BENJAMIN SILLIMAN JR.’S 1874 PAPERS: AMERICAN ...

22 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011)

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN JR.’S 1874
PAPERS: AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS
TO CHEMISTRY

Martin D. Saltzman, Providence College

To mark the centennial of the discovery of oxygen by content of his address in Northumberland, are the subject
Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) on August 1, 1774, H. Car- of this analysis, which it is hoped will enlighten readers
rington Bolton of the Columbia College School of Mines on the state of American chemistry on the eve of the
suggested a gathering of American chemists be held to centennial of the founding of the United States and the
celebrate this event. A suggestion was made by Rachel birth of the American Chemical Society (2). Thackray
Bodley of the Women’s Medical College of Pennsylva- and coworkers have produced an extensive study of
nia that an appropriate place would be Northumberland, American chemistry from 1876-1976 (3). The current
Pennsylvania, where Priestley had settled in 1794 after paper is a modest attempt to fill in the period prior to
being hounded out of England for
his radical views. Organizing the 1876 as viewed by Silliman. Sil-
event was a group of New York liman’s papers appeared in two
chemists. About 70 chemists at- installments with different titles
tended for the daylong event, which (August/September and December
featured a series of four papers and (4, 5) in the American Chemist, the
visits to the Priestley house and journal founded and edited by the
grave site (1). brothers Charles F. Chandler and
William H. Chandler (6, 7).

The papers read at the meeting Figure 1. Benjamin Silliman Jr. Courtesy Few people were as qualified
were “The Life and Labors of Priest- Oesper Collection, University of Cincinnati. as Benjamin Silliman Jr. (1816-
ley,” by H. H. Craft of the University 1885) (Fig. 1) to survey the history
of Toronto; “The Century’s Progress of chemistry in America. Silliman
in Theoretical Chemistry,” by T. Sr. and Jr. had served as Profes-
Sterry Hunt of MIT; “A Review of sors of Chemistry at Yale College
Industrial Chemistry,” by J. Law- from 1806 to 1870 (8). Benjamin
rence Smith of the University of Silliman Sr. founded the American
Louisville; and “American Contri- Journal of Science in 1818 (9), and
butions to Chemistry,” by Benjamin his son began almost immediately
Silliman Jr. of Yale University. assisting him in the editing of the
journal. He assumed the editor-
Silliman’s two 1874 papers, ship of the journal in 1841 and
totaling 57 pages and covering the continued his association with it

Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011) 23

until his death in 1885. The committee could not have a seminal event in the history of American chemistry,
picked a more able person to discuss the development according to Silliman.
of American chemistry.
In 1846 the Smithsonian Institution was organized in
The title of Silliman’s first paper has an asterisk and Washington, DC, “opening wider and yet more freely the
the following qualifying statement by the author (10): various paths of scientific research” (11). The American
Association for the Advancement of Science in 1848
In attempting to comply with the invitation of the began publishing its own journal Proceedings which
committee in charge of the Chemical Centennial at offered another venue for publication and according to
Northumberland to prepare an “Essay upon American Silliman was another landmark for American science.
Contributions to Chemistry” in an address to be deliv-
ered on that occasion, I found the “Essay” insensibly The establishment of several scientific schools at
and almost unavoidably assuming the historical form, some of the oldest and most prestigious American col-
and taking a wider range than may seem consistent leges was also a major event that took place in the late
with a strict rendering of its title. But such as it became 1840s. Among the most important was the Sheffield Sci-
it is now presented as a slight contribution toward a entific School (1847) at Yale College, in which Silliman
more elaborate historical discourse which yet remains played a major role (12), and the Lawrence Scientific
to be prepared. School (1847) at Harvard in which Liebig’s student Eben
Horsford was a major force (13).
Silliman indicates the importance of the centennial of
the discovery of oxygen to the development of modern The names in Table 1 are arranged in the order as
chemistry as follows (10): presented by Silliman in his paper. Silliman does not
provide any rationale for his listing as it is not strictly
The emancipation of our science from the dominion chronological or alphabetical. Several others have been
of phlogiston, with its seductive but false philoso- omitted because their contribution or connection with
phy, may be likened to the overthrow of aristocratic chemistry seemed marginal at best. I have provided
traditions, and monarchial supremacy, under which background material on the chemists mentioned by
our ancestors were held, and the building up of the Silliman prior to 1845. Biographical information was
American system of self-government in their place. gathered from Silliman’s paper, internet searches, and
the compilations of Miles and Gould (14) and various
In the view of Silliman there were two important peri- other sources such as the Chemical Heritage Foundation.
ods in American chemistry, those that occurred before Where a doctoral degree was earned, this is listed with
1845 and those that occurred afterwards. By 1845 it the institution, year, and mentor when possible (14).
had been almost two decades since Liebig “threw open
wide the doors of access to the laboratory at Giessen and
welcomed cordially all students without distinction of
nationality to his scientific hospitality” (11). This was

Table 1. Leading American chemists active before 1845.

NAME DATES CHEMICAL PROFESSIONAL RESEARCH OTHER ACCOM-
TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS PLISHMENTS
Joseph AND OTHER
Priestley 1733- Self-educated Tutor and Unitarian PROFES- Discoverer of more new
1804 Self-educated minister SIONAL DIS- gases then any of his con-
Benjamin Inventor and govern- TINCTIONS temporaries
Thompson 1753- ment official Cofounded Royal Institu-
(Count 1814 Inorganic and tion in 1799; endowed
Rumford) physical chem- Rumford professorships at
istry Harvard

Physical
chemistry and
thermodynam-
ics

24 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011)

NAME DATES TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS OTHER

John Maclean 1771- Glasgow Princeton (1796- Opposed phlogiston
1814 1812), William and theory; foremost proponent
Mary (1812-1813) of the new chemistry in US

Parker 1780- Harvard Bowdoin College Mineralogy Produced the first chemis-
Cleaveland 1858 (1805-1853) try textbook in America

Benjamin Rush 1745- Princeton, Edin- Penn. Medical School Revolutionary War Sur-
1813 burgh Medical geon
School

James 1752- Penn. Medical Penn. Medical School
Hutchinson 1793
School (1789-1793)
James 1770-
Woodhouse 1809 Penn. and Penn. Penn. Medical School
Medical School (1796-1809)

Aaron Dexter 1750- Harvard Medi- Harvard Medical
1829
Samuel Latham cal School School (1783-1816)
Mitchill 1764-
1831 Columbia, Edin- Columbia (1792-1820) Congressman and Senator
burgh Medical (1804-1813); first to teach
School Lavoisier’s new chemistry
in US; editor of Medical
Robert Hare 1781- Penn. Penn. Medical School Inorganic and Repository
1858 (1847) physical chem- Developed the improved
istry blow pipe for analysis
Archibald Bruce 1777- Columbia, Edin- College of Physicians
1818 Mineralogy One of the most eminent
of American teachers of
burgh Medical and Surgeons, Colum- natural science; founder of
American Journal of Sci-
School bia (1807-1812); Rut- ence (1818)
Congressman (1809-1815,
gers Medical School 1817-1819)

(1812-1818) First person to offer labo-
ratory instruction in chem-
Benjamin 1779- Yale Yale (1804-1853) istry as part of curriculum
Silliman Sr. 1865

Adam Seybert 1773- Penn. Medical Operated a laboratory Eudiometric
1825 School; stud- for drug preparation; analysis of air
ied in Paris, seller of chemicals and
Edinburgh, Göt- equipment
tingen

William James 1763- Vienna Medical Professor of Medi- Toxicology
School cine and Chemistry at
McNevin 1841 College of Physicians,
Columbia (1808-1826)
and Rutgers Medical
School (1829-1829)

Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011) 25

NAME DATES TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS OTHER

John Gorham 1783- Harvard and Harvard (1809-1827) One of the founders of
1829 Harvard New England Journal of
Medical School; Medicine
studied in Paris,
London, Edin- Considered by his contem-
burgh poraries to be unrivalled in
his experimental abilities
James Freeman 1793- Harvard and Harvard, Dartmouth Analytical
Harvard Medi- (1816-1827) chemistry
Dana 1827 cal School

Samuel Luther 1795- Harvard Chemical manufac- Agricultural “Muck Manual of Ma-
turer chemistry nures;” one of the first
Dana 1868 writers in the US to present
an approach to agriculture
John Griscom 1774- Private school teacher; based on chemistry
1852 also Rutgers Medical
School For 30 years he was ac-
knowledged to be one of
Thomas Cooper 1759- Dickinson College, the best teachers of chem-
1839 Penn., Univ. South istry; popularized view
Carolina of state-supported higher
education
Thomas 1807- Sorbonne, École Manufacturing chem- Agricultural
Clemson 1888 chemistry Driving force in establish-
des Mines ist, mining engineer ing USDA; his bequest led
to founding of
John Redman 1773- Penn. Medical Professor of chemistry Clemson Univ.
Coxe 1864 School Penn. Medical School,
professor of pharmacy Helped establish first col-
lege of pharmacy in US

James Cutbush 1788- Penn. Chemical manufac-
Julius Ducatel 1823 turer and lecturer
St. Mary’s Col- Maryland and Mary-
1796- lege (Balti- land Medical School
1849 more), Paris
École des Mines Columbia College
Lardner 1792- (Paris) (SC) (1819-1826), Mineralogy
Vanuxen 1848 consultant geologist
College of (1826-1848), West Mineralogy,
John Patton 1796- Physicians Point (1824-1828) botany
Emmet 1842 and Surgeons,
Columbia College of Physicians
John Torrey 1796- College of and Surgeons (1827- Prolific writer and in-
1873 Physicians 1855), Princeton vestigator of the flora of
and Surgeons, (1830-1854) America
Columbia

26 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011)

NAME DATES TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS OTHER

Samuel Guthrie 1782- College of Manufacturer of alco- First to make chloroform
1848 Physicians and hol, vinegar, potassi-
Surgeons, Penn. um, chlorate, mercury
Medical School fulminate

George T. 1803- Yale, Penn. Univ. Nashville (1826- Mineralogy
Bowen 1828 Medical School 1828, 1829-1850),
chemical manufacturer
Gerard Troost 1776- Leiden, Amster-
1850 dam Mineralogy
Denison Yale
Olmsted 1791- North Carolina (1817- Mineralogy, One of the earliest to study
1859 West Point 1825), Yale (1825- meteorology, meteors
1859) astronomy
William 1804- Union Col- Geology, min- First American to deter-
Williams 1859 lege, College West Point (1829- eralogy mine an atomic weight of
Mather of Physicians 1835), Ohio Univ. an element
1798- and Surgeons, (1842-1859) Industrial
Lewis C. Beck 1853 Columbia chemistry, First professor of chemis-
Rensselaer Polytech- mineralogy try at West Point
Jacob W. Bailey 1811- West Point nic Inst. (1824-1829), First president of National
1857 Rutgers (1831-1853), Botany Academy of Sciences;
Alexander West Point New York Univ. great grandson of
Dallas Bache 1806- (1836-1838), Al- Benjamin Franklin
1867 bany Medical College
(1840-1853) Influenced the founding of
the agricultural experimen-
West Point (1838- tal station system
1857)
President, Penn. State
Penn. (1828-1843),
US Coastal Survey First chemist to serve in
(1843-1867) USDA

J. E. 1791- Privately Self-employed entre- Mineralogy
Teschmacher 1863 educated in preneur in Boston
England Agricultural
John Pitkin 1822- Yale chemistry
Norton 1852 Yale, Agricul-
tural Chemical Penn. State College Agricultural
Evan Pugh 1828- Association (1859-1864) chemistry
1864 laboratory
Charles M. (Scotland) USDA (1862-1863), Agricultural
Wetherill 1825- Smithsonian (1863- chemistry;
1871 D.Phil. under 1865), Lehigh (1866- mineralogy
Wöhler, Göt- 1871)
tingen 1856

Penn., Paris,
D.Phil. under
Liebig, Giessen
1848

Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011) 27

Analysis of American Chemistry, Pre-1845 Research was generally not expected of academic
chemists. One of the reasons for this was that labora-
In this period we find many American chemists who are tory space was either nonexistent or extremely limited
purely homegrown products, and the study of chemistry if it was available. Institutional support for research was
abroad is the exception rather than the rule as it will be minimal at best; and given the high cost of equipment
later. Instruction in chemistry was provided in under- and chemicals which for the main part had to be imported
graduate institutions beginning in 1767 at Columbia and from Europe, one can see why it required Herculean ef-
amounting to about 50 in total by 1839 according L. C. fort to begin and sustain a research program. Lecturers
Newell (16). This instruction varied greatly in qual- were paid on the basis of the number of students they
ity and continuity. The medical schools were the most taught. Many chemists of this period, in order to sup-
prominent chemical centers and produced the vast bulk port themselves, held two or three positions, which often
of American chemists. The most important of these were involved considerable travel and absence from their
the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia families for months at a time. This was particularly true
University in New York and University of Pennsylvania of those teachers of chemistry in medical schools with
Medical School. Approximately 25% of those listed only a four-month academic term. This very likely led
attended one or the other. Among collegiate institu- to an uneven quality of instruction.
tions the choice was fairly narrow with Harvard, Yale,
Pennsylvania, and West Point the dominant ones, 38% There was not much prestige associated with funda-
of the group having attended one of these. Laboratory mental research and thus most of the chemical work that
instruction was the exception and not the rule; often it was done was centered on practical applications. Public
was obtained by the eager young student through private service was also performed by many of these early chem-
instruction at additional expense. ists, mainly in the form of analysis of materials associated
with public health.
Some American chemists chose to study abroad in
this time period, with Paris being the most likely destina- One of the most significant aspects of this period
tion. A few Americans in the early 1840s started the trend according to Silliman was the large number of inspiring
to go to German universities, particularly Göttingen and teachers who set the stage for a vast expansion of Ameri-
Giessen, where, respectively, Wöhler and Liebig wel- can chemistry in the post-1845 period. Among this elite
comed American students. These graduates who returned group were John Maclean (Princeton); James Woodhouse
with their D. Phil. degrees were among the best trained and Robert Hare (Penn); Benjamin Silliman (Yale); and
in the United States in both theory and practice (17). Samuel Latham Mitchill (Columbia).

Table 2. Leading American chemists post-1845.

NAME DATES CHEMICAL PROFESSIONAL RESEARCH SIGNIFICANT
TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS AND ACCOMPLISH-
PROFESSIONAL MENTS
Charles 1842-1915 Yale, Göttingen South Carolina Medical DISTINCTIONS First person in US to
Upham Shepard School (1867-1885), South Analytical and in- grow tea as a com-
Carolina private analytical dustrial chemistry modity
Augustus Hayes 1886-1882 Dartmouth laboratory
Consultant and analyst Industrial chemistry First to suggest using
Lewis 1805-1876 Jena D.Phil. Pharmacist and metallurgist Mineralogy nickel alloys in mint-
Feuchtwanger (1829) ing small coins
Transylvania Medical Col- Analytical chem-
Robert Peter 1805-1894 Rensselaer Poly- lege (1838-1857) istry
John William 1811-1882 technic, Transyl-
Draper vania Medical Hampden Sydney (1836- Physical chemistry Made some of the
College 1838), New York Univ. first Daguerreotypes
Penn. Medical (1838-1882) in US; first president
School of the ACS

28 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011)

NAME DATES TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS OTHER

Robert E. 1813-1884 Penn. Medical Virginia (1842-1852), Penn. Physiological Introduced student
Rogers 1806-1879 School Medical School (1852- chemistry laboratory instruc-
John Johnston 1810-1888 Bowdoin 1877), Treasury Department tion in medical
James C. Booth 1805-1880 Penn., Göttingen consultant (1877-1884) school
Charles T. 1815-1893
Jackson 1822-1908 Harvard Medical Wesleyan (1835-1873) Physical chemistry Prolific author of
James Blake 1818-1883 School textbooks in chemis-
O. Wolcott 1813-1897 Univ. College try and physics
Gibbs 1812-1909 London, Medical
John Lawrence 1816-1885 School Private consulting chemist, Industrial chemistry Founder of oldest
Smith Columbia and chemical teaching labora- chemical consulting
Traill Green 1820-1893 Columbia Medi- tory, ran refiner for US mint business in US
Martin H. Boyé 1818-1893 cal School, Berlin, (1849-1887)
Benjamin Giessen, Paris
Silliman Jr. 1826-1892 Medical College Analytical consulting labo- Industrial chemis- Suggested ether as
1832-1912 of South Carolina, ratory in Boston try, mineralogy an anesthetic in 1846
Fredrick A. Paris, Giessen
Genth Penn. Medical Univ. California Medical Analytical and inor- Studied periodic re-
Eben Horsford School School ganic chemistry lationships based on
Copenhagen, physiological effects
Thomas Sterry Polytechnic Univ., of elements
Hunt Penn. Medical
John W. Mallet School City College of NY (1849- Inorganic and One of the found-
Yale 1863), Harvard (1863-1887) physical chemistry ers of the National
Academy of Sci-
Heidelberg, Gies- ences.
sen, Marburg
(D.Phil. 1845 LSU (1850-1852), Virginia Analytical chem- First American stu-
under Bunsen) (1852-1854), Univ. Louis- istry dent of Liebig
Rensselaer Poly- ville (1854-1866)
technic, Giessen
Lafayette College (1837-
Yale 1841, 1849-1891), Marshall
College (1841-1848)
Trinity College
(Dublin) Assistant to Robert Hare, Geology, mineral- Synthesis of ethyl
Penn. Central High School ogy, inorganic and perchlorate
organic chemistry

Yale Analytical and in- Helped establish
dustrial chemistry  American oil indus-
try by analysis of
Pennsylvania rock
oil; one of the first
members of National
Academy of Sci-
ences

Private chemical consultant, Analytical and inor- One of the most
Penn. (1872-1888) ganic chemistry respected analytical
chemists in America
in his time

Rumford Prof. at Harvard Agricultural and Developed the bak-
(1847-1863); chemical food chemistry ing powder industry
manufacturer (1863-1893) in America; student
of Liebig but did not
earn degree

Geological Survey of Mineralogy, organic First to propose cli-
Canada (1847-1872), MIT chemistry mate change due to
(1872-1878) carbon dioxide con-
centration changes

Univ. Louisiana Medical Atomic weights, Superintendent of the
School (1865-1868), Vir- toxicology Confederate States
ginia (1868-1912) ordnance laboratory

Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011) 29

NAME DATES TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS OTHER

William P. 1826-1910 Yale Professional geologist; Mineralogy First to introduce
Blake Yale, Heidelberg, professor of geology School western mining
Munich of Mines, Univ. Arizona technology in Japan
Dartmouth (1896-1905) (1861)
One of the persons
William H. 1828-1910 Washington College (1858- Agricultural chem- to recommend the
Brewer 1860); Geological Survey istry, botany purchase of Alaska
of California (1860-1864); in 1867
Sheffield Scientific School,
Yale (1864-1903) Father of American
agricultural research
John M. 1823-1909 Mineralogy President of Univ.
Ordway California (1876-
1881); measured
George J. Brush 1831-1912 Yale, Munich, Industrial chemist, MIT, Civil engineering, speed of sound and
Freiberg School Tulane (1884-1904) biology showed that flames
of Mines, Royal are sensitive to
Henry Wurtz 1828-1910 School of Mines George Washington Univ. Metallurgy, petro- sound
(London) (1858-1861), private labora- leum technology “Not a better practi-
Princeton tory for consulting (1856- cal chemist in the
1900) United States,” in
Yale, Leipzig, opinion of his con-
Samuel 1830-1909 Munich, London Yale (1856-1900) Agricultural chem- temporaries
Johnson Georgia, New istry
York College of Editor of American
John L. Leconte 1818-1891 Physicians and Georgia (1846-1855), South Physics Journal of Pharmacy
Surgeons Carolina (1856-1869), Univ. (1871-1893); assay
California (1869-1891) of adulterants in food
and medicine; par-
Charles A. Joy 1823-1891 Union College, Union College (1854-1857), Mineralogy ticipant at Priestley
Göttingen (D.Phil. Columbia (1857-1877) celebration
1852 under
Charles A. 1827-1910 Wöhler), Berlin, Industrial chemist (1857- Inorganic and agri-
Goessmann Paris 1861), Rensselaer Poly- cultural chemistry
Göttingen (D.Phil. technic (1862-1864), Univ.
1852 under Massachusetts (1868-1907)
Wöhler)

Eugene W. 1833-1916 Heidelberg, Smithsonian Institution, Soil science
Hilgard Royal School of Mississippi, Michigan, Pharmaceutical
Mines (Freiberg), Univ. California chemistry
John M. Maisch 1831-1893 Zürich, Heidel- Pharmacist (1850-1859),
berg (D.Phil. 1854 New York College of
under Bunsen) Pharmacy (1859-1866),
Hanau Philadelphia College of
Pharmacy (1866-1893)

Theodore G. 1826-1897 Dickinson College, Starling Medical College; Toxicology
Wormley Philadelphia Col- Penn. Medical School
lege of Medicine (1877-1897)
(M.D.)

30 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011)

NAME DATES TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS OTHER

John C. Draper 1835-1885 New York Univ. New York Univ (1858-
1871), City College of NY
(1863-1885)

Alexander 1801-1883 Transylvania Univ. Emory (1838-1848), Medicinal chem- President of
Means Medical College of Georgia istry Emory(1854-1855);
(1840-1853), Atlanta Medi- first person to dem-
cal School (1855-1867) onstrate an electric
light in America

Josiah P. Cooke 1827-1894 Harvard Harvard (1850-1894) Atomic weight Physical chemistry
Jr. 1822-1866 measurements textbook
John Addison
Porter Yale, Giessen Delaware (1844-1847), Agricultural chem- Helped in founding
Brown (1850-1852), Yale istry of Sheffield Scien-
(1852-1864) tific School at Yale,
which awarded the
first Ph.D. degree in
America

Newton 1825-1862 Yale, Göttingen Self-employed mining engi- Died at Battle of
Spaulding (D.Phil. 1852 neer and inventor (1853- Antietam, 1862
Manross under Wöhler) 1861), Amherst College
(1862)

Matthew Carey 1823-1897 Self-educated  Private laboratory Photochemistry,
Lea 1836-1925 analytical chemistry
Charles F.
Chandler Harvard, Göttin- Union College (1854-1857), Industrial chemistry Chairman of the
gen (D.Phil. 1853 Columbia (1857-1877) Priestley Centen-
under Wöhler and nial Celebration and
Rose) publisher of The
American Chemist

Henry 1831-1895 Amherst College, Rensselaer Polytechnic Mineralogy
Bradford Nason Göttingen (D.Phil. (1858-1895)
1857 under
Wöhler)

Frank H. Storer 1832-1914 Harvard, Heidel- Industrial chemist (1857- Industrial and agri-
berg, Freiberg, 1871), MIT (1865-1870), cultural chemistry
Paris Harvard (1870)

Charles Gilbert 1836-1912 Nuremberg Chicago, Chicago Medical Organic and physi-
Wheeler 1824-1891 College (1868) ological chemistry
Cyrus Moors
Warren Harvard, Paris, Chemical manufacturer, Petroleum chem-
Heidelberg, MIT (1866-1868), private istry
Munich, Berlin, laboratory (1868-1891)
London

Frederick 1832-1904 Berlin, Jena Pharmacy owner, publisher Dye chemistry, ana-
Hoffmann 1836-1901 (D.Phil. 1859) of the Pharmaceutical lytical chemistry
Maurice Review
Perkins
Columbia College College of Physicians and Founding member of
of Physicians and Surgeons (1862-1864), Har- the ACS
Surgeons, Heidel- vard (1864-1865), Union
berg, Göttingen, College (1870-1901)
Tübingen

James M. Crafts 1839-1917 Harvard, Freiberg, Cornell (1867-1870), MIT Inorganic and or- Friedel-Crafts reac-
Heidelberg, Paris (1870-1874, 1891-1907), ganic chemistry tion discovered in
1877; President of
Paris (1879-1891) MIT (1898-1900)

Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011) 31

NAME DATES TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS OTHER

Samuel P. 1833-1916 Michigan, Munich, Founder of Parke, Davis, Pharmaceutical Received M.D. in
Duffield Giessen (D.Phil. and Co. (1866), Detroit chemistry 1872 and practiced
1842-1895 1858) Medical School (1868- medicine along with
Gideon E. 1881) teaching and running
Moore 1843-1903 a pharmaceutical
business
H. Carrington 1833-1916
Bolton Yale, Wiesbaden, Consultant in New York Editor, J. Am. Chem.
1842-1909 Leipzig, Heidel- City Soc., Vol. 2 (1880)
Le Roy C. 1842-1923 berg (D.Phil. 1870
Colley 1835-1910 under Bunsen,
1839-1918 Kirchhoff, Kopp)
Samuel T. H. 1831-1887
Endemann 1847-1931 Columbia, Columbia (1872-1877), History of chemis- Driving force behind
Stephen P. Paris, Heidel- Trinity College (1877-1887) try, bibliography of Priestley Centennial
Sharples 1841-1906 berg, Göttingen chemistry and one of the first
George F. 1836-1902 (D.Phil.1866 under lecturers on the his-
Barker 1832-1905 Wöhler), Berlin tory of chemistry in
Samuel F. the US
Peckham
Paul Casamajor Union College New York State Normal Leading writer of
Frank W. School (1861-1874), Vassar text books in chem-
Clarke (1874-1907) istry and physics for
secondary schools in
William H. the 19th century
Chandler
Henry Morton Marburg (D.Phil. New York City Board of Medicinal chem- Founding member
Albert B. 1866 under Kolbe) Health (1867-1880), consul- istry, sanitary of the ACS, Editor,
Prescott tant (1880-1909) chemistry J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
1879, 1881

Penn. State Col- Consultant Analytical chem-
lege, Harvard istry

Yale, Albany Wheaton College, Albany Physical chemistry, Expert on chemical
Medical School Medical School, Pittsburgh, toxicology patents and witness
Yale Medical School, Wil- in criminal trials
liams College, Penn. involving poisons

Brown Brown, Washington and Petroleum chem-
Jefferson, Maine, Min- istry
nesota

École centrale, Chemist, American Sugar Carbohydrate
Paris Co. (1867-1887) chemistry

Harvard Boston Dental College Mineralogy, geo- Analysis of miner-
(1867-1873), Howard chemistry, atomic als; determination of
Univ. (1873-1874), Univ. weight determina- atomic weights
Cincinnati (1874-1883), US tion
Geological Survey (1883-
1924)

Union College, Lehigh (1871-1906) Co-publisher of The
Columbia American Chemist.

Penn. Philadelphia Dental Col- Spectroscopy President, Stevens
lege (1863-1870), Stevens Institute (1870-1902)
Institute (1871-1901)

Michigan (M.D.) Michigan (1865-1895) Toxicology, organic Founder and Dean
chemistry of the College of
Pharmacy at Univ.
Michigan

32 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011)

NAME DATES TRAINING CAREER INTERESTS OTHER

Samuel Sadtler 1847-1923 Gettysburg, Har- Gettysburg, Penn. Industrial chemistry Established oldest
vard, Heidelberg, continual industrial
Göttingen (D.Phil. Harvard (1871-1874), US research and consult-
1871 under Naval Academy (1874- ing business in US
Wöhler) 1886), Naval Torpedo Sta-
Charles E. 1849-1938 Harvard tion (1886-1892), George Analytical chemis- Developed the shape
Munroe Washing Univ. (1892-1918) try, explosives charged explosive
Haverford, Stevens Institute (1871-
Albert R. Leeds 1843-1902 Harvard, Berlin, 1902) Mineralogy, photo- Founding member of
Columbia; College chemistry, sanitary the ACS
of Physicians and Williams College (1872- chemistry
Surgeons, Munich 1875), Johns Hopkins
Ira Remsen 1846-1927 Göttingen (D.Phil. (1876-1913) Organic chemistry Established the Ger-
1870 under Fittig), Physical chemistry, man model of gradu-
Tübingen atomic weights of ate education in the
oxygen and hydro- US; editor of the
Edward 1838-1923 Amherst College Western Reserve Univ. gen American Journal of
Morley Chemistry
Michelson-Morley
experiment of 1887;
completed theo-
logical studies at
Andover Theological
Seminary (1860-
1863)

The Post-1845 Period Bunsen in Marburg and later in Heidelberg also had many
American students.
In Table 2 are listed those American chemists Silliman
viewed as noteworthy in the post-1845 period. This list After 1845 chemistry moved increasingly from
follows the order in which they are mentioned by Silli- medical schools to institutions devoted to instruction
man and is as complete as possible. Of the 47 chemists in the natural sciences. In the pre-1845 group 16 of 38
for which I have been able to gather information, one can received their chemical training in medical schools fol-
see a quantum leap in their formal training in chemistry lowed in four cases by study abroad.
and the beginnings of a tradition of original chemical
research. Study abroad now became more the norm rather In the 19th century Americans were drawn to the
than the rare exception. Germany was the prime destina- study of mining at the École des Mines in Paris and the
tion and almost half of the listed chemists studied there Royal School of Mines in Freiberg, Germany. Given the
for some period of time. Depending upon their financial vast natural resources of the United States this seemed to
and personal circumstances, many were able to stay long be a logical choice. Schools of mines were only estab-
enough to complete the doctoral degree. By visiting and lished in the 1850s in the United States. This wealth of
working at several universities, they succeeded in gaining natural resources and the interest in knowing the content
a diversity of research experience. In the pre-1845 group of minerals contained shows up in the recurring research
of 37 only 12 had studied abroad and only two obtained interests by many of the chemists that Silliman listed.
a degree. The universities chosen for study were Gies-
sen, where Liebig welcomed American students, as well One of the accomplishments of Silliman in prepar-
as Göttingen, where Wöhler offered similar hospitality. ing this paper was to assemble a bibliography of the
papers published by the persons he cited. One can see

Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011) 33

the spectacular growth in American chemistry by the Influence in American Chemistry,” J. Chem. Educ., 1939,
sheer increase in volume of papers published. Forty- 16, 253-257.
two of the persons listed in Table 2 published at least 10 7. The American Chemist was an outgrowth of the unau-
papers, and several had as many as 40 or more. Among thorized reprinting of William Crookes’ Chemical News,
this elite group were J. W. Draper (46 papers); Wolcott published in London with the addition of a section on
Gibbs (47); B. Silliman (48); J. M. Maisch (52); and M. chemistry in America written by the Chandlers. In 1870
C. Lea (43). What is remarkable is that most of these the Chandlers decided to start their own journal. It ceased
papers were authored without collaborators. Although publication in 1877 with the founding of the Journal of
for the most part the work appeared in American jour- the American Chemical Society.
nals, some were published abroad—notably in German 8. For further information on the life of Benjamin Silliman
journals. While many American chemists individually see J. F. Fulton and E. H. Thomson, Benjamin Silliman:
were highly productive, there was a lack of continuity Pathfinder in American Science, Henry Schuman, New
as contrasted with the German model of the chemical York, 1947. For Benjamin Silliman Jr. see E. H. Thomson,
institute and the emphasis on research. Eventually the “Benjamin Silliman, Jr.” in American National Biography,
German system was adopted in America, through the Oxford Univ. Press, New York and Oxford, 1999, 12, 434-
efforts of German-trained chemists such as Ira Remsen 437; A. W. Wright, “Benjamin Silliman, 1816-1885,” in
at Johns Hopkins in the late 1870s (18). Biogr. Mem Natl. Acad. Sci., 1911, 7, 117-141.
9. The American Journal of Science has the distinction of
Silliman’s review of American chemistry has been being the oldest continuing scientific journal published in
described by E. H. Thomson in the Dictionary of Sci- the United States. The journal today is primarily devoted
entific Biography as an “important publication not sup- to developments in the geological sciences.
planted to this day” (19). 10. Ref. 4, p 70.
11. Ref. 4, p 93.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 12. C. Warren, “The Sheffield Science School from 1847-
1947,” in Centennial of the Sheffield Scientific School,
I am deeply grateful for all the effort made by an anony- Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT, 1950.
mous reviewer and by the editor [the previous editor— 13. For a perspective on the early years of the Lawrence
Ed.] in terms of their comments and corrections and Scientific School see O. W. Gibbs, “Contributions to
encouragement in completing this project. Chemistry from the Laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific
School,” Am. J. Sci., 1864, 37, 346-358.
REFERENCES AND NOTES 14. W. D. Miles, American Chemists and Chemical Engineers,
American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, Vol. 1,
1. For a discussion of the Priestley centennial celebration 1976; W. D. Miles and R. F. Gould, American Chemists
along with group pictures of the participants see: S. A. and Chemical Engineers, Gould Books, Guilford, CT.,
Goldschmidt, “The Priestley Centennial,” J. Am. Chem. Vol. 2, 1994.
Soc., 1926, 46, 1-10. 15. An invaluable source of information concerning Ameri-
can and British chemists who earned their doctorates in
2. An interesting argument has been made by James J. Germany is P. R. Jones, Bibliographie der Dissertationen
Bohning questioning the assumption that the Priestley amerikanischer und britischer Chemiker an deutschen
meeting was the origin of the founding of the American
Chemical Society. See J. J. Bohning, “Opposition to the Universitäten, 1840-1914, Deutsches Museum, München,
Formation of the American Chemical Society,” Bull. Hist. 1983.
Chem., 2001, 26, 92-104; 2002, 27, 46-47. 16. L. C. Newell, “Chemical Education in America,” J. Chem.
Educ., 1932, 9, 677-686.
3. A. J. Thackray, J. L. Sturchio, P. Carroll, and R. Budd, 17. Classic studies of the American students of Liebig and
Chemistry in America, 1876-1976: Historical Indicators, Wöhler can be found in H. S. Van Klooster, “Liebig and
Dordrecht, Boston, MA, 1985. A classic study of the state his American Pupils,” J. Chem. Educ., 1956, 33, 493; H.
of American science in the first part of the 19th century S. Van Klooster, “Friedrich Wöhler and his American
can be found in G. H. Daniels, American Science in the Pupils,” J. Chem. Educ., 1944, 21, 158.
Age of Jackson, Columbia Univ. Press, New York, 1968. 18. For classic studies of the influence of European chemistry
on the development of American chemistry see E. H.
4. B. Silliman Jr., “American Contributions to Chemistry,” Beardsley, The Rise of the American Chemical Profession,
Am. Chem., 1874, 5, 70-114. 1850-1950, Univ. of Florida Monographs, Social Sciences
No. 23, Univ. of Florida Press, Gainesville, FL 1964;
5. B. Silliman Jr., “An Essay on American Contributors to A. J. Ihde, “European Tradition in Nineteenth-Century
Chemistry,” Am. Chem., 1874, 5, 195-209. American Chemistry,” J. Chem. Educ., 1976, 53, 741-744.
19. E. H. Thomson, Dictionary of Scientific Biography,
6. For further information on the career and influence of the Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1975, Vol. 12, 435.
Chandler brothers see: R. D. Billinger, “The Chandler

34 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 36, Number 1 (2011)

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Martin D. Saltzman is Professor of Natural Science at
Providence College, Providence, RI. He is currently
working on a study of the origin and development of the
Baker-Nathan effect.

Rumford Scholarship in the History of Alchemy
or Chemistry

Chemical Heritage Foundation / Society for the History of Alchemy
and Chemistry

The Chemical Heritage Foundation (CHF) and the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry (SHAC)
would like to encourage application for a newly-offered grant, the Rumford Scholarship, intended to support
research by North Americans in Europe.

This new annual award will enable the Rumford Scholar to travel to Europe in order to undertake original
research in the history of chemistry or alchemy in libraries/archives/museum collections using their particular
resources. The award may be held in any European country. The value of the award is £2300.

Applications are now open and application forms are available from: https://private.filesanywhere.com/
chemheritage/fs/v.aspx?v=896b68868b62a6a66f9a

Completed applications and/or questions should be submitted to [email protected]. 

Eligibility: Applicants must be either doctoral students or have been awarded a doctorate within three years
of January 1 of the year in which the application is submitted. In addition, independent scholars and part-time
or adjunct faculty at any point in their academic career are eligible to apply. Individuals currently holding other
research grants supporting travel to Europe are not eligible. Applicants must be normally resident in North America.

Outcomes: The scholar will give a talk at CHF about their work shortly after their return. Support to allow
the scholar to travel to Philadelphia to do this will be available outside the funding of the scholarship. The scholar
must submit a report of not less than 750 or more than 1500 words to CHF and SHAC within three months of
carrying out the research, and a statement of account together with receipts. The report will be published in
an appropriate form by the two organizations. The support of CHF and SHAC must be acknowledged in any
publication arising from the research.

Closing date: April 30, 2011

The decision will be announced by May 31, 2011

The Scholar must take up the award within nine months of the date of its announcement.

SHAC will use its best endeavors to facilitate access to collections, to assist in finding accommodation and
to put the scholar in contact with other historians.