An Introduction to
SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Dr. Heri Kuswoyo, M. Hum.
Dr. Afrianto, M. Hum.
First Edition
h a
gf b
e dc
Editor
Akhyar Rido, Ph.D.
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia
An Introduction to
SOCIOLINGUISTICS
First Edition
h a
gf b
e dc
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia
An Introduction to
SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Written by
Dr. Heri Kuswoyo, M.Hum.
Dr. Afrianto, M.Hum.
UNIVERSITAS
TEKNOKRAT
INDONESIA
AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLINGUITICS
by
Dr. Heri Kuswoyo
Dr. Afrianto
Edited by
Akhyar Rido, Ph.D.
Cover and Layout Editor
Dr. Afrianto
First Edition
Bandarlampung, September 2021
ISBN : 978-623-98593-1-2
Copyright©Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia, 2021
All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise without prior written permission of the
publisher.
Published by
Universitas Teknokrat Indonesia
Jalan Zainal Abidin Pagaralam 9-11
Labuhan Ratu, Bandarlampung
Telp. (0721) 702022, (0721) 784945
Website: www.teknokrat.ac.id
UNIVERSITAS NDONESIA
PREFACE
This handbook provides a comprehensive overview of the main topics in Sociolinguistics.
It is a necessary read for all sociolinguistic students and an invaluable resource for
students of English Literature Study Program, Faculty of Arts and Education, Universitas
Teknokrat Indonesia. This book is also intended for a wide variety of people including
academicians, teachers, and lecturers, who are interested in studying sociolinguistics.
Also, it can be beneficial for researchers.
The handbook comprises of twelve chapters. The first chapter includes the definition of
sociolinguistics from the different experts. The second chapter on the scientific
investigation of language focuses on the relationship between language and society. The
third chapter describes language, dialect, and varieties. The fourth chapter explores
pidgin and creole language. The fifth chapter on choosing a code discusses code-
switching and code-mixing. The sixth chapter presents speech communities. The seventh
chapter discusses regional and social variation. The eighth chapter explores language
maintenance, shift, and death. The ninth chapter elaborates language change. The tenth
chapter presents language and culture. The eleventh chapter discusses language and
gender. The last, in the twelfth chapter explores attitudes and applications.
We do hope this handbook proves useful for among students throughout their course
of study. We also do hope that it can serve as a reference for teachers who may need to
teach students in sociolinguistic subject.
Editor,
Akhyar Rido, M.A., Ph.D.
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SYNOPSIS
Sociolinguistics brings about a discussion of social matters and linguistic features. It bridges
both disciplines in relation with communication. In other words, it presents a study of
language used by people in the context of social environment. The social environment
covers community, gender, culture, demography, and media. The coverage is impactful
toward the language use and even it can be a factor of language change and variation.
Dealing with language use, there are some factors influencing an existing language and these
bring a language shifted, changed, or even unused and finally dead.
Furthermore, sociolinguistics looks at how people treat and think about their own language
and it is under the discussion of language attitude. Other than that, a discussion of an
assimilation two language is also discussed in sociolinguistics.
In closing, sociolinguistics discusses a relation of language and social context in the
communication. Accordingly, this book presents an introduction to sociolinguistics.
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Syllabus
No Chapter Core Competencies Teaching
1 Definition: Period
▪ Students are able to define and discuss 1
sociolinguistics
sociolinguistics from different experts. 1
2 The scientific ▪ Students are able to classify sociolinguistic
investigation of 1
language factors.
▪ Students are able to explain a social study of
3 Languages, dialects,
and Varietie language.
▪ Students are able to discuss the relationship
between sociolinguistics and sociology of
language.
▪ Students are able to determine the scope of
sociolinguistics.
▪ Students are able to identify the various
applications of sociolinguistics.
▪ Students are able to discuss the relationship
between language and society.
▪ Students are able to distinguish between
langue and parole.
▪ Students are able to contrast between
competence and performance
▪ Students are able to explain some basic
methodological concerns.
▪ Students are able to identify sociolinguistics
and related diciplines.
▪ Students are able to state the concept of
language, dialects and varieties properly.
▪ Students are able to elaborate dialects by
regional and social variation.
▪ Students are able to list a standard language.
▪ Students are able to comprehend varieties
defined according to their forms and functions:
styles, registers, and genres.
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Syllabus
No Chapter Core Competencies Teaching
Period
4 Language Contact: ▪ Students are able to define lingua francas. 1
Pidgin and Creole ▪ Students are able to compare between Pidgin
and Creole languages. 1
Languages Students are able to identify Pidgin and Creole
formation. 1
▪ Students are able to analyze creole language
features.
▪ Students are able to elaborate how creole
langauge differ from mixed languages.
▪
Students are able to explain the perpasiveness of
5 Choosing a code ▪ multilingualism.
Students are able to distinguish between
▪ multilingual societies and multilingual
discourse.
▪ Students are able to discuss the concept of
▪ diglossia.
▪ Students are able to compare between Code-
6 Speech Communities ▪ swicthing and code mixing.
▪ Students are able to list some countries with
▪ code-switching and code mixing.
▪
▪ Students are able to define and discuss speech
communities.
Students are able to present the concept of
shared norms.
Students are able to discuss an intersecting
communities.
Students are able to comprehend Network and
Repertoires.
Students are able to explain speech repertoires.
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Syllabus
No Chapter Core Competencies Teaching
Period
7 Regional and Social ▪ Students are able to explain regional and social 1
Variation
variation
▪ Students are able to explain regional and social
variation in the Indonesian
▪ Students are able to give example of
regional and social variation in the
Indonesian context
8 Language ▪ Students are able to explain language 1
Maintenance, Shift, maintenance, language shift, and language
and Death death
▪ Students are able to explain cases of language
maintenance, shift, and death in Indonesian
context
▪ Students are able to give example of language
maintenance, shift, and death in Indonesian
context.
▪ Students are able to anaylize cases of language
maintenance, shift, and death.
9 Language Change ▪ Students are able to explain language change in 1
the terms of variation
▪ Students are able to explain the relation of
social status and language change
▪ Students are able to explain the relation of
gender and language change
▪ Students are able to explain the relation of
interaction and language change
▪ Students are able to explain factors influencing
language change
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Syllabus
No Chapter Core Competencies Teaching
10 Language and Period
▪ Students are able to explain and give example 1
Culture lingual cases in the context of language and
cultur;
11 Language and
Gender ▪ Students are able to explain The Whorfian
Hypothesis;
▪ Students are able to explain the Kinship
System,
▪ Students are able to explain Taxonomies, Color
Terminologies, Prototype Theory, Taboo and
Euphemism.
▪ Students are able to analyze language and
culture
▪ Students are able to explain the correlation of 1
language and gender
▪ Students are able to explain women’s language
and confidence
▪ Students are able to explain Language Variety
of ‘Gay’
▪ Students are able to explain the influence of
the interviewer and the context
▪ Students are able to explain gender-preferential
speech features: social dialect research
▪ Students are able to explain Linguistic
Relativism
▪ Students are able to explain the correlation of
language and gender
▪ Students are able to analyze the correlation of
language and gender in the context of
communication
▪ Students are able to differentiate linguistic
characteristics of male and female.
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Syllabus
No Chapter Core Competencies Teaching
Period
12 Attitude and ▪ Students are able to explain and give example 1
Application
of language Attitudes and application;
▪ Students are able to analyze language
Attitudes and application;
▪ Students are able to explain attitude to
language;
▪ Students are able to explain Sociolinguistics
and Education;
▪ Students are able to explain Sociolinguistics
Universal.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ......................................................................................................................................................... i
SYNOPSIS ........................................................................................................................................................ ii
SYLLABUS ....................................................................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
CHAPTER 1 DEFINITION OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS ........................................................................ 1
1.1 Definition of Sociolinguistics ............................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Sociolinguistic Factors ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Social Study of Language .................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Scope of Sociolinguistics .................................................................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Relationship between Sociolinguistics and Sociology of Language ......................... 9
1.4.2 Synchronic and Diachronic Variation .................................................................................. 9
1.4.3 Dialectical Variation ................................................................................................................... 10
1.4.4 Social Variation vs. Regional Variation ............................................................................... 11
1.4.5 Gender based Variation ............................................................................................................ 11
1.4.6 Language Varieties ..................................................................................................................... 12
1.4.7 Language Attitude ....................................................................................................................... 12
1.4.8 Language Planning ..................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.9 Language and Power ................................................................................................................. 13
1.5 The Application of Sociolinguistics ................................................................................................ 14
1.6 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 15
1.7 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 2 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF LANGUAGE ...................................................... 19
2.1 Scientific Investigation of Language .............................................................................................. 20
2.2 Language and Parole ............................................................................................................................ 21
2.3 Competence and Performance ......................................................................................................... 23
2.4 Relationship between Language and Society ............................................................................. 26
2.5 Some Basic Methodological Concerns ........................................................................................... 26
2.6 Research Design .................................................................................................................................... 30
2.7 Sociolinguistics and Related Disciplines ...................................................................................... 31
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2.7.1 Sociolinguistics with Anthropology ..................................................................................... 31
2.7.2 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 31
2.8 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 32
2.9 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 3 LANGUAGE, DIALECT, AND VARIETIES ................................................................. 36
3.1 Language, Dialects, and Varieties .................................................................................................... 38
3.2 Power and Solidarity ........................................................................................................................... 40
3.3 Language and Criteria ......................................................................................................................... 40
3.4 Social Dialects vs Regional Dialects ................................................................................................ 43
3.4.1 Regional Dialects ......................................................................................................................... 43
3.4.1 Social Dialects ............................................................................................................................... 45
3.5 Standardization ..................................................................................................................................... 46
3.6 Register, Styles, and Genres .............................................................................................................. 47
3.6.1 Register ........................................................................................................................................... 47
3.6.2 Style .................................................................................................................................................. 50
3.6.3 Genre ............................................................................................................................................... 50
3.7 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 50
3.8 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER 4 PIDGIN AND CREOLE LANGUAGES ........................................................................... 53
4.1 Lingua Franca ......................................................................................................................................... 54
4.2 Pidgins ....................................................................................................................................................... 55
4.2.1 What kind of linguistic structure does a pidgin language have?................................ 63
4.2.1.1 Lexifier vs Substrate..................................................................................................... 63
4.2.1.2 Attitudes ........................................................................................................................... 64
4.3 Creole ......................................................................................................................................................... 64
4.3.1 Structural Features...................................................................................................................... 65
4.3.2 Functions......................................................................................................................................... 66
4.3.3 Attitudes.......................................................................................................................................... 67
4.4 Mixed Languages ................................................................................................................................... 67
4.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 67
4.6 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................... 68
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CHAPTER 5 CHOOSING A CODE ........................................................................................................... 7x0
5.1 Multilingualism ...................................................................................................................................... 71
5.1.1 Multilingualism Societies ...................................................................................................... 71
5.1.2 Multilingualism Discourse .................................................................................................... 71
5.2 Code-Switching and Code-Mixing ................................................................................................... 72
5.2.1 Code-Switching ......................................................................................................................... 73
5.2.2 Code-Mixing ............................................................................................................................... 74
5.3 Diglossia ................................................................................................................................................... 75
5.4 Some Countries with Code Switching and Code-Mixing Situation ..................................... 76
5.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 82
5.6 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................... 83
CHAPTER 6 SPEECH COMMUNITY ..................................................................................................... 85
6.1 Definition: Speech Community ........................................................................................................ 8i6x
6.2 Shared Norms ......................................................................................................................................... 89
6.3 Communities of Practice .................................................................................................................... 90
6.4 Intersecting Communities ................................................................................................................. 92
6.5 Networking and Repertoires ............................................................................................................ 92
6.6 Linguistic Repertoires ......................................................................................................................... 95
6.7 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 96
6.8 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................... 96
CHAPTER 7 REGIONAL AND SOCIAL VARIATION ....................................................................... 100
7.1 Regional Variation ................................................................................................................................ 102
7.2 The Linguistic Variation ...................................................................................................................... 105
7.2.1 Phonological Variation .............................................................................................................. 107
7.2.2 Syntactical Variation .................................................................................................................. 109
7.3 Relating Linguistic Variation to Social Variation ....................................................................... 110
7.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 111
7.5 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................... 112
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CHAPTER 8 LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE, SHIFT, AND DEATH .............................................. 114
8.1 Language Shift in Different Communities .................................................................................... 116
8.2 Language Death and Loss .................................................................................................................. 120
8.3 Factors Contributing to Language Shift and Death .................................................................. 122
8.4 How Can a Minority Language be Maintained? ......................................................................... 126
8.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 129
8.6 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................... 129
CHAPTER 9 LANGUAGE CHANGE ........................................................................................................ 132
9.1 Variation and Change .......................................................................................................................... 134
9.2 Social Status and Language Change ............................................................................................... 137
9.3 Gender and Language Change .......................................................................................................... 138
9.4 Interaction and Language Change .................................................................................................. 141
9.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 146
9.6 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................... 146
CHAPTER 10 LANGUAGE AND CULTURE ........................................................................................ 149
10.1 The Whorfian Hypothesis ............................................................................................................... 150
10.2 Kinship Systems .................................................................................................................................. 153
10.3 Taxonomies .......................................................................................................................................... 155
10.4 Color Terminology ............................................................................................................................. 157
10.5 Prototype Theory ............................................................................................................................... 158
10.6 Taboo and Euphemism .................................................................................................................... 160
10.7 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 164
10.8 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................ 164
CHAPTER 11 LANGUAGE AND GENDER .......................................................................................... 167
11.1. Women’s Language and Confidence ........................................................................................... 169
11.2. Gender and Social Class .................................................................................................................. 173
11.3. Language Variety of ‘Gay’ ............................................................................................................... 177
11.4. The Influence of the Interviewer and the Context ................................................................ 179
11.5. Gender-Preferential Speech Features: Social Dialect Research ....................................... 180
11.6. Linguistic Relativism ........................................................................................................................ 182
11.7. Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 184
11.8. Exercises ............................................................................................................................................... 184
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CHAPTER 12 ATTITUDE AND APPLICATION ............................................................................... 186
12.1 Attitude to Language ......................................................................................................................... 188
12.2 Sociolinguistics and Education ...................................................................................................... 192
12.2.1 Vernacular Dialects and Educational Disadvantage .............................................. 192
12.2.2 Linguistic Deficit ................................................................................................................. 194
12.3 Dimension of Sociolinguistics Analysis ...................................................................................... 198
12.3.1 Solidarity/Social Distance ............................................................................................... 198
12.3.2 Status/Power ....................................................................................................................... 198
12.3.3 Formality ............................................................................................................................... 198
12.3.4 Function ................................................................................................................................. 203
12.4 Sociolinguistics Universal ............................................................................................................... 198
12.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 202
12.6 Exercises ................................................................................................................................................ 202
REFERENCES
GLOSSARY
INDEX
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CHAPTER 1
DEFINITION:
SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Source: https://items.ssrc.org/
The way people talk is influenced by the social context in which they are talking
Holmes, 2013
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INTRODUCTION
This chapter begins with the definition of sociolinguistics from different experts. The
chapter also discusses the sociolinguistic factors and relationship between
sociolinguistics and sociology of language. The scope and object of the sociolinguistics
are also presented. At the end, this chapter identifies the various applications of
sociolinguistics.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have read this chapter you should be able to:
1. Students are able to define sociolinguistics from different experts.
2. Students are able to classify and discuss sociolinguistic factors.
3. Students are able to explain a social study of language.
4. Students are able to discuss the relationship between sociolinguistics
and sociology of language.
5. Students are able to determine the scope of sociolinguistics.
6. Students are able to identify the various applications of sociolinguistics.
1.1 Definition of Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics has several definitions. However, each of these definitions recognizes
that sociolinguistics is related to language use and the society. Let us look at the
following definitions from different experts.
1. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society,
as well as the variation of language and attitudes toward language (Herk,
2012; 2017).
2. Sociolinguistics deals with language and society relate to multilingual language
communities and language is used (Holmes, 2013).
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3. Sociolinguistics is a language study-social relation such as classes, ethnic
groups, age, and gender (Meyerhoff, 2006; 2018).
4. Sociolinguistics is the study of the social uses of language (Wardhaugh, 2006).
5. Sociolinguistics is the study of the sociological factors of language, including
gender, race, class, etc (Stockwell, 2002).
6. Sociolinguistics examines the impact on the language use of every aspect of
society, including cultural norms and expectations and contexts (Trudgill,
2000).
7. Sociolinguistics is the study of our daily lives—how language works in our
casual conversations and the media we are exposed to, as well as the
presence of societal norms, policies, and laws addressing language.
(Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2015; 2021).
It has become clear in all these definitions that sociolinguistics is an area in which
sociology with linguistics is combined. Sociolinguistics is a sector of sociology. It
focuses on how the use of languages determines the linguistic requirements of a
given society (Trudgill, 2000). Each community in a society has acceptable language
codes for communication and interaction. Furthermore, sociolinguistics shows how
certain social variables, like religion, status, ethnicity, education level, gender, age,
etc., separated groups into a given society and how compliance with these variables is
used to categorize people into social or socio-economic classes (Stockwell, 2002).
Social language studies become modern linguistic paradigm because the modern
linguists recognized that, by their very nature, language is completely social. To sum
up, sociolinguistics deals with the language use and the response of society to it.
1.2 Sociolinguistic Factors
As explained earlier, sociolinguistics is a growing field of sociology and linguistics that
examines language variations both individually and socially. There are two kinds of
language variation, such as regional and social language variation (Stockwell, 2002).
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Regional language variations provides much information about the location of the
speaker, meanwhile variation in language due to social factors in one community or
country is referred to as social language variations.
Sociolinguistics is also a branch of sociology, in which the relation between language
and the social foundation for this use is revealed. Sociolinguistics differs from language
sociology in that sociolinguistics focuses mainly on the effect of society on society,
while language sociology focuses of society (Smakman, 2018). Social linguistics is a
practical science that explores the language actually employed, either by mother-
tongues or by foreigners, to formulate language change theories. Many factors
influence the way people speak and the sociolinguistics investigate:
1. Social Class
Social class is one of social variables by which speech communities are very
commonly stratified. It deals with speakers’ position in a society. Their position
are measured by the educational levels, parenting backgrounds, professions and
effects on the speaker's choices of grammar and vocabulary (Watts. 2003).
Many sociolinguists propose that the social class of the speakers is an
important influence on the formulation of sentences. A division of the social
classes has therefore been proposed to make the description accurate. The
middle class, for example is two main groups of language users, especially those
who do not perform manual work and those who do more years of training.
Those who do certain manual labor are a working class. The additional terms of
lower and upper are frequently used in order to sub-divide the social classes.
Therefore, the differences between upper middle class can be compared with
lower working class. William Labov, as one of variationist sociolinguistics
investigates the accent variation in various socially stratified situations.
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2. Social Context
The language used in a community depends on the particular context, that is
formal and informal. In formal language, it refers to the situation that is more
serious, such as job interview, emailing university professor, and formal
meetings (Mesthrie, et al, 2009). It can also be used when we are talking to
someone we do not know very well and to make sure we sound respectful. On
the other hand, informal language is used more relaxed and used in everyday
situations, for example during friends' meetings, family, gossiping and other
people we know well.
3. Geographical Origins
The dialect differences are among speakers pointing in the geographic region
from which the speaker comes from. As it is explained previously,
sociolinguistics studies how language changes depending on the region of
the country in which they are used (Mesthrie, et al, 2009). Besides, the dialect
describes a number of languages that differ from others in grammar, lexis and
pronunciation. Moreover, due to life experience, education, age and
aspirations, every community member has a unique way to talk.
4. Ethnicity
Ethnicity deals with racial, cultural, or family origin (Stockwell, 2002). It is ‘the
fact of belonging to a particular nation or people that shares a cultural
tradition’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries). The language use is as the major
badge of ethnicity or as a symbol of nationalism. An individual might choose to
speak in a particular language, or dialect, or register, or accent, or style (codes)
on different occasions and for different purposes. The choice of code can be
used to claim in group identity with other speakers (Llamas, Mullany, &
Stockwell, 2006; Edwards, 2009).
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5. Nationality
Based on Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, nationality is a group of people with
the same language, culture and history who form part of a political nation. In
the case of the English language is clearly visible that both American English
and British English are different, also Nigerian English is different from
Ghanaese English.
6. Gender
The role of gender is as a determinant of linguistic usage and it is as one of the
main social changes which have been extensively studied by sociolinguist
(Milani & Lazar, 2017). The gender further refers to the different lexical and
grammatical choices that are characteristically made by men and women. It
then is defined as genderlect (Mesthrie, et al, 2009). Certain features of women’s
talk proposed by Robin Lakoff are identified such as frequency of particular
colour term ‘mauve’, frequency of certain evaluative adjectives ‘lovely’, ‘sweet’,
hesitant intonation, pitch associated with surprise and questions, Tag phrases
‘you know’, ’kind of’, ‘sort of’, and super politeness ‘euphemism’, ‘less swearing’,
‘more inderectness and hedging.
Another study by Cameron, Coates, and Tannen have revealed some features at
the level of discourse and interaction that mainly realize the underlying
variation in the socialization of men and women. For example, men seem to see
the purpose of conversation as information gathering, whereas women see it as
a support mechanism, and both groups act accordingly. Furthermore, men
explain things to women, women ask more questions, use more backchannel
noise such as uh-huh, yeah, yes, hmm...women regard as personal aggression,
men see it as normal conversational organization, and so on (Stockwell, 2002).
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7. Age
Sociolinguistics has been able to develop techniques providing insights into
language change by using age variation as a social variable (O’Grady,
Dobrovolsky, & Katamba, 1996). The age of the speakers influences the
vocabulary and grammatical use.
1.3 Social Study of Language
Saussure (1916) asked a question to his students, "but what does a language look
alike?”. He asked that because the languages change from moment to moment but what
are their features if they could keep them at once? The question was put in a number of
lectures given by Saussure between 1903 and 1904 at the University of Geneva.
Several of his students, after his death, took part in the 1916 General Linguistics
Course from lecture notes he made. Naturally, though we can identify one person as
the apparent originator, ideas of such importance are ‘about’, but they do not appear to
be isolated. It is 'aboutness' which has made this the focus of linguistics in the 20th
Century out of the rich and complex set of subjects in the course (many social and
historical). It is usually called 'structuralist' the linguistic strand that led to it. It was the
dominant way of intellectual enquiry not only in linguistics but across all the
humanities and beyond in that century. The key issue in structuralism is that of the
system's characteristics. What are the building elements (whatever it may be) and what
are the relationships between them? Saussure himself gave a complex answer
focusing on the sign and the whole entity in which signs exist – language as such, or
what Saussure called Langue.
According to Saussure, society use the structures and elements there, but they don't
change them. Society pre-specifies schemes and elements. This becomes one of the
most important issues in terms of language social view. A second consequence of
meaning can be the main one in linguistic structuralism. I just use what I have, if I only
have an easy chair, coffee table and sofa in the comfortable corner. Naturally, I can
arrange them in various ways, and that changes the way the room felt in its 'means.'
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But as I didn't have the choice, I use of the three items doesn't have any importance.
Meaning of one type stems from the selection possibilities within a range of elements.
A second meaning stems from the fact that the cultural coding of different forms of
behavior is actually different types of chairs: a stool asks me to sit differently than an
easy chair. Setting up the room for a job interview with a stool for the interviewee and
easy chairs for the interviewers – to make a ridiculous example – would set the tone
decisively. The elements in choice systems have significance because in other selective
systems they refer to elements (objects or practices). Both meanings were important
for Saussure. On the one hand, the sign is based on the reference relationship, to put it
too simply. The sign is a mechanism to allow the form to express a meaning because it
is a means to allow a single element to be the form (significant) by which another
element, the meaning (meaning). A rose can be the means by which 'love' is expressed.
A link is made between an element in the language system and an element in the
cultural values system. The former 'refers' to the latter.
Language, the language system, expresses a social force both in arbitrary connection
and in conventional maintenance. The person may use the system, in speech; but the
person cannot change the system and the language. The relationship between form and
meaning is motivated, not arbitrary, but is also supported in particular by
convention. The point of note here, however, is that Saussure has shaped the
development of the mainline and non- common linguistics in 20th century, with respect
to the characteristics of systems, structure, signs, language, and speech. Those
viewpoints in the mainstream emphasized the relationship within the system rather
than referencing it; the structure rather than the function; the arbitrary approach, thus
removing the power of individual agency, whether from the individual sign or from the
sign system, language.
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1.4 Scope of Sociolinguistics
1.4.1 The Relationship between Sociolinguistics and Sociology of Language
A society and a language are two fundamental notions in sociolinguistics. A society is
defined as any group of people who have come together for a specific purpose.
Meanwhile, the members of a specific society speak a language (Wardhaugh, 2006).
The relationship between language and society is studied by sociolinguists.
Sociolinguists explain why we speak in different ways and identify the social role of
language and how we use it to communicate social significance in various social contexts
(Holmes, 2013; Holmes & Wilson, 2017). Sociolinguists are interested in the various
sorts of language variations used to represent social aspects and to reflect them. The
choice of language is one area of linguistic variation (e.g. that bastard Soot bucket vs my
teacher Mr. Sutton, Margaret vs dear). However, there are other levels of linguistic
analysis which include sounds, the structure of words (or morphology) and grammar
(or syntax), and vocabularies (Holmes & Wilson, 2017). F u r t h e r , Sociolinguistics
deals with the relationship of language with its context (Holmes, 2013; Holmes &
Wilson, 2017).
The scientific study of relation(s) between language and society is sociolinguistics.
Sociolinguistic studies are mainly aimed at studying relations between language use
and social structure (Coulmas, 1998). Sociolinguistics is the study of our everyday life
in our informal conversations and media, and the presence of social norms, policies
and laws that address language (Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2015; 2021). Languages offer a
range of ways that people address and welcome the same thing.
1.4.2 Synchronic and Diachronic Variation
Linguists previously believed that it was only possible to study language change after it
had occurred, but Labov's methods discovered that fluctuations in any speaking
community were strongly linked to longer and later change processes studied by
historical linguists. He demonstrated that the diachronic change roots are frequently
synchronous (current variation) (change over a period of time). Furthermore, it has
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shown that this relationship can be most obvious when researchers consider the
non-linguistic limitations on synchronous variation, such as age, profession and
attitudes and aspirations of speakers. We may also look at the Vineyard study by
Martha and see what happened in the 40 years after the research by Labov. The use of
the speaker age and the way sociolinguistics and historical linguism can be integrated
are also viewed as a window to change (2006).
Regional dialects were mapped in linguistics over many years (see Petyt 1980,
Chambers and Trudgill 1998, and Wakelin, 1977). In fact, the study shows how
diachronic or historical linguistics change with the time. As the linguistic field is
traditionally known, the geography of dialect uses historical linguistic assumptions and
methods, and many of its results have been used to support research from other
historical sources like archeological findings, population studies and written records.
In this perspective, languages distinguish internally as speakers distinguish between
themselves over time and space; the changes lead to the creation of language dialects.
The resulting dialects may develop into languages that are no longer understandable to
speakers of the resulting varieties. It became French in Germany, Latin, Spain, Spain
and Italy.
1.4.3 Dialectical Variation
A dialect, in addition to sound variations, is variation in grammar and vocabulary
(Holmes, 2013). For example, if one person says 'John is a farmer' and another says
‘John is a farmer’, except the word farmer pronounces 'fahmuh', then if one person says
'you shouldn't' and one says 'Yes didn't do it,' They called as a dialectal difference or
variation because the variation is bigger. This is the difference. The range of dialect
distinctions is a continuum. Some dialects are very different and others are not as
different.
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1.4.4 Social Variation vs. Regional Variation
In everyday living, we use a language remarkably varied. The variation across speakers
happens in reflections of different ways that people speak in different regions or social
groups, but also variation within the speech of a single speaker. Thus, there are two
types of variation, namely social variation and regional variation. Social variation or
social dialect refers to variation in language due to social factors, meanwhile regional
variation or regional dialect refers to a variety associated with the geograpical location.
Sociolinguists today are generally more concerned with social variation in language than
with regional variation (Wardaugh & Fuller, 2015; 2021).
1.4.5 Gender Based Variation
The sociolinguistic study of gender variation has, both theoretically and
methodologically, adopted a different approach in the last decade. This change has
brought new relevance to one another for the linguistic sub-components of language,
sex, and variationist sociolinguistics (Mesthrie, et al, 2009). The study of 'sex
differences,' which focused on the measurable difference between female and men's
use: specific linguistic variables, especially phonological variables, emerged primarily
in the sociolinguistic sphere. A study by Hurst-Harosh (2020) further investigates the
youth language and the linguistic practices of youth in the African continent. Although
these issues are of vital importance, their motivation is often not so much a concern for
women or men as a concern for understanding social processes that promote linguistic
change. The close relationship between language and sex and quantitative
sociolinguistics has been loosened over time as scholars pursued separate questions
with different theory and methodology tools in the early years in both subfields. The
effects have also been felt by researchers in the variationistic circles, whose work has
contributed to both areas and because language and gender studies have experienced
a renewed activity explosion in recent years. At the time a new set of questions of
interest for language and gender scholars have been raised in current work in
quantitative sociolinguistics.
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1.4.6 Language Varieties
Language variations in sociolinguistics are also known as lect for each distinctive form
of language or language expression. Linguists often use language variety as a cover
term of all overlapping language sub-categories, such as dialect, register, jargon and
idiolic. To u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f l a n g u a g e varieties, it is important to
consider how lects differ from Standard English. Even what constitutes Standard
English is a topic of hot debate among linguists.
Standard English is a controversial term for an English form written and used by
trained users. Standard English is a synonym for good or good use in English for some
linguists. Others refer to a certain geographical dialect in English or a dialect preferred
by the most powerful and prestigious group in society.
For a number of reasons, language variables develop: differences may arise for
geographical reasons; people living in different geographical areas often develop
different dialects— Standard English variations. Those who belong to a certain group,
often universities or professionals, use jargon that is commonly known and understood
in this specific group. There is stupidity even among people, a way of talking.
1.4.7 Language Attitude
Language attitudes are someone feelings about their own language or the other
languages, and further defined, as an individual’s psychological construction
regarding their own language and/or the languages of others (Sağın Şimşek et al.
2007). Further, language attitudes are evaluative responses to various language
variants. At least partially, they reflect two sequence cognitive processes: social
categorization and stereotyping. First of all, listeners use linguistic indications (e.g.
emphasis) to infer social group membership of speakers (s). Second, they assign the
stereotypical features associated with these inferred group memberships on the basis
of this categorization. Based on these language behaviors are organized in two
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dimensions: status (smart, educated) and solidarity (e.g., friendly, pleasant). There are
four factors that can influence the language attitude, namely (1) the prestige and
power of the language; (2) historical background of nations; (3) the social and
traditional factor; and (4) the language internal system.
1.4.8 Language Planning
Language planning (LP) refers to activities aimed at modifying the structure (corpus)
and functions (the situation) of languages and or language types, using
sociolinguistic concepts and information for policy decision-making and
implementing them, with a view to dealing with national, international or
community linguistic and or extra-linguistic issue. A variety of agents from
goverment, linguistic academics and individuals are conducting language planning.
Language planning is generally situated within ‘language varieties as targets,
barriers and facilitators and users and uses of languages as aspects of broader social
patterns or processes. Further, language planning is generally part of the sociology
of language (Fishman, 1972). LP is a multifaceted discipline whose purposes and
objectives are interconnected with the political, economic and social goals of the
concerned community, which in turn are influenced by global events.
1.4.9 Language and Power
At a glance, language and power are not connected. Language is in the linguistic field,
while power deals with the political control. Language defines as arbitrary vocal
symbols dealing with meanings (semantics), and structural linguists defining words and
sentences (morphology and syntax). A closer and critical examination of the language
shows, however, that language goes much further. Sociologists see language as an
institution where there are many things. A new sociolinguistic approach to analyze the
function of language that sustains or maintain inequality is then so-called critical
sociolinguistics (Mesthrie, et al, 2001). Critical sociolinguistics defines language not only
as a means for social interaction or communication but language goes much further
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than that. Critical sociolinguistics concerns on how language creates, maintains and
replicates fundamental social inequality. Education, economics, communications, and
politics are all inadequate.
Louis Althusser and Antonio Gramsci are prominent theorists interested in power
distribution. The ideas and ideological processes take place within different
organizations and institutions, like the church, legal systems, family and the education
system behind the authority (Louis Althusser). As Ideological State Apparatuses,
Althusser defines this practice (ISAs). In addition, Poulantzas divides the state system
into a repressive system (armed forces, the police and ideological apparatuses)
(church, political parties, unions, schools, mass media, and the family).
Another leading figure, Antonios Gramsci, distinguishes that power is best practiced
when the actor can manipulate situations so as to prevent him, as the so-called
Hegemony, from reaching the point of decision. Hegemony is best practiced in language
at macro level. The success of the rule includes the legitimization and acceptance of
power.
From Halliday & Martin's perspective of oppositional sub-cultures in a society, another
example of resistance to powerful language is found. Halliday & Martin (1993) refer to a
group of people who show their opposition to a dominant society through various
means. He uses the term anti-language in the special language of this group. There is
always a group of people, as Weber says, that there is retention of this power if there is
power. Language is a tool for maintaining and confronting power at the same time.
1.5 The Applications of Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistic research has a wide range of practical applications. One of them is in
language and education. The contributions of sociolinguistics are vary namely, the
home language school language interface, the public debates about standard
English and less feted varieties like Ebonics, an understanding of educational failure,
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enhancing gender sensitivity in male dominated classrooms and so forth. Zhang &
Wang (2016) conducted their research to analyze the reasons why sociolinguistics
encounters so many obstacles in English teaching in China and the existing problems of
China’s foreign language teaching to help the readers have a better understanding of
the application of sociolinguistics in China’s English teaching. Besides, Angel (1999) in
his paper, reported that sociolinguistics could help foreign language teaching to
achieve a greater understanding of the nature of language (see also Saddhono &
Rohmadi, 2014).
Besides, the practical application also happens to courtrooms based on their studies
of discourse and accent patterns (forensic phonetic and sociolinguistics, discourse
analysis and the Law). For example, Eades (2010) conducted her research on linguistic
study of language in the legal system or in the court. Then, sociolinguistics contributes
to the growing attempts to save endangered language (reversing language shift,
salvage work (endangered languages); cooperate with other educationists in
government and non- government committees on language (language development,
language adaptation and modernization, language planning); contribute to cultural
vitality by recording, describing, and popularizing rural speech and varieties (dialect
and dialectology, pidgins and creoles).
Summary
Sociolinguistics is an important field that examines the effects on a particular society of
language utilization. Sociolinguistics studies such types of linguistic variations as a
result of languages correlation with social factors for example ethnicity, social
status, sex, role, and age. Speakers may select, accommodate or blend different
available codes from a variety of languages, dialects or variants depending on their
graduation and pattern of updating. The social status shows the social position of the
individual in a community according to social class differences, power, a n d
prestige. Accents are the broadest social class categories such as upper, middle and
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lower classes which correlate with for example posh, refined, RP vs. low, uneducated,
regional, and local dialect and speech varieties such as standard English vs. non-
standard varieties.
In sociolinguistics, the speakers modify the forms of language that they use in social
circumstances. The speakers can change from ‘high’ to ‘low’ language as the social
environment suggests. In formal situation for example, they speak a standard form of
education of their language, meanwhile in casual, informal situations they employ a
social dialect, geographical dialect or both form of their language. The speakers are
perceived to be aware of the co-relationships, that is one social situation calls for the
use of a particular language and another one. The role of the social is to establish
the correlation; the role of the individual is to implement and instantiate it as
appropriate sociolinguistic behavior. Speakers demonstrate a competence that goes
well beyond the grammatical or syntactic competence proposed by Chomsky. Thus,
sociolinguistics relates linguistic behavior with social demands.
Exercise
1. Explain and discuss the relationship between sociology and linguistics!
2. Mention and explain the various factors which sociolinguists are concerned in
studying the relationship between society and language!
3. Please explain the relationship between language and society!
4. Distinguish briefly between sociolinguistics and sociology of language!
5. Discuss the role played by Ferdinand de Saussure in the study of language and
society!
6. Elaborate the social factors that influence language use!
References
Angel, Rafael. 1999. In Mugford, Gerrad. 1999. Sociolinguistic competence in Foreign
language teaching: The secrets behind Language Grammar. Accessed on June 28th
2021. https://rafangel.wordpress.com/
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Chambers, J.K., & Trudgill, P. 1998. Dialectology (second edition). UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Coulmas, Florian. 1998. The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Eades, Diana. 2010. Sociolinguistics and the Legal Process. Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit:
Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847692559
Edwards, John. 2 0 0 9 . Language and Identity: Key topics in Sociolinguistics. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Fishman, J.A. 1972. Sociolinguistics: A brief Introduction. Rowley: Massachusetts:
Newbury House Publisher.
Halliday, M.A.K., & Martin, J.R. 1993. Writing science: Literacy and discourse power.
London: Falmer Press.
Herk, Gerrard Van. 2012. What is Sociolinguistics?. New York: Willey Blackwell.
Herk, Gerard Van. 2017. What is Sociolinguistics? (second edition). New York: Willey
Blackwell.
Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics: fourth edition. New York:
Longman.
Holmes, Janet & Wilson, Nick. 2017. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Fifth edition
New York: Longman.
Hurst-Harosh, Ellen. 2020. Youth Language in Africa: Introduction to the special issue.
Linguistics Vanguard, 6(s4). 10.1515/lingvan-2020-0069
Llamas, C., Mullany, L, & Stockwell, P. 2006. The Routledge Companion to
Sociolinguistics. New York: Routledge.
Mesthrie, Rajend. 2001. Concise Encyclopedia of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd.
Mesthrie, R . , S w a n n , J . , D e u m e r t , A . , & L e a p , W . L . 2009. Introducing
S o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s . Edinburg, Scotland: Edinburg University Press.
Meyerhoff, Miriam. 2006. Introducing Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell
Meyerhoff, Miriam. 2018. Introducing Sociolinguistics (third edition). New York:
Routledge.
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Milani, T. M., & Lazar, M. M. (2017). Seeing from the South: Discourse, gender and
sexuality from southern perspectives. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 21(3), 307–
319. doi:10.1111/josl.12241
O’Grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M., Katamba, F. 1996. Contemporary Linguistics An
Introduction. Longman Publishers.
Petyt, K. M. (1980). The study of dialect: An introduction. London: Andre Deutsch.
Romaine, Suzanne. 2000. Language in Society: An introduction to Sociolinguistics. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Sağın Şimşek, C., Selvi, A.F. & Üzüm, B. (2007). Attitudes towards German Language and
Culture: Reflections from Turkey. Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen
Fremdsprachenunterricht, 12(3)
Saddhono, K & Rohmadi, M. 2014. A Sociolinguistics study on the use of the Javanese
language in the learning process in primary schools in Surakarta, Central Java,
Indonesia. International Education Studies, 7 (6), 25-30.
Smakman. Dick. 2018. Discovering Sociolinguistics: From Theory to Practice. Red Globe
Press.
Stockwell, Peter. 2002. Sociolinguistics: A resource book for students. London:
Routledge.
Trudgill, Peter. 2000. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society.
London: Penguin Group.
Wakelin, M . F . 1977. English dialects an introduction. The Athlone Press
Wardhaugh, R. & Fuller, J.M. 2015. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. UK: Willey
Blackwell.
Wardhaugh, R., & Fuller, J.M. 2021. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. UK: Willey
Blackwell.
Watts, Richard J. 2003. Politeness: Key topics in Sociolinguistics. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Zhang, Hongmei & Wang Ni. 2016. Sociolinguistics and English Teaching in China.
Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 6 (4), 830-834. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0604.21
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CHAPTER 2
THE SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATION OF
LANGUAGE
There is undoubtedly much to learn about the social uses of language, for communication or
for other purposes. But at present there is not much in the way of a theory of sociolinguistics,
of social uses of languages, as far as I am aware.
(Noam Chomsky)
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INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents and discusses the scientific study of language, its applications
and the linguistic standards that people observe. This chapter also distinguishes and
contrasts between langue and parole and competence and performance. Besides, this
chapter presents the various language functions in society as well as the relationship
between language and society. This section also explains some basic methodological
concerns. At the end, this chapter explores sociolinguistics and related discipline such
as sociology, anthropology, social psychology, rhetoric, and dialectology.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have read this chapter you should be able to:
1. Students are able to discuss the relationship between language and society.
2. Students are able to distinguish between langue and parole.
3. Students are able to contrast between competence and performance.
4. Students are able to explain some basic methodological concerns.
5. Students are able to identify sociolinguistics and related disciplines.
2.1 Scientific Investigation of Language
There are some issues related to the scientific study of the language, its uses and
language standards. Such a study must go far beyond just working out plans to classify
the various parts of linguistic data. It would be a rather uninteresting activity, some
sort of collection of butterflies. More in-depth theorization is needed to understand
both language and language general principles of the organization which certainly
must exist. It is just such an attempt that Saussure (1959) to distinguish between
langue (group knowledge of language) and parole (individual use of language)
(Meyerhoff, 2006). Bloomfield (1933) to stress the importance of contrastive
distribution (since pin and bin are different words in English, /p/ and /b/ must be
contrastive units in the structure of English); Pike (1967) to distinguish between emic
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and etic features in language (/p/ and /b/ are contrastive, therefore emic, units, but
the two pronunciations of p in pin and spin are not contrastive, therefore etic); and
Sapir (1921) and, much later, Chomsky (1965) to stress the distinction between the
‘surface’ characteristics of utterances and the ‘deep’ realities of linguistic form behind
these surface characteristics. A major language concern today are issues like universal
languages, which include the essential characteristics and different kinds of language,
factors which allow people to learn language without being human and conditions
which govern matters such as linguistic change (Labov, 1994, and McMahon, 1994).
Linguistics can not be done just in one way, but it is true that some linguists sometimes
behave as if their only way (Holmes, 2013; 2017). Indeed, two language experts can
take very different approaches to the theorization of both languages and languages
whilst doing something that many still consider to be authentic linguistics. Nobody is
likely to notice these differences in approach if they are not studying the relationship
between language and society (Romaine, 2001). Such attempts cover a wide range of
subjects and reveal the diversity of approaches: different language theories; different
perspectives on data relevant to one specific topic; different wording of research
issues; different concepts of what are 'good' answers, the importance or interest of
certain findings, and the generalizability of conclusions; and different interpretations
of both the theorists and the theoretical and ‘real-world’ consequences of particular
pieces of research, i.e., what they tell us about the nature of language or indicate we
might do to change or improve the human condition.
2.2 Langue and Parole
Language is a system of signs that express thoughts. Saussure proposes dividing it
into two component elements namely the language (langue) and speech (parole) Herk
(2012, 2017). Langue refers to the abstract system of language internalized by a
particular speech and word, speech and language practice. Furthermore, Saussure
opposed the popular organic view of language as a natural organism in the nineteenth
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century, which grows, develops in line with established laws, but is not determinable
through the will of man. He instead defined language as a social product, with the
social side of the language beyond speaker control. Language, according to Saussure, is
passively assimilated rather than a function of the speaker. Speaking, according to
Saussure, is a deliberate act.
(Source: pusatbahasaalazhar.wordpress.com)
Gambar 2.1 Ferdinan de Saussure
On the other hand, language considered as the words individual people use, rather than
as the communication system of a particular community. It is commonly called as
Parole. Saussure focuses on this because it allows an investigative technique that is
supposedly rooted in pure science, given that language is systematic. Taken from
Greek word "semion" which means "sign," Saussure called it as science semiology. It is
a science which studies sign life in society.
Langue and Parole are more than just a synonym for "language and speech"
(although this is a useful, quick way of remembering them). Langue is the entire
system of language that precedes and enables speech. A sign is a fundamental unit of
language. When we learn a language, we master the grammar, spelling, syntax, and
punctuation systems. These are all aspects of language. Langue is a system in the sense
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that it has a large number of elements, and meaning is assumed in the arrangements of
these elements and the resulting relationships between these arranged elements.
The concrete use of language, the actual utterances, is referred to as parole. It is an
outward manifestation of language. It is the system's usage, not the system itself.
Saussure distinguishes between language and how it is used by defining Langue and
Parole, allowing these two very different things to be studied as separate entities.
Saussure, as a structuralist, was more interested in la langue than in parole. The
system by which meaning could be assumed, rather than individual instances of its use,
was of interest.
The separation of langue and parole, according to Bakhtin (1929), separates
individuals and society at the point of production, where it matters the most. He
created a 'dialogic' theory of utterances in which language is understood in terms of
how it orients the speaker/writer to the listener/reader. Words are subject to
bargaining, contestation, and struggle. The social context has a strong influence on
language (stockwell, 2002). Language modification at the point of parole is used to
create assumed meaning, either when the speaker's command of the language is
limited or when deliberate distortion is used.
2.3 Competence and Performance
It is not surprising that the limitations of today's language processing systems arise
immediately from the fact that these systems are built on a Chomskian competence
grammar. Chomsky made a strong distinction between a language user's competence
and the user's performance (Romaine, 2000).
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Source: www.britannica.com
Gambar 2.2 Chomsky
The competence is based on the language knowledge that the language user possesses
in general; performance is the result of the psychological process that employs this
knowledge (in producing or in interpreting language utterances) Coulmas (1998) &
Herk (2012, 2017). The formal grammars with which theoretical linguistics is
concerned seek to characterize the language user's competence. However, language
users' preferences in dealing with syntactically ambiguous sentences are a
prototypical example of a phenomenon that, according to Chomsky, belongs to the
realm of performance.
The inherent limitations of the linguistic skill grammatical system present an
ambiguity issue: such grammars define a language’s phrases and the corresponding
structural analyses, but do not indicate the ordering of probability or any other
classification between the different sentences or between the different analyses of a
particular sentence. This restriction is even more severe when a grammar is used to
process the input that often contains errors. Such a situation occurs in processing
spoken language. The output of a speech recognition system is always very imperfect,
because such a system often only makes guesses about the identity of its input-
words. In this situation the parsing mechanism has an additional task, which it doesn’t
have in dealing with correctly typed alpha-numeric input. The speech recognition
module may discern several alternative word sequences in the input signal; only one of
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these is correct, and the parsing-module must employ its syntactic information to
arrive at an optimal decision about the nature of the input. A simple yes/no judgment
about the grammaticality of a word sequence is insufficient for this purpose: many
word sequences are strictly speaking grammatical but very implausible; and the
number of word sequences of this kind gets larger when a grammar accounts for a
larger number of phenomena.
Therefore, we need to implement performance grammars rather than
competence grammars in order to build efficient language processing systems. These
performance diagrams must include not only information concerning the structural
potential of the general language system, but también “accidental” information on the
actual use of language in a language community, which determines a person's
language experience and thus determines what kind of words this person expects to
encounter and what structures and significations these people have. The linguistic
perspective on performance involves the implicit assumption that language behaviour
can be accounted for by a system that comprises a competence-grammar as an
identifiable subcomponent.
However, this assumption is not computationally attractive because of the ambiguity
problem, because, if we could find criteria that prefer certain syntactic analyzes to
others, the effectiveness of the entire process could be beneficial if these criteria
were applied early, integrated with strictly syntactic rules. This would involve an
integrated realization of the concepts of competence and achievement. But we can also
go one step further, and fundamentally question the customary concept of a
competence-grammar. We can try to account for language-performance without
invoking an explicit competence grammar. This would mean that grammaticality-
judgments are to be accounted for as performance phenomena which do not have a
different cognitive status than other performance phenomena.
Chomsky has argued several times that in order to make meaningful discoveries about
language, linguists must try to distinguish between what is important and what is
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irrelevant in language and language behavior (Wardhaugh, 2006). Chomsky
distinguished what he called skill and performance as well. He claims that what the
speaker knows about their language, that is, about their skills and not about the
language, i.e. their performance, is the linguist's task. To investigate true linguistic
performance, several factors must be considered, one of which is the speaker's
underlying competence (Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2015).
2.4 The relationship between language and society
Language and society cannot be separated in sociolinguistics. A society is a group of
people drawn together for a specific purpose, meanwhile a language is the language
spoken by members of a specific society (Wardhaugh, 2006). Further, Trudgill (2000)
said that language functions not only for communicating information but also for
establishing and maintaining relationships with other people. When two or more
people communicate with one another, we can instruct the communications system to
use a code. In most cases, we can also call a language for that code (Wardhaugh,
2006). Nowadays, most linguists accept that the language or languages they speak are
quite abstract knowledge (Wardhaugh, 2006).
2.5 Some basic methodological concerns
Sociolinguistics should include all things from considering who (or writes), who (or
what kind of language) to whom, when, and what purpose (Fishman, 1972) - the social
distribution of linguistic material - to looking at how a language varies.
Whatever sociolinguistics is, they must be based on data and theory: all conclusions
that we reach have to be solidly based on evidence (Mesthrie, R., Swann, J.,
Deumert, A., & Leap, W.L. 2004). A b o v e all, our research should be based on
scientifically approved questions. The data collected in order to gather data is of
little interest since they can tell us little or nothing without some sort of focus, i.e.,
without some non-trivial collecting motive. A random number of observations on how
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a number of people observe the use of language cannot lead to useful behavioral
generalizations either language or society.
We can not be satisfied with 'butterfly collecting,' no matter how lovely the specimens
are! We must collect data for a specific purpose, which should be to find an answer, or
answers, to an intriguing question. Questions phrased in ways that do not allow for
some kind of empirical testing have no more than a speculative interest.
Those who wish to examine the possible connections between language and society
have to look at two things: ask the right questions and find the right data to answer the
right questions. We will learn how broad the range of sociolinguistic questions and
data has been: coorelational studies which attempt to link two or more variables (for
instance, certain linguistic uses of differences in class); implicational studies that
suggest that if X, then Y (for instance, if anyone talks less, will he or she say best for
better?); micro linguistic studies, which typically focus on very specific linguistic items
or individual differences and uses and seek possibly wide-ranging linguistic and/or
social implications (e.g., the distribution of singing and singin’); macrolinguistic studies,
which examine large amounts of language data to draw broad conclusions about
group relationships (e.g., choices made in language planning); and still other studies,
which try to arrive at generalizations about certain universal characteristics of
human communication, e.g., studies of conversational structure (Llamas, Mullany, &
Stockwell, 2007). Because sociolinguistics is an empirical science, it should be based
on a sufficient database. This database is based on a wide range of sources, as we shall
see.
A census is included, as well as documents, surveys and interviews. Some information
requires the researcher to look at "natural" linguistic events, like conversations; others
require the use of various techniques for access to required data and various kinds of
experimental manipulation, for example in combination experiments. Some types of
data require various statistical approaches, especially if we want to make a statement
on a group's normal behavior, e.g. a social class; other forms seem to be best dealt
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with non-statistic methods such as dialect geography or kinship systems (Mesthrie,
Rajend. 2001).
A good empirical science sets strict requests for data collection and analysis, demands
for sampling techniques, error assessment and level of trust, or the significance of
certain statements, especially when arguments are based on numbers, i.e. averages,
percentages or proportions. As we can see, sociolingualists attempt when needed to
fulfill these statistical demands. However, many of the conclusions from sociolinguistic
studies are not statistical and leave no question. This is because much of language use is
categorical (that is, something is or is not) rather than statistical (i.e., some
phenomenon occurs with this or that probability) . Therefore, considering how certain
we can draw our conclusions in sociolinguistics is a recurrent concern. What is the
theoretical framework? What are the pertinent information? What trust can we have in
the collection and analysis of the data? What do the findings show? How should they be
interpreted as "identity," "power," "solidarity," "class," "gender," etc. in relation to
these concepts? What are the concepts we mean? How useful are they to try to
understand how people work in society? How do we subscribe to social theory? In
these respects sociolinguistics is like all other sciences, so we should expect no less
than that these requirements are met (O’Grady, Dobrovolsky, & Katamba, 1996).
As part of an attempt to work out a set of principles, or axioms, which
sociolinguistic investigations should follow, Bell (1976), drawing extensively on the
work of Labov, has suggested eight as worthy of consideration:
1. The cumulative principle. The more we know about a language, the more we can
learn about it and should not be surprised if we are going to be brought to new
areas of study by new knowledge and to areas that are already working for
scholars of other disciplines.
2. The uniformation principle. The linguistic processes which we observe to be taking
place around us are the same as those which have existed in the past, so that there
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can be no clear distinction between synchronic (i.e., descriptive and contemporary)
matters and diachronic (i.e., historical) ones.
3. The principle of convergence. The value of new data for confirming or interpreting
old findings is directly proportional to the differences in the ways in which the new
data are gathered; particularly useful are linguistic data gathered through
procedures needed in other areas of scientific investigation.
4. The principle of subordinate shift. When speakers of a non-standard (or
subordinate) variety of language, e.g., a dialect, are asked direct questions about
that variety, their responses will shift in an irregular way toward or away from the
standard (or superordinate) variety, e.g., the standard language, so enabling
investigators to collect valuable evidence concerning such matters as varieties,
norms, and change.
4. The principle of style-shifting. There are no ‘single-style’ speakers of a language,
because each individual controls and uses a variety of linguistic styles and no
one speaks in exactly the same way in all circumstances.
5. The principle of attention. ‘Styles’ of speech can be ordered along a single dimension
measured by the amount of attention speakers are giving to their speech, so
that the more ‘aware’ they are of what they are saying, the more ‘formal’ the style
will be.
7. The vernacular principle. The most common style in its structure and its
relationship to linguistic history is the vernacular, relaxed and spoken style in
which speech receives the least sensitive attention.
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8. The principle of formality. Any systematic observation of speech defines a
context in which some conscious attention will be paid to that speech, so that it will
be difficult, without great ingenuity, to observe the genuine ‘vernacular.’
The ultimate principle is what Labov called "the paradox of the observer." He points
out (1972) that linguistic studies are only available through systemic observations
when people talk when they are not systematically observed. Somehow speakers need
to turn their attention away from being observed in order for the vernacular to appear.
This can occur if speakers are emotional.
Labov found that a question like, 'were you in a serious risk of being killed?' Labov
asked. Almost always, the style shifts from a careful speech to a vernacular and thus
gives the linguist the sort of data he wants.
For studying language variation, the above principles are fundamental. Something else
requires other types of studies. In the following chapters I hope to accomplish one of
the tasks to try and make these explicit.
2.6 Research Design
The concerns in research design are quite diverse due to the various methods
and questions of research in sociolinguistics. In some cases, when arguments are based
on quantitative analysis, the level of importance with which specific statements can be
made must be considered when sampling techniques, error estimation, and the level of
confidence are used. As we will see, sociolinguists make every effort to meet these
statistical requirements when possible. In these cases, the results often demonstrate
trends in the correlation of social and linguistic variables. However, qualitative
research also forms part of sociolinguistic research, particularly in critical and
interactional sociolinguistics, where the goal is to analyze Language as cultural
behavior.
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In this case it is not a question of how specific groups of people talk, but how language
is used to carry out social functions. The theoretical framework that for the research is
the basis and how research issues, methodology, analysis and results all fit into that
framework therefore must be a recurring concern. Sociology is similar to all other
sciences. In this regard, finally, researchers must see how they influence language
use around them, and how they can make analyzes and claims of their own
preconditions and assumptions. These possibilities must also be taken into account
when evaluating the work of others and the critical consumer of all we see, hear and
read. It is essential to have good skepticism.
2.7 Sociolinguistics and related disciplines
Sociolinguistics is the study of language in culture and society, within the field of
linguistics. Sociolinguistics has close connections with the social sciences, in particular,
sociology, anthropology, social psychology, and education.
2.7. 1 Sociolinguistics with anthropology
Sociolinguistics should be a subject of anthropologists' intrinsic interest. The purpose
of the study of sociolinguistics is not well defined but certainly includes theoretical
studies on linguistic variability, language and language value folk taxonomies and the
re- implementation of the knowledge of language to education. Some sociolinguists
claim that their field lies within their field of ethnography of communication. All these
fields of research are of contemporary anthropology importance. But beyond the
object of this study, the knowledge of sociolinguistic techniques, especially in field
studies, can prove a valuable tool for anthropologists.
2.7.2 Sociolinguistics with social psychology
Sociolinguistics is a science field for understanding the languages variation and
change of individuals and groups, such as language choice, language learning, and
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social meanings. The sociolinguistic decisions are made based on social psychological
decisions. McLeod (2007) defined ‘social psychology is about understanding
individual behavior in a social context; Meanwhile, Baron, Byrne & Suls (1989) ‘the
scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in
social situation (p.6).
2.8 Summary
In linguistics, innateness assumes that every person has a faculty for mental
language. It says human beings have a universal grammar in their genes. This contains
fundamental principles and properties common to all human languages, which support
and facilitate the language acquisition. The main reason why this theory has been
proposed is "the poverty of stimuli." It describes the gap between the information
that we receive in our childhood about the grammar of a language and the
knowledge we eventually gather. A child's stimulation, his or her linguistic experience,
is not enough to create the grammar of his or her language. Indeed, the stimulus has
several insufficiencies: firstly, it is not grammatical to every sentence a child is
exposed to. Secondly, the information received is limited, and thirdly, children gain
knowledge without additional evidence. However, linguistic competence has been
gained by the child, and an additional element of support must be available. The
acceptability and use of languages is therefore determined by the specified
communications rules from which the people operate. The child in the social
environment performs the linguistic phenomena that exist around him and makes him
properly part of that society.
The essence of language use is communication. Correlation establishes a close
relationship between language and society, but leaves every person as quite distinct and
leaves language as autonomous. Saussure makes a distinction between language and
word so that language use and language acquirement are understood. He believes
that language is a system of signs and people use these signs in a given society to
communicate ideas. He thus postulates that these signs form the heart of others to
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convey ideas and information. Chomsky thinks that competence is an idealized
phenomenon that cannot be learned, while language can be acquired This is why skill
is not an achievable phenomenon, but it can achieve performance because it is
assessed on the basis of its performance. In sociolinguistics, individuals perform
language in order to belong to the society while a society may use a language form that
is acceptable by the entirety of the people in order to foster harmony in
communication.
2.9 Exercise
1. Explain and elaborate ‘langue’ and ‘parole’ in relation to the social function of
language!
2. List and explain 8 (eight) principles in investigating sociolinguistics!
3. Please explain Saussure’s perception of language and society!
4. Please elaborate sociolinguistics related to other disciplines!
5. Outline clearly the similarity between Saussure’s and Chomsky’s theories!
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