coding categories and sub-categories emerged from the
analysis. The unit of analysis was texts in the documents and online materials. The criteria of
classifying categories were mainly determined according to previous literature about event
management. In addition, we arranged to assess interrater agreement to ensure ensuring the
trustworthiness of the study because we used multiple coders (O’Connor & Joffe, 2020).

4. RESULTS
Table 1 shows that there are six factors influencing organizing international

badminton tournaments during the COVID-19 crisis. These were sorted into three categories.
The first category was task focus involving planning and control, government cooperation,
and financial support. The other two factors concerned relation focus involving cooperation,
communication, and leadership. The last was technological expertise. We found that these six
elements were grounded in organizing international badminton tournaments during the
pandemic.

Planning and control
The first factor involved web-based reporting about the event management planning

and protocols. The majority of information described the effectiveness of event planning to
ensure safety for athletes during the tournaments. BAT (2021a) proposed that the protocols
were planned carefully and exhaustively to prevent the virus spreading. The facilities for
athletes at the hotel and stadium including transportation were prepared and managed such
that social distancing was observed. For instance, Nation TV reported that the training areas
applied social distancing regulations by setting partitions to separate areas in the practice
courts and accommodated only one country for each hour. In addition, The Standard (2021)
found that a bus was used exclusively for transportation of athletes, and was designed to have
designated seating to observe social distancing. Moreover, Badminton Thailand Official
(2021a) proposed that the event staff worked to achieve the objective through planning and
controlling.

Not only the event planning but the strict rule of curbing COVID-19 spreading also
influenced hosting an event. Siamsport (2021) reported that the protocols were applied
strictly in the controlled bubble. Impact (2021) stated that once put in the bubble, one was not

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

allowed to leave the compound nor to come into contact with people outside the bubble. By

the same token, The Standard (2021) showed that the athletes were allowed to go outside

their bedroom only when their requests were approved. If any athlete failed to follow the

regulations, he or she would be removed from the bubble, terminated from the competition

immediately and sent them back home if the COVID-19 test results turned back negative.

BAT (2020) also found out that when the positive test result of a particular player was Page | 146
confirmed at any time during the event, the player was eliminated from the bubble

immediately, taken to the hospital and withdrawn from the competition. Moreover, the event

was controlled strictly by a command center equipped with 417 around-the-clock surveillance

cameras (Thailand Sport, 2021). As strict rules and protocols were enforced from the first day

of the event, the athletes from 22 countries felt confident that they would be protected by the

bubble measure though they might find it uncomfortable at the beginning (SMM Sport,

2021).

Government cooperation
The Thai government took the role of the event’s main supporter in both financial and

management resources. Because this event was held during the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, it
was important the government recommended the health and safety control — the main reason
why this event was sanctioned by the BWF was the Thai government’s endorsement
(Thailand Sport, 2021). Though the number of COVID-19 positive cases started increasing
again during the preparation phase of the event, the Thai prime minister insisted on hosting
the event and even set a budget for it (MOTS, 2021). The doctors from the Ministry of Public
Health stayed in the bubble and stood by to take care of the athletes’ health and enforced the
COVID-19 prevention protocols (Matichon Online, 2021).

Since the start of the event, the Thailand Badminton Association and the Thai
government worked hard together to create and plan the virus spreading prevention protocols
in bubble system BAT (2021a). The cooperative efforts involved many public organizations
such as Badminton Association of Thailand, Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Tourism
and sport, Royal Thai Air Force and many other public sectors. The stringent defensive
protocols were approved by Thailand’s Department of Disease Control (The Standard,
2021).

Financial support
BAT (2021b) reported that the financial support came from both the private sector

and the Thai government which were BWF, HSBC, TOTAL, Sport Authority of Thailand,
National Sport Development Fund, Royal Thai Air Force, Yonex, Plan B, Index Creative
Village, Akita Province and Misato City, True Vision, Bangkok Hospital Anoma Grand
Hotel Bangkok, and Singha Corporation. Yonex and Toyota were the title sponsors for these
two tournaments and Badminton Association of Thailand. HSBC was the title sponsor for
World Tour Final tournaments, along with many other international and domestic sponsors
(Thaisaeree News, 2021).

Interorganizational communication
In this event, interorganizational communication happened at both international and

domestic level. At the international level, BAT (2021a) stated that BWF, BAT, and the Thai
government as well as other public and private organizations jointly prepared all event
management elements needed in a crisis. The cooperation at the domestic level was forged
between public organizations such as Ministry of Public Health Thailand, Ministry of
Tourism and sport and Royal Thai Air Force and private enterprises such as Thonburi
Bamrungmuang Hospital, Impact Arena, Novotel Hotel and Ibis Hotel.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

In addition, the domestic participants were provided 33 liaisons on various locations
who worked with other three management sections and attended to each team individually
(Badminton Thailand Official, 2021a). To respond to unexpected problems in a timely
fashion, staff and liaisons were requested to cooperate with each section and to communicate
with athletes about routine protocols and changes.

Leadership Page | 147

The third factor was associated with leadership. BAT (2021a) stated that Khunying

Pattama as the president of BAT and chairman of this project devoted time and resources to

the event so she gained respect from everyone involved. An interview by Thailand Sport

Youtube channel (2021) reflected that she conceived the idea about this event, presented it to

the Thai government, and cooperated with other countries’ government and their badminton

association on her own terms, sought approval and led the management team in solving any

setback. When the athletes tested positive for COVID-19, she handled th issue to ease the

worry of the visiting athletes and their staff. Thaisaeree News (2021) also reported that she

led the event team to check the event readiness before the event and control and evaluate plan

and protocols strictly and closely.

Technological aid
The support of technology was applied in many ways in this event to maintain the

social distancing regulations. Online communication was adopted. BWF (2021) demonstrated
that athletes received COVID-19 test result by email to avoid virus spreading and the practice
session is registered and received approval by electronic devices only and the interview after
the matches is conducted via online channel instead of conducting by face to face. In
addition, Badminton Thailand Official (2021b) mentioned that the athletes have to install
tracking application in their mobile phone devices.

At the venue, to avoid contact with referees when the shuttlecocks need to be
changed, the process of return and received the shuttlecocks change from receiving from
referee’s hand to shuttlecock tube machine. Moreover, BAT (2020) indicated that the event
team increased the number of competing courts from 2 to 3 courts with more matches for
broadcasting through many streaming channels because spectators are not allowed in a
stadium.

Table 1
Success factors of organizing international badminton events

Category Sub-category Description
Task focus Planning and control
The protocols were imposed in the controlled bubble.
Once in the bubble, one was not allowed to go outside nor to come
into contact with people outside the bubble.
The bus was used privately for each team with allotted seats and
designed to observe social distancing measure.
The training ground applied social distancing regulations by setting
partitions to separate practice courts and reserved for only one country
for each hour.
The team was required to register online only.
If any athlete failed to follow the regulations, he or she would be
removed from the bubble, terminated from the competition
immediately and sent them back home if the COVID-19 test results
are negative.
The exhaustive and defensive rules and protocols since the first day of
event built the trust of athletes from 22 countries that they will
compete under the safest bubble quarantine, even though, they
complain at the beginning.

16tAsian Association for Sport Management Conference 19-20 August 2021

The staff worked to achieve the same objectives.

The same rules were applied to everyone.

The athletes are allowed to go out of the room only when their

requests are approved.

The command center has surveillance cameras with 417 monitoring

screens

A progress meeting is held twice a day during the tournaments. Page | 148
When the positive test case of the player was confirmed during the

event, the player was eliminated from the bubble immediately, taken

to the hospital and withdrawn from the competition.

Government Thailand Badminton Association and Thai government work hard
cooperation
together to create and plan the virus spreading prevention protocols in
Financial support
bubble system.
Relation focus Interorganizational
communication A cooperation is initiated between many public and private

Leadership organizations such as Badminton Association of Thailand, Ministry of

Public Health, Ministry of Tourism and sport, Royal Thai Air Force,

Thonburi Bamrungmuang Hospital, Impact Arena, Novotel Hotel and

Ibis Hotel.

The stringent defensive protocols are controlled by the Department of

Disease Control of Thailand.

The prime minister decided to continue hosting the event even though,

the number of COVID-19 positive cases started increasing again

during the event set up period.

The doctors from Ministry of Public Health stay in the bubble and

stand by to take care of athletes’ health and all the COVID-19

spreading prevention protocols.

One main reason that this event is approved from BWF and can be

held is because of the government’s support.

The financial support come from the private sector and the Thai

government including BWF, HSBC, TOTAL, Sport Authority of

Thailand, National Sport Development Fund, Royal Thai Air

Force, Yonex, Plan B, Index Creative Village, Akita Province and

Misato City, TrueVision, Bangkok Hospital Anoma Grand Hotel

Bangkok, and Singha Corporation.

Yonex and Toyota are the title sponsors for these two tournaments and

Badminton Association of Thailand. HSBC is the title sponsor for

World Tour Final tournaments. There are many other sponsors from

international and domestic supporting the event.

Staff and liaisons stood by to ensure communication between sections

and athletes went smoothly clearly.

33 liaisons coordinate with three other management sections and

teams.

Hotels cooperated with event organizers by putting strict protocols in

place, cleaning facilities, and doing swab tests.

BWF, Badminton Association of Thailand, and Thai government

work together to prepare all event management elements in this crisis.

Cooperation between the public sector such as Ministry of Public

Health Thailand, Ministry of Tourism and sport and Royal Thai Air

Force, and the private organizations such as Thonburi Bamrungmuang

Hospital, Impact Arena, Novotel Hotel and Ibis Hotel make the events

success.

Khunying Pattama works hard with love and care, and respect

everyone in this project.

Khunying Pattama leads the team to check the event readiness,

controls and monitors closely.

Khunying Pattama launches this event idea, present the idea to Thai

government and cooperate with other country governments and their

badminton association by herself to get the acceptance.