FAA-H-8083-3B Airplane Flying Handbook, 2016

Airplane Flying Handbook

2016

U.S. Department of Transportation
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

Flight Standards Service

ii

Preface

PrefaceThe Glider Flying Handbook is designed as a technical manual for applicants who are preparing for glider category

rating and for currently certificated glider pilots who wish to improve their knowledge. Certificated flight instructors will
find this handbook a valuable training aid, since detailed coverage of aeronautical decision-making, components and
systems, aerodynamics, flight instruments, performance limitations, ground operations, flight maneuvers, traffic patterns,
emergencies, soaring weather, soaring techniques, and cross-country flight is included. Topics such as radio navigation and
communication, use of flight information publications, and regulations are available in other Federal Aviation Administration
T(FhAe AA)irppulabnliecaFtliyoinnsg. Handbook provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook introduces basic pilot
skills and knowledge that are essential for piloting airplanes. It provides information on transition to other airplanes and the
oTpheeradtiisocnuossfivoanriaonudseaxirppllaannaetisoynsstermefsle. cItt itshdeemveolsotpceodmbmy othnelyFluisgehdt SptraancdtiacredssaSnedrvpircien,cAipilrems.aOn cTceasstiionngaSlltya,ntdhaerdwsoBrdra“nmchu,sitn”
coorospimerialtairolnanwgiuthagveairsiouussedavwiahteiroentheedudceastiorersd aanctdioinndisusdtereym. Tedhicsrihtiacnadl.bToohke uissedoevf esluocphedlantoguaasgseisitssntuodt einnttepnidleodtstoleaadrndintog,
tiontfelrypraeitr,polarnreesl.ieIvteisaadlsuotybiemnpefoisceiadlbtyo Tpiiltolets1w4 hoof twheisCh otodeimofpFroevdeertahleRirefglyuilnatgiopnrsof(i1c4ieCncFyR)a.nPdearseoronnsawutoirckailnkgntoowwlaerddgsea,
tghloidseerprialotitnsgparerepaardinvgisefodrtaodrdeivtiioenwalthceerrteiffiecraetnecseosrfrroatmingthse, aanpdplfilciagbhlteinpsrtarcutcictoarlsteesntgsatganeddairndtsh(eFiAnsAtr-uGc-t8io0n82o-f4b,oStphosrttuPdielnott
aanndd FcelirgtihfticIantsetdrupcitloortsw. iItthianStrpoodrutcPeislotthRe aftuitnugreKpniolowtletodgtheeTreesatlGmuiodfef,liFgAhtAa-nGd-8p0ro8v2i-d5e, sCionmfomrmeractiiaolnPailnodt KguniodwanlecdegienTtehset
pGeurfidoerm, aanndceFoAfApr-oGc-e8d0u8r2e-s1a7n, dRmecarneeautivoenraslrPeqiluoitreadndfoPrrpivilaottecPeirltoifticKantioown.leTdogpeicTsessutcGhuaisdne)a.vRigeastoiounrcaensdfocor mstmuduyniicnactliuodne,
mFAetAeo-Hro-l8o0g8y3,-u2s5e, Poifloftl’igshHtainndfobromokatoiof nAepruobnlaicuatitcioanl Ks,nroewguleladtgioe,nFs,AaAn-dHa-e8r0o8n3a-u2t,icRailskdeMciasniaognemmaeknitnHgaanrdeboavoaki,laanbdleAidnvoisthoeryr
FCeidrceuralalrA(AviCat)io0n0-A6d, mAviniaisttiroantiWone(aFthAeAr )FoprubPliilcoattsioannsd. Flight Operations Personnel, AC 00-45, Aviation Weather Services,
as these documents contain basic material not duplicated herein. All beginning applicants should refer to FAA-H-8083-25,
OPiclcoat’ssioHnaalnlydbthoeokwoorfdA“emrounsta”uotircsailmKilnaorwlalnegdugaeg,efoisrusstueddywahnedrebtahseicdelsibirreadryacrteifoenreisndcee.emed critical. The use of such language
is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).
It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the
IAt eisroensasuetnitciaall fIonrfopremrsaotinosnuMsinagnutahlis(AhaIMnd)b.oTohketoAbIMecoims eavfaaimlaiblilaer owniltihneanadt wapwpwly.ftahae.gpoevrt.inTehnet pcuarrtrsenotf F1l4igChtFRStaannddatrhdes
ASeerrvoincaeuatiicrmalaInntfroarimniantgioanndMtaenstuianlg(mAaIMter)i.alTahnedAleIaMrniinsgasvtaaitleambleentosnfloinrealaltaiwrmwawn.fcaear.tgifoicva. tTeshaencdurrarteinntgsFlciagnhtbeStoabntdaainrdesd
Sfreormvicwewaiwrm.faaan.gtroavin. ing and testing material and learning statements for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained
from www.faa.gov.
This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-13, Glider Flying Handbook, dated 2003. Always select the latest edition of any
Tpuhbislihcaantidobnoaonkdsuchpeecrskedthees wFAebAs-itHe-f8o0r8e3r-r3aAta, pAaigrepslaannedFlliysitninggHoafncdhbaonogke,sdtaoteFdA2A00e4d.ucational publications developed by
the FAA’s Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630.
This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov.
This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov.
This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman
TTehsitsinhganSdtbanodoakrdisspBurbalnischhe,dAbFySt-h6e30U,nPi.tOed. BStoaxte2s5D0e8p2a,rOtmkleanhtoomf aTrCaintysp, oOrKtat7io3n1,2F5e.deral Aviation Administration, Airman
Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.
Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address:
Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address:
[email protected]
[email protected]

John S. Duncan
Director, Flight Standards Service

iii

iii

iv

Acknowledgments

The Airplane Flying Handbook was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the assistance of Safety
Research Corporation of America. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors:
Mr. Shane Torgerson for imagery of the Sedona Airport (Chapter 1)
Mr. Robert Frola for imagery of an Evektor-Aerotechnik EV-97 SportStar Max (Chapter 16)

Additional appreciation is extended to the General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GA JSC) and the Aviation Rulemaking
Advisory Committee’s (ARAC) Airman Certification Standards (ACS) Working Group for their technical support and input.

v

vi

Table of Contents

Preface....................................................................iii Risk Mitigation......................................................2-10
Resource Management...........................................2-11
Acknowledgments...................................................v Ground Operations........................................................2-11
Engine Starting..............................................................2-12
Table of Contents..................................................vii Hand Propping..............................................................2-13
Taxiing..........................................................................2-14
Chapter 1 Before-Takeoff Check..................................................2-17
Introduction to Flight Training............................1-1 Takeoff Checks.............................................................2-18
Introduction.....................................................................1-1 After-Landing...............................................................2-18
Role of the FAA..............................................................1-2 Clear of Runway and Stopped......................................2-18
Flight Standards Service.................................................1-5 Parking..........................................................................2-19
Role of the Pilot Examiner..............................................1-6 Engine Shutdown..........................................................2-19
Role of the Flight Instructor............................................1-7 Post-Flight.....................................................................2-19
Sources of Flight Training..............................................1-8 Securing and Servicing..............................................2-19
Chapter Summary.........................................................2-19
Practical Test Standards (PTS) and Airman
Certification Standards (ACS)..................................1-10 Chapter 3
Safety of Flight Practices..........................................1-11 Basic Flight Maneuvers.......................................3-1
Introduction.....................................................................3-1
Collision Avoidance..............................................1-11 The Four Fundamentals..................................................3-2
Runway Incursion Avoidance................................1-12 Effect and Use of the Flight Controls.............................3-2
Stall Awareness.....................................................1-12
Use of Checklists...................................................1-13 Feel of the Airplane.....................................................3-4
Positive Transfer of Controls.................................1-15 Attitude Flying................................................................3-4
Chapter Summary.........................................................1-15 Integrated Flight Instruction...........................................3-5
Straight-and-Level Flight................................................3-6
Chapter 2
Ground Operations...............................................2-1 Straight Flight..............................................................3-7
Introduction.....................................................................2-1 Level Flight.................................................................3-8
Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft...............................2-2 Trim Control.................................................................3-10
Level Turns...................................................................3-10
Visual Preflight Assessment........................................2-3 Turn Radius...............................................................3-12
Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section........................2-5 Establishing a Turn....................................................3-13
Fuel and Oil.................................................................2-6 Climbs and Climbing Turns..........................................3-16
Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes.................................2-8 Establishing a Climb.................................................3-17
Engine and Propeller...................................................2-9 Climbing Turns.........................................................3-18
Risk and Resource Management.....................................2-9 Descents and Descending Turns...................................3-19
Risk Management......................................................2-10 Glides............................................................................3-20
Gliding Turns............................................................3-21
Identifying the Hazard...........................................2-10 Chapter Summary.........................................................3-23
Risk........................................................................2-10
Risk Assessment....................................................2-10
Risk Identification.................................................2-10

vii

Chapter 4 Academic Material (Knowledge and
Maintaining Aircraft Control: Upset Risk Management)....................................................4-20
Prevention and Recovery Training.....................4-1
Introduction.....................................................................4-1 Prevention Through ADM and
Risk Management..................................................4-21
Defining an Airplane Upset.........................................4-2 Prevention through Proportional
Coordinated Flight.......................................................4-2 Counter-Response..................................................4-21
Angle of Attack...........................................................4-2 Recovery................................................................4-22
Slow Flight......................................................................4-3 Common Errors.........................................................4-22
Performing the Slow Flight Maneuver........................4-4 Roles of FSTDs and Airplanes in UPRT..................4-22
Stalls................................................................................4-5 Airplane-Based UPRT...............................................4-22
Stall Recognition.........................................................4-5 All-Attitude/All-Envelope Flight
Training Methods......................................................4-23
Angle of Attack Indicators ......................................4-6 FSTD–based UPRT...................................................4-23
Stall Characteristics.....................................................4-6 Spiral Dive.................................................................4-23
Fundamentals of Stall Recovery.................................4-7 UPRT Summary........................................................4-24
Stall Training...............................................................4-8 Chapter Summary.........................................................4-24
Approaches to Stalls (Impending Stalls), 
Power‑On or Power-Off..............................................4-8 Chapter 5
Full Stalls, Power-Off.................................................4-8 Takeoffs and Departure Climbs..........................5-1
Full Stalls, Power-On..................................................4-9 Introduction.....................................................................5-1
Secondary Stall..........................................................4-10
Accelerated Stalls......................................................4-10 Terms and Definitions.................................................5-2
Cross-Control Stall....................................................4-11 Prior to Takeoff...............................................................5-2
Elevator Trim Stall....................................................4-12 Normal Takeoff...............................................................5-3
Common Errors.........................................................4-13
Spin Awareness.........................................................4-13 Takeoff Roll................................................................5-3
Spin Procedures.........................................................4-14 Lift-Off........................................................................5-4
Initial Climb................................................................5-5
Entry Phase............................................................4-14 Crosswind Takeoff..........................................................5-6
Incipient Phase.......................................................4-14 Takeoff Roll................................................................5-6
Developed Phase....................................................4-15 Lift-Off........................................................................5-8
Recovery Phase......................................................4-15 Initial Climb................................................................5-8
Intentional Spins........................................................4-16 Ground Effect on Takeoff...............................................5-9
Weight and Balance Requirements Related Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum
to Spins......................................................................4-17 Performance Climb.......................................................5-10
Common Errors.........................................................4-17 Takeoff Roll..............................................................5-10
Upset Prevention and Recovery ...................................4-17 Lift-Off......................................................................5-10
Unusual Attitudes Versus Upsets..............................4-17 Initial Climb..............................................................5-11
Environmental Factors..............................................4-18 Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb...........................5-11
Mechanical Factors...................................................4-18 Takeoff Roll..............................................................5-12
Human Factors..........................................................4-18 Lift-Off......................................................................5-12
VMC to IMC..........................................................4-18 Initial Climb..............................................................5-12
IMC........................................................................4-18 Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure..................................5-12
Diversion of Attention...........................................4-18 Noise Abatement...........................................................5-13
Task Saturation......................................................4-18 Chapter Summary.........................................................5-13
Sensory Overload/Deprivation..............................4-18
Spatial Disorientation............................................4-19 Chapter 6
Startle Response.....................................................4-19 Ground Reference Maneuvers............................6-1
Surprise Response..................................................4-19 Introduction.....................................................................6-1
Upset Prevention and Recovery Training (UPRT)...4-19 Maneuvering by Reference to Ground Objects..............6-2
UPRT Core Concepts................................................4-20 Drift and Ground Track Control.....................................6-3

Correcting Drift During Straight-and-Level Flight.....6-3

viii

Constant Radius During Turning Flight......................6-4 360° Power-Off Approach........................................8-25
Tracking Over and Parallel to a Straight Line.............6-6 Emergency Approaches and Landings (Simulated)......8-26
Rectangular Course.........................................................6-6 Faulty Approaches and Landings .................................8-27
Turns Around a Point......................................................6-8
S-Turns..........................................................................6-10 Low Final Approach..................................................8-27
Elementary Eights.........................................................6-11 High Final Approach.................................................8-28
Eights Along a Road.................................................6-11 Slow Final Approach.................................................8-28
Eights Across A Road...............................................6-13 Use of Power.............................................................8-29
Eights Around Pylons................................................6-13 High Round Out........................................................8-29
Eights-on-Pylons.......................................................6-14 Late or Rapid Round Out..........................................8-30
Chapter Summary.........................................................6-18 Floating During Round Out.......................................8-30
Ballooning During Round Out..................................8-30
Chapter 7 Bouncing During Touchdown...................................8-31
Airport Traffic Patterns........................................7-1 Porpoising..................................................................8-32
Introduction.....................................................................7-1 Wheel Barrowing......................................................8-33
Airport Traffic Patterns and Operations.........................7-2 Hard Landing.............................................................8-33
Standard Airport Traffic Patterns....................................7-2 Touchdown in a Drift or Crab...................................8-34
Non-Towered Airports....................................................7-5 Ground Loop.............................................................8-34
Safety Considerations.....................................................7-5 Wing Rising After Touchdown.................................8-35
Chapter Summary...........................................................7-6 Hydroplaning................................................................8-35
Dynamic Hydroplaning.............................................8-35
Chapter 8 Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning................................8-35
Approaches and Landings..................................8-1 Viscous Hydroplaning...............................................8-36
Introduction.....................................................................8-1 Chapter Summary.........................................................8-36
Normal Approach and Landing......................................8-2
Chapter 9
Base Leg......................................................................8-2 Performance Maneuvers......................................9-1
Final Approach............................................................8-3 Introduction.....................................................................9-1
Use of Flaps.................................................................8-4 Steep Turns.....................................................................9-2
Estimating Height and Movement...............................8-5 Steep Spiral.....................................................................9-4
Round Out (Flare).......................................................8-6 Chandelle........................................................................9-5
Touchdown..................................................................8-7 Lazy Eight.......................................................................9-6
After-Landing Roll......................................................8-8 Chapter Summary...........................................................9-8
Stabilized Approach Concept......................................8-9
Intentional Slips............................................................8-11 Chapter 10
Go-Arounds (Rejected Landings).................................8-12 Night Operations................................................10-1
Power.........................................................................8-13 Introduction...................................................................10-1
Attitude......................................................................8-13 Night Vision..................................................................10-2
Configuration............................................................8-13 Night Illusions...............................................................10-3
Ground Effect................................................................8-14 Pilot Equipment............................................................10-4
Crosswind Approach and Landing................................8-14 Airplane Equipment and Lighting................................10-4
Crosswind Final Approach........................................8-14 Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids..........................10-5
Crosswind Round Out (Flare)...................................8-15 Training for Night Flight..............................................10-6
Crosswind Touchdown..............................................8-15 Preparation and Preflight..............................................10-6
Crosswind After-Landing Roll..................................8-16 Starting, Taxiing, and Runup........................................10-6
Maximum Safe Crosswind Velocities.......................8-17 Takeoff and Climb........................................................10-7
Turbulent Air Approach and Landing...........................8-18 Orientation and Navigation...........................................10-7
Short-Field Approach and Landing..............................8-18 Approaches and Landings.............................................10-8
Soft-Field Approach and Landing................................8-21
Power-Off Accuracy Approaches.................................8-22 Night Emergencies....................................................10-9
90° Power-Off Approach..........................................8-22 Chapter Summary.........................................................10-9
180° Power-Off Approach........................................8-23

ix

Chapter 11 Normal Approach and Landing..................................12-14
Transition to Complex Airplanes......................11-1 Crosswind Approach and Landing..............................12-16
Introduction...................................................................11-1 Short-Field Takeoff and Climb...................................12-17
Short-Field Approach and Landing............................12-17
Function of Flaps.......................................................11-2 Go-Around..................................................................12-18
Flap Effectiveness.....................................................11-3 Rejected Takeoff.........................................................12-19
Operational Procedures.............................................11-3 Engine Failure After Lift-Off......................................12-19
Controllable-Pitch Propeller.........................................11-4
Constant-Speed Propeller..........................................11-4 Landing Gear Down................................................12-19
Takeoff, Climb, and Cruise.......................................11-6 Landing Gear Control Selected Up, Single-
Blade Angle Control..................................................11-7 Engine Climb Performance Inadequate ..................12-20
Governing Range.......................................................11-7 Landing Gear Control Selected Up, Single-
Constant-Speed Propeller Operation.........................11-7 Engine Climb Performance Adequate.....................12-20
Turbocharging...............................................................11-8
Ground Boosting Versus Altitude Turbocharging....11-9 Control.................................................................12-20
Operating Characteristics..........................................11-9 Configuration.......................................................12-21
Heat Management...................................................11-10 Climb...................................................................12-21
Turbocharger Failure...............................................11-10 Checklist..............................................................12-21
Engine Failure During Flight......................................12-22
Over-Boost Condition..........................................11-10 Engine Inoperative Approach and Landing................12-23
Low Manifold Pressure........................................11-11 Engine Inoperative Flight Principles..........................12-23
Retractable Landing Gear...........................................11-11 Slow Flight..................................................................12-26
Landing Gear Systems............................................11-11 Stalls............................................................................12-26
Controls and Position Indicators.............................11-11 Power-Off Approach to Stall (Approach
Landing Gear Safety Devices..................................11-11 and Landing)...........................................................12-26
Emergency Gear Extension Systems.......................11-12 Power-On Approach to Stall (Takeoff
Operational Procedures...........................................11-12 and Departure).........................................................12-27
Preflight...............................................................11-12 Full Stall..................................................................12-27
Takeoff and Climb...............................................11-13 Accelerated Approach to Stall.................................12-27
Approach and Landing........................................11-15 Spin Awareness.......................................................12-28
Transition Training.....................................................11-16
Chapter Summary.......................................................11-16 Chapter 13
Transition to Tailwheel Airplanes.....................13-1
Chapter 12 Introduction...................................................................13-1
Transition to Multiengine Airplanes.................12-1 Landing Gear................................................................13-2
Introduction...................................................................12-1
General..........................................................................12-2 Instability...................................................................13-2
Terms and Definitions...................................................12-2 Angle of Attack.............................................................13-2
Operation of Systems....................................................12-3 Taxiing..........................................................................13-2
Weathervaning..............................................................13-3
Propellers...................................................................12-3 Visibility.......................................................................13-3
Propeller Synchronization.........................................12-6 Directional Control.......................................................13-3
Fuel Crossfeed...........................................................12-6 Normal Takeoff Roll.....................................................13-3
Combustion Heater....................................................12-6 Liftoff............................................................................13-4
Flight Director/Autopilot...........................................12-6 Crosswind Takeoff........................................................13-4
Yaw Damper.............................................................12-7 Short-Field Takeoff.......................................................13-4
Alternator/Generator.................................................12-7 Soft-Field Takeoff.........................................................13-4
Nose Baggage Compartment.....................................12-7 Landing.........................................................................13-5
Anti-Icing/Deicing....................................................12-8 Touchdown...................................................................13-5
Performance and Limitations........................................12-9
Weight and Balance....................................................12-11 Three-Point Landing.................................................13-5
Ground Operation.......................................................12-12 Wheel Landing..........................................................13-6
Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb................12-13 Crosswinds................................................................13-6
Level Off and Cruise...................................................12-14 After-Landing Roll........................................................13-6
Crosswind After-Landing Roll.....................................13-7

x

Short-Field Landing......................................................13-7 Takeoff Roll............................................................15-21
Soft-Field Landing........................................................13-8 Rejected Takeoff.....................................................15-22
Ground Loop.................................................................13-8 Rotation and Lift-Off..............................................15-24
Chapter Summary.........................................................13-8 Initial Climb............................................................15-24
Jet Airplane Approach and Landing...........................15-25
Chapter 14 Landing Requirements............................................15-25
Transition to Turbopropeller- Landing Speeds.......................................................15-25
Powered Airplanes.............................................14-1 Significant Differences............................................15-26
Introduction...................................................................14-1 Stabilized Approach................................................15-27
Gas Turbine Engine......................................................14-2 Approach Speed......................................................15-27
Turboprop Engines........................................................14-2 Glidepath Control....................................................15-28
Turboprop Engine Types..............................................14-3 The Flare.................................................................15-28
Touchdown and Rollout..........................................15-29
Fixed Shaft................................................................14-3 Key Points...................................................................15-30
Split Shaft/ Free Turbine Engine ..............................14-5 Chapter Summary.......................................................15-31
Reverse Thrust and Beta Range Operations.................14-7
Turboprop Airplane Electrical Systems........................14-8 Chapter 16
Operational Considerations...........................................14-9 Transition to Light Sport Airplanes (LSA)........16-1
Training Considerations..............................................14-11 Introduction...................................................................16-1
Ground Training......................................................14-12 Light Sport Airplane (LSA) Background.....................16-2
Flight Training.........................................................14-12 LSA Synopsis...............................................................16-3
Chapter Summary.......................................................14-13 Sport Pilot Certificate...................................................16-3
Transition Training Considerations..............................16-4
Chapter 15
Transition to Jet-Powered Airplanes................15-1 Flight School.............................................................16-4
Introduction...................................................................15-1 Flight Instructors.......................................................16-4
Jet Engine Basics..........................................................15-2 LSA Maintenance.........................................................16-5
Operating the Jet Engine...............................................15-3 Airframe and Systems...................................................16-5
Construction..............................................................16-5
Jet Engine Ignition....................................................15-4 Engines......................................................................16-6
Continuous Ignition...................................................15-4 Instrumentation..........................................................16-6
Fuel Heaters...............................................................15-4 Weather Considerations................................................16-6
Setting Power............................................................15-4 Flight Environment.......................................................16-7
Thrust To Thrust Lever Relationship........................15-5 Preflight.....................................................................16-7
Variation of Thrust with RPM..................................15-5 Inside of the Airplane................................................16-8
Slow Acceleration of the Jet Engine.........................15-6 Outside of the Airplane.............................................16-9
Jet Engine Efficiency....................................................15-6 Before Start and Starting Engine.............................16-10
Absence of Propeller Effect..........................................15-6 Taxi..........................................................................16-10
Absence of Propeller Slipstream...................................15-6 Takeoff and Climb..................................................16-11
Absence of Propeller Drag............................................15-7 Cruise......................................................................16-11
Speed Margins..............................................................15-7 Approach and Landing ...........................................16-12
Recovery From Overspeed Conditions.........................15-9 Emergencies............................................................16-12
Mach Buffet Boundaries...............................................15-9 Postflight.................................................................16-12
Low Speed Flight........................................................15-10 Key Points...................................................................16-12
Stalls............................................................................15-11 Chapter Summary.......................................................16-13
Drag Devices...............................................................15-14
Thrust Reversers.........................................................15-15 Chapter 17
Pilot Sensations in Jet Flying......................................15-17 Emergency Procedures.....................................17-1
Jet Airplane Takeoff and Climb..................................15-18 Emergency Situations...................................................17-1
Minimum Equipment List and Configuration Emergency Landings....................................................17-2
Deviation List .........................................................15-18
V-Speeds.................................................................15-20 Types of Emergency Landings..................................17-2
Pre-Takeoff Procedures...........................................15-20 Psychological Hazards..............................................17-2

xi

Basic Safety Concepts...................................................17-2
General......................................................................17-2
Attitude and Sink Rate Control.................................17-4
Terrain Selection.......................................................17-4
Airplane Configuration.............................................17-4
Approach...................................................................17-5

Terrain Types................................................................17-5
Confined Areas..........................................................17-5
Trees (Forest)............................................................17-5
Water (Ditching) and Snow.......................................17-6

Engine Failure After Takeoff (Single-Engine).............17-6
Emergency Descents.....................................................17-6
In-Flight Fire.................................................................17-7

Engine Fire................................................................17-8
Electrical Fires...........................................................17-8
Cabin Fire..................................................................17-8
Flight Control Malfunction/Failure...............................17-9
Total Flap Failure......................................................17-9
Asymmetric (Split) Flap............................................17-9
Loss of Elevator Control...........................................17-9
Landing Gear Malfunction......................................17-10
Systems Malfunctions.................................................17-11
Electrical System.....................................................17-11
Pitot-Static System..................................................17-12
Abnormal Engine Instrument Indication....................17-13
Door Opening In-Flight..............................................17-13
Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC ..............................17-15
Recognition.............................................................17-15
Maintaining Airplane Control.................................17-15
Attitude Control.......................................................17-16
Turns........................................................................17-16
Climbs.....................................................................17-17
Descents..................................................................17-17
Combined Maneuvers.............................................17-17
Transition to Visual Flight......................................17-18
Chapter Summary.......................................................17-18

Glossary...............................................................G-1

Index.......................................................................I-1

xii

IChnaptterr1 oduction to Flight Training

Introduction

The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight
training, as outlined in this handbook, is the acquisition and
honing of basic airmanship skills. [Figure 1-1] Airmanship
is a broad term that includes a sound knowledge of and
experience with the principles of flight, the knowledge,
experience, and ability to operate an airplane with
competence and precision both on the ground and in the air,
and the application of sound judgment that results in optimal
operational safety and efficiency. [Figure 1-2] Learning to
fly an airplane has often been likened to learning to drive an
automobile. This analogy is misleading. Since an airplane
operates in a three-dimensional environment, it requires a
depth of knowledge and type of motor skill development
that is more sensitive to this situation, such as:

• Coordination—the ability to use the hands and feet
together subconsciously and in the proper relationship
to produce desired results in the airplane.

• Timing—the application of muscular coordination at
the proper instant to make flight, and all maneuvers,
a constant, smooth process.

• Control touch—the ability to sense the action of the
airplane and knowledge to determine its probable
actions immediately regarding attitude and speed
variations by sensing the varying pressures and
resistance of the control surfaces transmitted through
the flight controls.

• Speed sense—the ability to sense and react to
reasonable variations of airspeed.

1-1

Pre-Solo Solo Maneuvers Cross-country Checkride

Figure 1-1. Primary and intermediate flight training teaches basic airmanship skills and creates a good foundation for student pilots.

An accomplished pilot demonstrates the knowledge and ability is not to learn how to fly a particular make and model airplane.
to assess a situation quickly and accurately and determine The underlying purpose of flight training is to develop the
the correct procedure to be followed under the existing knowledge, experience, skills, and safe habits that establish
circumstance. He or she is also able to analyze accurately a foundation and are easily transferable to any airplane. The
the probable results of a given set of circumstances or of pilot who has acquired necessary skills during training, and
a proposed procedure; to exercise care and due regard for develops these skills by flying training-type airplanes with
safety; to gauge accurately the performance of the airplane; to precision and safe flying habits, is able to easily transition to
recognize personal limitations and limitations of the airplane more complex and higher performance airplanes. It should
and avoid approaching the critical points of each; and the also be remembered that the goal of flight training is a safe
ability to identify, assess, and mitigate risk. The development and competent pilot; passing required practical tests for pilot
of airmanship skills requires effort and dedication on the part of certification is only incidental to this goal.
both the student pilot and the flight instructor, beginning with
the very first training flight where proper habit formation begins Role of the FAA
with the student being introduced to good operating practices.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is empowered by
Every airplane has its own particular flight characteristics. The the U.S. Congress to promote aviation safety by prescribing
purpose of primary and intermediate flight training; however, safety standards for civil aviation. Standards are established

Figure 1-2. Good airmanship skills include sound knowledge of the principles of flight and the ability to operate an airplane with
competence and precision.

1-2

for the certification of airmen and aircraft, as well as outlining titled Aeronautics and Space with Chapter 1 dedicated to the
operating rules. This is accomplished through the Code of FAA. Subchapters are broken down by category with numbered
Federal Regulations (CFR), formerly referred to as Federal parts detailing specific information. [Figure 1-3] For ease of
Aviation Regulations (FAR). Title 14 of the CFR (14 CFR) is

Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations
Aeronautics and Space

CHAPTER 1 Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation

Subchapter A Definitions and General Requirements

Part 1 Definitions and Abbreviations

Subchapter B Procedural Rules

Part 11 General Rulemaking Procedures
Part 17 Procedures for Protests and Contract Disputes

Subchapter C Aircraft

Part 21 Certification Procedures for Products and Articles
Parts 23—31 Airworthiness Standards for Various Categories of Aircraft
Airworthiness Directives
Part 39 Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding and Alteration
Part 43 Identification and Registration Marking
Part 45

Subchapter D Airmen

Part 61 Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors and Ground Instructors
Part 67 Medical Standards and Certification

Subchapter E Airspace

Part 71 Designation of Class A,B,C,D and E Airspace Areas; Air Traffic Service Routes; and Reporting Points
Part 73 Special Use Airspace

Subchapter F Air Traffic and General Operating Rules

Part 91 General Operating and Flight Rules
Part 97 Standard Instrument Procedures
Part 103 Ultralight Vehicles

Subchapter G Air Carriers and Operators for Compensation or Hire: Certification and Operations

Part 110 - 139 General and Operating Requirements 14

Subchapter H Schools and Other Certificated Agencies Part 1 to 59
Revised as January 27, 2012
Part 141 Pilot Schools
Part 142 Training Centers Aeronautics and Space

Subchapter I Airports

Part 150 - 169 Navigational Facilities

Subchapter J Administrative Regulations

Part 170 - 171

Subchapter K

Part 183 - 193

Figure 1-3. Title 14 CFR, Chapter 1, Aeronautics and Space and subchapters.

1-3

reference since the parts are numerical, the abbreviated pattern certain replacement and modification parts, and the
14 CFR part ___ is used (e.g., 14 CFR part 91). nationality and registration marking required on U.S.-
registered aircraft.
While the various subchapters and parts of 14 CFR provide
general to specific guidance regarding aviation operations • 14 CFR part 43 prescribes rules governing the
within the U.S., the topic of aircraft certification and maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and
airworthiness is spread through several interconnected parts alteration of any aircraft having a U.S. airworthiness
of 14 CFR. certificate. It also applies to the airframe, aircraft
engines, propellers, appliances, and component parts
• 14 CFR part 21 prescribes procedural requirements of such aircraft.
for issuing airworthiness certificates and airworthiness
approvals for aircraft and aircraft parts. A standard • 14 CFR part 91 outlines aircraft certifications and
airworthiness certificate, FAA Form 8100-2, is equipment requirements for the operation of aircraft
required to be displayed in the aircraft. [Figure 1-4] in U.S. airspace. It also prescribes rules governing
It is issued for aircraft type certificated in the normal, maintenance, preventive maintenance, and alterations.
utility, acrobatic, commuter or transport category, and Also found in 14 CFR part 91 is the requirement
for manned free balloons. A standard airworthiness to maintain records of maintenance, preventive
certificate remains valid as long as the aircraft maintenance, and alterations, as well as records of the
meets its approved type design, is in a condition for 100-hour, annual, progressive, and other required or
safe operation and maintenance, and preventative approved inspections.
maintenance and alterations are performed in
accordance with 14 CFR parts 21, 43, and 91. While 14 CFR part 91 outlines the minimum equipment
required for flight, the Airplane Flight Manual/Pilot’s
• 14 CFR part 39 is the authority for the FAA to issue Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) lists the equipment
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) when an unsafe required for the airplane to be airworthy. The equipment
condition exists in a product, aircraft, or part, and the list found in the AFM/POH is developed during the
condition is likely to exist or develop in other products airplane certification process. This list identifies those
of the same type design. items that are required for airworthiness, optional
equipment installed in addition to the required
• 14 CFR part 45 identifies the requirements for equipment, and any supplemental items or appliances.
the identification of aircraft, engines, propellers,

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Figure 1-4. FAA Form 8100-2, Standard Airworthiness Certificate.
1-4

Figure 1-5 shows an example of some of the required • 14 CFR part 67 prescribes the medical standards

equipment, standard or supplemental (not required and certification procedures for issuing medical

but commonly found in the airplane) and optional certificates for airmen and for remaining eligible for

equipment list for an aircraft. It is originally issued by a medical certificate.

the manufacturer and is required to be maintained by • 14 CFR part 91 contains general operating and flight
the Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS). An aircraft rules. The section is broad in scope and provides
and its installed components and parts must continually general guidance in the areas of general flight rules,
meet the requirements of the original Type Certificate visual flight rules (VFR), instrument flight rules (IFR),
or approved altered conditions to be airworthy. and as previously discussed aircraft maintenance, and

• 14 CFR part 61 pertains to the certification of preventive maintenance and alterations.

pilots, flight instructors, and ground instructors. It

prescribes the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, Flight Standards Service

flight proficiency training, and testing requirements Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service (AFS) sets
for each type of pilot certificate issued.
the aviation standards for airmen and aircraft operations

Sym:
Items in this listing are coded by a symbol indicating the status of the item. These codes are:

C Required item for FAA Certification.
S Standard equipment. Most standard equipment is applicable to all airplanes. Some equipment may be replaced by optional

equipment.
O Optional equipment. Optional equipment may be installed in addition to or to replace standard equipment.

Qty: The quantity of the listed item in the airplane. A hyphen (-) in this column indicates that the equipment was not installed.

ATA Item Description SYM QTY Part Number Unit Weight Arm
34-08 C 1 0.4 136.2
34-09 GPS 1 Antenna S 1 12744-001 0.4 110.3
34-10 GPS 2 Antenna C 1 12744-001 0.1 105.0
34-11 Transponder Antenna C 1 12739-001 0.4 331.0
34-12 VOR/LOC Antenna C 1 12742-001 1.8 118.0
34-13 Turn coordinator, modified S 1 11891-001 1.5 121.5
34-14 GMA 340 audio panel O 1 12717-050 5.0 121.0
34-15 GNS 420 (GPS/COM/NAV) C 1 12718-004 5.0 121.0
34-16 GNS 420 (GPS/COM/NAV) O 1 12718-051 5.0 122.4
34-17 GNS 420 (GPS/COM/NAV) O 1 12718-051 2.0 118.0
34-18 EMax engine monitoring O 1 2.0 108.0
34-19 • Data acquisition unit O 1 16692-001 0.5 118.0
34-20 • Monitor cabin harness O 1 16695-005 2.3 150.5
34-21 Sky watch option O 1 140.0
34-22 • Sky watch inverter O 1 14484-001 10.0 199.0
34-23 • Sky watch antenna nsti O 1 14480-001 1.7 191.0
34-24 • Sky watch track box C 1 14477-050 0.9 124.9
34-25 Stormscope option O - 1.6 121.0
34-26 • Processor O 1 12745-050 2.6 117.0
34-27 • Antenna O 1 12745-070 1.3 114.0
34-28 Transponder option O 1 1.7 149.3
61 • Mode A/C transponder C 1 13587-001 0.2
61-01 • Mode S transponder O 1 15966-050 48.0
61-02 TAWS option C 1 79.8 50.0
61-03 • KGP 560 processor C 1 15963-001 78.0 61.7
71 XM satellite option C 1 78.4
71-01 • XM WX/radio receiver C 1 16121-001 3.2 78.4
71-02 • XM radio remote control C 1 16665-501 10.5 78.4
71-03 Propeller 78.4
71-03 • Hartzell propeller installation 15319-00X 5.4
• McCauley propeller installation 15825-00X 5.4
• Propeller governor 15524-001 10.7
Power plant
• Upper cowl 20181-003
• Lower cowl LH 20182-005
• Lower cowl RH 20439-005
• Engine baffling installation 15460-001

Figure 1-5. Example of some of the required, standard or supplemental and optional equipment for an aircraft.

1-5

in the United States and for American airmen and aircraft Each FSDO is staffed by Aviation Safety Inspectors (ASIs)
around the world. The AFS is headquartered in Washington, whose specialties include operations, maintenance, and
D.C., and is broadly organized into divisions based on work avionics. General Aviation ASIs are highly qualified and
function (Air Transportation, Aircraft Maintenance, Flight experienced aviators. Once accepted for the position, an
Technology, Training, Certification and Surveillance, a inspector must satisfactorily complete indoctrination training
Regulatory Support Division based in Oklahoma City, OK, conducted at the FAA Academy that includes airman
and a General Aviation and Commercial Division). Regional evaluation and pilot testing techniques and procedures.
Flight Standards division managers, one at each of the FAA’s Thereafter, the inspector must complete recurrent training
nine regional offices, coordinate AFS activities within their on a regular basis. Among other duties, the FSDO inspector
respective regions. is responsible for administering FAA practical tests for pilot
and flight instructor certificates and associated ratings. All
The interface between AFS and the aviation community/ questions concerning pilot certification (and/or requests for
general public is the local Flight Standards District Office other aviation information or services) should be directed to
(FSDO). The approximately ninety FSDOs are strategically the FSDO having jurisdiction in the particular geographic
located across the United States, each office having area. For specific FSDO locations and telephone numbers,
jurisdiction over a specific geographic area. [Figure 1-6] The refer to www.faa.gov.
individual FSDO is responsible for all air activity occurring
within its geographic boundaries. The individual FSDOs Role of the Pilot Examiner
are responsible for the certification and surveillance of air
carriers, air operators, flight schools/training centers, airmen Pilot and flight instructor certificates are issued by the
(pilots, flight instructors, mechanics and other certificate FAA upon satisfactory completion of required knowledge
holders). Additional duties that are tasked to FSDO inspectors and practical tests. The administration of these tests is an
is accident investigation and enforcement actions. NOTE: FAA responsibility that the issuance of pilot and instructor
Accident investigation and enforcement actions are a smaller certificates can be carried out at the FSDO level. In order
part of a field inspectors job than surveillance and certification. to satisfy the public need for pilot testing and certification
services, the FAA delegates certain responsibilities, as

WASHINGTON

MONTANA NORTH DAKOTA MINNESOTA ANE

ANM MAINE

OREGON IDAHO VERMONT
NEW
WYOMING AGLW I S C O N S I N HAMPSHIRE

SOUTH NEW MASSACHUSETTS
DAKOTA YORK
CONNECTICUT
MICHIGAN AEA RHODE ISLAND

NEVADA IOWA PENNSYLVANIA

NEBRASKA NEW JERSEY

UTAH OHIO DELAWARE
MARYLAND
AWP COLORADO ACE ILLINOIS INDIANA WEST
VIRGINIA
KANSAS
VIRGINIA

CALIFORNIA MISSOURI KENTUCKY
HAWAII
NORTH CAROLINA

ARIZONA OKLAHOMA ARKANSAS ASOT E N N E S S E E

NEW MEXICO ASW SOUTH
CAROLINA

MISSISSIPPI GEORGIA
ALABAMA

TEXAS

ALASKA LOUISIANA FLORIDA

AAL

PUERTO RICO

Figure 1-6. Flight Standards District Office locations across the United States.
1-6

the need arises, to private individuals who are not FAA A pilot training program is dependent on the quality of the
employees. A Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) is a ground and flight instruction the student pilot receives. A good
private citizen who is designated as a representative of the flight instructor has a thorough understanding of the learning
FAA Administrator to perform specific (but limited) pilot process, knowledge of the fundamentals of instruction, and
certification tasks on behalf of the FAA and may charge a the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot.
reasonable fee for doing so. Generally, a DPE’s authority is
limited to accepting applications and conducting practical A good flight instructor uses a syllabus and insists on correct
tests leading to the issuance of specific pilot certificates techniques and procedures from the beginning of training
and/or ratings. A DPE operates under the direct supervision so that the student will develop proper habit patterns. The
of the FSDO that holds the examiner’s designation file. syllabus should embody the “building block” method of
A FSDO inspector is assigned to monitor the DPE’s instruction in which the student progresses from the known
certification activities. Normally, the DPE is authorized to to the unknown. The course of instruction should be laid
conduct these activities only within the designating FSDO’s out so that each new maneuver embodies the principles
jurisdictional area. involved in the performance of those previously undertaken.
Consequently, through each new subject introduced, the
The FAA selects only highly qualified individuals to be DPEs. student not only learns a new principle or technique, but
These individuals must have good industry reputations for broadens his or her application of those previously learned
professionalism, high integrity, a demonstrated willingness to and has his or her deficiencies in the previous maneuvers
serve the public, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures emphasized and made obvious. [Figure 1-8]
in certification matters. A DPE is expected to administer
practical tests with the same degree of professionalism, The flying habits of the flight instructor, both during flight
using the same methods, procedures, and standards as an instruction and as observed by students when conducting
FAA ASI. It should be remembered, however, that a DPE is other pilot operations, have a vital effect on safety. Students
not an FAA ASI. A DPE cannot initiate enforcement action, consider their flight instructor to be a paragon of flying
investigate accidents, or perform surveillance activities on proficiency whose flying habits they, consciously or
behalf of the FAA. However, the majority of FAA practical unconsciously, attempt to imitate. For this reason, a good
tests at the recreational, private, and commercial pilot level flight instructor meticulously observes the safety practices
are administered by FAA DPEs. taught to the students. Additionally, a good flight instructor
carefully observes all regulations and recognized safety
Role of the Flight Instructor practices during all flight operations.

The flight instructor is the cornerstone of aviation safety. The
FAA has adopted an operational training concept that places
the full responsibility for student training on the authorized
flight instructor. In this role, the instructor assumes the
total responsibility for training the student pilot in all the
knowledge areas and skills necessary to operate safely and
competently as a certificated pilot in the National Airspace
System (NAS). This training includes airmanship skills,
pilot judgment and decision-making, hazard identification,
risk analysis, and good operating practices. (See Risk
Management Handbook, FAA-H-8083-2). [Figure 1-7]

An FAA Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI) has to meet Figure 1-7. The flight instructor is responsible for teaching and
broad flying experience requirements, pass rigid knowledge training students to become safe and competent certificated pilots.
and practical tests, and demonstrate the ability to apply
recommended teaching techniques before being certificated.
In addition, the flight instructor’s certificate must be
renewed every 24 months by showing continued success
in training pilots or by satisfactorily completing a flight
instructor’s refresher course or a practical test designed
to upgrade aeronautical knowledge, pilot proficiency, and
teaching techniques.

1-7

Lesson ________________________ Student _________________________________ Date _________________________

Objective • To familiarize the student with the stall warnings and handling characteristics of the airplane as it
Content approaches a stall. To develop the student’s skill in recognition and recovery from stalls.

Schedule • Configuration of airplane for power-on and power-off stalls.
• Observation of airplane attitude, stall warnings, and handling characteristics as it approaches
Equipment
Instructor’s actions a stall.
• Control of airplane attitude, altitude, and heading.
Student’s actions • Initiation of stall recovery procedures.

• Preflight Discussion......................................................................:10
• Instructor Demonstrations............................................................:25
• Student Practice ...........................................................................:45
• Postflight Critique .........................................................................:10

• Chalkboard or notebook for preflight discussion.

• Preflight—discuss lesson objective.
• Inflight—demonstrate elements. Demonstrate power-on and power-off stalls and recovery

procedures. Coach student practice.
• Postflight—critique student performance and assign study material.

• Preflight—discuss lesson objective and resolve questions.
• Inflight—review previous maneuvers including slow flight. Perform each new maneuver as

directed.
• Postflight—ask pertinent questions.

Completion standards • Student should demonstrate competency in controlling the airplane at airspeeds approaching
a stall. Student should recognize and take prompt corrective action to recover from power-on
and power-off stalls.

This is a typical lesson plan for flight training which emphasizes stall recognition and recovery procedures.
Figure 1-8. Sample lesson plan for stall training and recovery procedures.

Generally, the student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training maintenance, and facilities. The school must operate in
program is prepared to commit considerable time, effort, accordance with an established curriculum that includes a
and expense in pursuit of a pilot certificate. The student may training course outline (TCO) approved by the FAA. The
tend to judge the effectiveness of the flight instructor and the TCO must contain student enrollment prerequisites, detailed
overall success of the pilot training program solely in terms description of each lesson including standards and objectives,
of being able to pass the requisite FAA-practical test. A good expected accomplishments and standards for each stage of
flight instructor is able to communicate to the student that training, and a description of the checks and tests used to
evaluation through practical tests is a mere sampling of pilot measure a student’s accomplishments. FAA-approved pilot
ability that is compressed into a short period of time. The school certificates must be renewed every 2 years.
flight instructor’s role is to train the “total” pilot.
Renewal is contingent upon proof of continued high quality
Sources of Flight Training instruction and a minimum level of instructional activity.
Training at an FAA-certificated pilot school is structured
The major sources of flight training in the United States and because of this structured environment, the graduates
include FAA-approved pilot schools and training centers, of these pilot schools are allowed to meet the certification
non-certificated (14 CFR part 61) flying schools, and experience requirements of 14 CFR part 61 with less flight
independent flight instructors. FAA-approved schools are time. Many FAA-certificated pilot schools have DPEs on
those flight schools certificated by the FAA as pilot schools staff to administer FAA practical tests. Some schools have
under 14 CFR part 141. [Figure 1-9] been granted examining authority by the FAA. A school with
examining authority for a particular course(s) has the authority
Application for certification is voluntary, and the school to recommend its graduates for pilot certificates or ratings
must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment,

1-8

Figure 1-9. FAA Form 8000-4, Air Agency Certificate.

1-9

without further testing by the FAA. A list of FAA-certificated Practical Test Standards (PTS) and Airman
pilot schools and their training courses can be found at http:// Certification Standards (ACS)
av-info.faa.gov/pilotschool.asp. Practical tests for FAA pilot certificates and associated ratings
are administered by FAA inspectors and DPEs in accordance
FAA-approved training centers are certificated under 14 CFR with FAA-developed Practical Test Standards (PTS) and
part 142. Training centers, like certificated pilot schools, Airman Certification Standards (ACS). [Figure 1-10]
operate in a structured environment with approved courses 14 CFR part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which
and curricula and stringent standards for personnel, equipment, knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant.
facilities, operating procedures, and record keeping. Training The CFRs provide the flexibility to permit the FAA to publish
centers certificated under 14 CFR part 142, however, specialize PTS and ACS containing the areas of operation and specific
in the use of flight simulation (flight simulators and flight tasks in which competence must be demonstrated. The FAA
training devices) in their training courses. requires that all practical tests be conducted in accordance
with the appropriate PTS and ACS and the policies set forth
There are a number of flying schools in the United States in the introduction section of the PTS and ACS.
that are not certificated by the FAA. These schools operate
under the provisions of 14 CFR part 61. Many of these non- It must be emphasized that the PTS and ACS are testing
certificated flying schools offer excellent training and meet documents rather than teaching documents. Although the
or exceed the standards required of FAA-approved pilot pilot applicant should be familiar with these books and
schools. Flight instructors employed by non-certificated refer to the standards it contains during training, the PTS
flying schools, as well as independent flight instructors, and ACS is not intended to be used as a training syllabus.
must meet the same basic 14 CFR part 61 flight instructor It contains the standards to which maneuvers/procedures
requirements for certification and renewal as those flight on FAA practical tests must be performed and the FAA
instructors employed by FAA-certificated pilot schools. In policies governing the administration of practical tests.
the end, any training program is dependent upon the quality An appropriately rated flight instructor is responsible for
of the ground and flight instruction a student pilot receives. training a pilot applicant to acceptable standards in all subject
matter areas, procedures, and maneuvers included in, and

FAA-S-ACS-X FAA-S-ACS-8
(Change 1)
FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR
Practical Test Standards Instrument Rating – Airplane FA(CAh-Sa-nAgCeS1-6)
Airman Certification Standards
for AirmaPnrivCaetretiPfiicloattio–nASirtpalnadneards
GLIDER

FLIGHT STANDARDS SERVICE
Washington, DC 20591

FLIGWHaTsShTinAgNtDonA,RDDCS2S0E5R9V1ICE FLIGWHaTshSiTnAgNtoDnA, RDDCS2S0E5R9V1ICE

Figure 1-10. Airman Certification Standards (ACS) developed by the FAA.
1-10

encompassed by, the tasks within each area of operation in
the appropriate PTS and ACS. Flight instructors and pilot
applicants should always remember that safe, competent
piloting requires a commitment to learning, planning, and
risk management that goes beyond rote performance of
maneuvers. Descriptions of tasks and information on how to
perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in reference
and teaching documents, such as this handbook. A list of
reference documents is contained in the introduction section
of each PTS and ACS. It is necessary that the latest version
of the PTS and ACS, with all recent changes, be referenced
for training. All recent versions and changes to the FAA PTS
and ACS may be viewed or downloaded at www.faa.gov.

Safety of Flight Practices Figure 1-11. Most midair collision accidents occur in good weather.
In the interest of safety and good habit pattern formation, may be used to increase the effectiveness of the scan time. The
there are certain basic flight safety practices and procedures human eyes tend to focus somewhere, even in a featureless
that must be emphasized by the flight instructor, and adhered sky. In order to be most effective, the pilot should shift glances
to by both instructor and student, beginning with the very and refocus at intervals. Most pilots do this in the process
first dual instruction flight. These include, but are not limited of scanning the instrument panel, but it is also important to
to, collision avoidance procedures including proper scanning focus outside to set up the visual system for effective target
techniques and clearing procedures, runway incursion acquisition. Pilots should also realize that their eyes may
avoidance, stall awareness, positive transfer of controls, and require several seconds to refocus when switching views
flight deck workload management. between items on the instrument panel and distant objects.
Proper scanning requires the constant sharing of attention
Collision Avoidance with other piloting tasks, thus it is easily degraded by such
All pilots must be alert to the potential for midair collision
and impending loss of separation. The general operating and Blind spots
flight rules in 14 CFR part 91 set forth the concept of “See
and Avoid.” This concept requires that vigilance shall be Figure 1-12. Proper scanning techniques can mitigate midair
maintained at all times by each person operating an aircraft collisions. Pilots must be aware of potential blind spots and attempt
regardless of whether the operation is conducted under IFR or to clear the entire area that they are maneuvering in.
VFR. Pilots should also keep in mind their responsibility for
continuously maintaining a vigilant lookout regardless of the
type of aircraft being flown and the purpose of the flight. Most
midair collision accidents and reported near midair collision
incidents occur in good VFR weather conditions and during the
hours of daylight. Most of these accident/incidents occur within
5 miles of an airport and/or near navigation aids. [Figure 1-11]

The “See and Avoid” concept relies on knowledge of the
limitations of the human eye and the use of proper visual
scanning techniques to help compensate for these limitations.
Pilots should remain constantly alert to all traffic movement
within their field of vision, as well as periodically scanning the
entire visual field outside of their aircraft to ensure detection of
conflicting traffic. Remember that the performance capabilities
of many aircraft, in both speed and rates of climb/descent,
result in high closure rates limiting the time available for
detection, decision, and evasive action. [Figure 1-12]

The probability of spotting a potential collision threat increases
with the time spent looking outside, but certain techniques

1-11

psychological and physiological conditions, such as fatigue, creates a collision hazard or results in a loss of separation
boredom, illness, anxiety, or preoccupation. with an aircraft taking off, landing, or intending to land.
The three major areas contributing to runway incursions
Effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, are communications, airport knowledge, and flightdeck
regularly-spaced eye movements that bring successive areas procedures for maintaining orientation. [Figure 1-13]
of the sky into the central visual field. Each movement
should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the entire flight
observed for at least 1 second to enable detection. Although crew, not just the pilot taxiing the airplane. During flight
horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem preferred training, the instructor should emphasize the importance
by most pilots, each pilot should develop a scanning pattern of vigilance during taxi operations. Both the student pilot
that is most comfortable to them and adhere to it to assure and the flight instructor need to be continually aware of the
optimum scanning. movement and location of other aircraft and ground vehicles
on the airport movement area. Many flight training activities
Peripheral vision can be most useful in spotting collision are conducted at non-tower controlled airports. The absence
threats from other aircraft. Each time a scan is stopped and of an operating airport control tower creates a need for
the eyes are refocused, the peripheral vision takes on more increased vigilance on the part of pilots operating at those
importance because it is through this element that movement airports. [Figure 1-14]
is detected. Apparent movement is almost always the first
perception of a collision threat and probably the most important Planning, clear communications, and enhanced situational
because it is the discovery of a threat that triggers the events awareness during airport surface operations reduces the
leading to proper evasive action. It is essential to remember, potential for surface incidents. Safe aircraft operations can be
however, that if another aircraft appears to have no relative accomplished and incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly
motion, it is likely to be on a collision course with you. If trained early on and throughout their flying career on standard
the other aircraft shows no lateral or vertical motion, but is taxi operating procedures and practices. This requires the
increasing in size, take immediate evasive action. development of the formalized teaching of safe operating
practices during taxi operations. The flight instructor is
The importance of, and the proper techniques for, visual the key to this teaching. The flight instructor should instill
scanning should be taught to a student pilot at the very in the student an awareness of the potential for runway
beginning of flight training. The competent flight instructor incursion, and should emphasize the runway incursion
should be familiar with the visual scanning and collision avoidance procedures. For more detailed information and a
avoidance information contained in AC 90-48, Pilots’ Role list of additional references, refer to Chapter 14 of the Pilot’s
in Collision Avoidance, and the Aeronautical Information Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
Manual (AIM).
Stall Awareness
There are many different types of clearing procedures. Most 14 CFR part 61 requires that a student pilot receive and
are centered around the use of clearing turns. The essential log flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior to solo
idea of the clearing turn is to be certain that the next maneuver flight. [Figure 1-15] During this training, the flight instructor
is not going to proceed into another airplane’s flightpath. should emphasize that the direct cause of every stall is an
Some pilot training programs have hard and fast rules, such excessive angle of attack (AOA). The student pilot should
as requiring two 90° turns in opposite directions before fully understand that there are several flight maneuvers that
executing any training maneuver. Other types of clearing may produce an increase in the wing’s AOA, but the stall
procedures may be developed by individual flight instructors. does not occur until the AOA becomes excessive. This critical
Whatever the preferred method, the flight instructor should AOA varies from 16°–20° depending on the airplane design.
teach the beginning student an effective clearing procedure [Figure 1-16]
and insist on its use. The student pilot should execute the
appropriate clearing procedure before all turns and before The flight instructor must emphasize that low speed is not
executing any training maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, necessary to produce a stall. The wing can be brought to an
combined with proper visual scanning techniques, are the excessive AOA at any speed. High pitch attitude is not an
most effective strategy for collision avoidance. absolute indication of proximity to a stall. Some airplanes
are capable of vertical flight with a corresponding low AOA.
Runway Incursion Avoidance Most airplanes are quite capable of stalling at a level or near
A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport involving level pitch attitude.
an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that

1-12

Figure 1-13. Three major areas contributing to runway incursions are communications with air traffic control (ATC), airport knowledge,
and flight deck procedures.

The key to stall awareness is the pilot’s ability to visualize The pilot must understand and appreciate factors such as
the wing’s AOA in any particular circumstance, and thereby airspeed, pitch attitude, load factor, relative wind, power
be able to estimate his or her margin of safety above stall. setting, and aircraft configuration in order to develop a
This is a learned skill that must be acquired early in flight reasonably accurate mental picture of the wing’s AOA at any
training and carried through the pilot’s entire flying career. particular time. It is essential to safety of flight that pilots
take into consideration this visualization of the wing’s AOA
prior to entering any flight maneuver. Chapter 3, Basic Flight
Maneuvers, discusses stalls in greater detail.

Figure 1-14. Sedona Airport is one of the many airports that operate Use of Checklists
without a control tower.
Checklists have been the foundation of pilot standardization
and flight deck safety for years. [Figure 1-17] The checklist
is a memory aid and helps to ensure that critical items
necessary for the safe operation of aircraft are not overlooked
or forgotten. Checklists need not be “do lists.” In other words,
the proper actions can be accomplished, and then the checklist
used to quickly ensure all necessary tasks or actions have been
completed. Emphasis on the “check” in checklist. However,

1-13

Figure 1-15. All student pilots must receive and log flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior to their first solo flight.

checklists are of no value if the pilot is not committed to At a minimum, prepared checklists should be used for the
using them. Without discipline and dedication to using the following phases of flight. [Figure 1-18]
appropriate checklists at the appropriate times, the odds
are on the side of error. Pilots who fail to take the use of • Preflight Inspection
checklists seriously become complacent and begin to rely • Before Engine Start
solely on memory. • Engine Starting
• Before Taxiing
The importance of consistent use of checklists cannot be • Before Takeoff
overstated in pilot training. A major objective in primary • After Takeoff
flight training is to establish habit patterns that will serve • Cruise
pilots well throughout their entire flying career. The flight • Descent
instructor must promote a positive attitude toward the use of • Before Landing
checklists, and the student pilot must realize its importance. • After Landing
• Engine Shutdown and Securing
Tilt with respect to Turbulent wake
horizontal plane
Separation point
0° Separation point moves

slightly forward

5°
Maximum lift

Separation point
jumps forward

16° Stall angle

Separated flow region expands
and reduces AFT

20° Large turbulent wake Figure 1-17. Checklists have been the foundation of pilot
(reduced lift end large pressure drag) standardization and flight safety for many years.

Figure 1-16. Stalls occur when the airfoils angle of attack reaches
the critical point which can vary between 16° and 20°.

1-14

Figure 1-18. A sample before landing checklist used by pilots.

Positive Transfer of Controls stay on the controls until the instructor says: “I have the
flight controls.” There should never be any doubt as to who is
During flight training, there must always be a clear flying the airplane at any one time. Numerous accidents have
understanding between the student and flight instructor of occurred due to a lack of communication or misunderstanding
who has control of the aircraft. Prior to any flight, a briefing as to who actually had control of the aircraft, particularly
should be conducted that includes the procedures for the between students and flight instructors. Establishing the
exchange of flight controls. The following three-step process above procedure during initial training ensures the formation
for the exchange of flight controls is highly recommended. of a very beneficial habit pattern.

When a flight instructor wishes the student to take control Chapter Summary
of the aircraft, he or she should say to the student, “You
have the flight controls.” The student should acknowledge This chapter discussed some of the concepts and goals of
immediately by saying, “I have the flight controls.” The flight primary and intermediate flight training. It identified and
instructor should then confirm by again saying, “You have provided an explanation of regulatory requirements and
the flight controls.” Part of the procedure should be a visual the roles of the various entities involved. It also offered
check to ensure that the other person actually has the flight recommended techniques to be practiced and refined to
controls. When returning the controls to the flight instructor, develop the knowledge, proficiency, and safe habits of a
the student should follow the same procedure the instructor competent pilot.
used when giving control to the student. The student should

1-15

1-16

GroundChapter2 Operations

Introduction

All pilots must ensure that they place a strong emphasis on
ground operations as this is where safe flight begins and
ends. At no time should a pilot hastily consider ground
operations without proper and effective thoroughness. This
phase of flight provides the first opportunity for a pilot to
safely assess the various factors of flight operations including
the regulatory requirements, an evaluation of the airplane’s
condition, and the pilot’s readiness for their pilot in command
(PIC) responsibilities.

2-1

Flying an airplane presents many new responsibilities that are
not required for other forms of transportation. Focus is often
overly placed on the flying portion itself with less emphasis
placed on ground operations; it must be stressed that a pilot
should allow themselves adequate time to properly prepare
for flight and maintain effective situational awareness at all
times until the airplane is safely and securely returned to its
tie-down or hangar.

This chapter covers the essential elements for the regulatory Figure 2-2. A visual inspection of the aircraft before flight is an
basis of flight including an airplane’s airworthiness important step in mitigating airplane flight hazards.
requirements, important inspection items when conducting a
preflight visual inspection, managing risk and resources, and be kept accurate and secure but available for inspection.
proper and effective airplane surface movements including Airplane logbooks are not required, nor is it advisable, to be
the use of the Airplane Flight Manual/Pilot’s Operating kept in the airplane. It should be a matter of procedure by
Handbook (AFM/POH) and airplane checklists. the pilot to inspect the airplane logbooks or a summary of
the airworthy status prior to flight to ensure that the airplane
Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft records of maintenance, alteration, and inspections are current
and correct. [Figure 2-4] The following is required:
The visual preflight assessment is an important step in
mitigating airplane flight hazards. The purpose of the • Annual inspection within the preceding 12-calendar
preflight assessment is to ensure that the airplane meets months (Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
regulatory airworthiness standards and is in a safe mechanical (14 CFR) part 91, section 91.409(a))
condition prior to flight. The term “airworthy” means that
the aircraft and its component parts meet the airplane’s type • 100-hour inspection, if the aircraft is operated for hire
design or is in a properly altered configuration and is in a (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(b))
condition for safe operation. The inspection has two parts
and involves the pilot inspecting the airplane’s airworthiness • Transponder certification within the preceding
status and a visual preflight inspection of the airplane 24-calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.413)
following the AFM/POH to determine the required items for
inspection. [Figures 2-1 through 2-3] The owner/operator is • Static system and encoder certification, within the
primarily responsible for maintenance, but the pilot is (solely) preceding 24-calendar months, required for instrument
responsible for determining the airworthiness (and/or safety) flight rules (IFR) flight in controlled airspace (14 CFR
of the airplane for flight. part 91, section 91.411)

Each airplane has a set of logbooks that include airframe • 30-day VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) equipment
and engine and, in some cases, propeller and appliance check required for IFR flight (14 CFR part 91, section
logbooks, which are used to record maintenance, alteration, 91.171)
and inspections performed on a specific airframe, engine,
propeller, or appliance. It is important that the logbooks • Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) inspection
within the last 12 months (14 CFR part 91, section
91.207(d))

• ELT battery due (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(c))

• Current status of life limited parts per Type Certificate
Data Sheets (TCDS) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417)

• Status, compliance, logbook entries for airworthiness
directives (ADs) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417(a)
(2)(v))

Figure 2-1. Pilots must view the aircraft’s maintenance logbook • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Form 337,
prior to flight to ensure the aircraft is safe to fly. Major Repair or Alteration (14 CFR part 91, section
91.417)

• Inoperative equipment (14 CFR part 91, section
91.213)

2-2

Figure 2-3. Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM) and the Pilot Operating Visual Preflight Assessment
Handbook (POH) for each individual aircraft explain the required The inspection should start with the cabin door. If the door
items for inspection. is hard to open or close, does not fit snugly, or the door
latches do not engage or disengage smoothly, the surrounding
A review determines if the required maintenance and structure, such as the door post, should be inspected for
inspections have been performed on the airplane. Any misalignment which could indicate structural damage. The
discrepancies must be addressed prior to flight. Once the pilot visual preflight inspection should continue to the interior of
has determined that the airplane’s logbooks provide factual the cabin or cockpit where carpeting should be inspected
assurance that the aircraft meets its airworthy requirements, to ensure that it is serviceable, dry, and properly affixed;
it is appropriate to visually inspect the airplane. The visual seats belts and shoulder harnesses should be inspected to
preflight inspection of the airplane should begin while ensure that they are free from fraying, latch properly, and
approaching the airplane on the ramp. The pilot should make are securely attached to their mounting fittings; seats should
note of the general appearance of the airplane, looking for be inspected to ensure that the seats properly latch into the
discrepancies such as misalignment of the landing gear and seat rails through the seat lock pins and that seat rail holes
airplane structure. The pilot should also take note of any are not abnormally worn to an oval shape; [Figure 2-5] the
distortions of the wings, fuselage, and tail, as well as skin windshield and windows should be inspected to ensure that
damage and any staining, dripping, or puddles of fuel or oils. they are clean and free from cracks, and crazing. A dirty,
scratched, and/or a severely crazed window can result in
It must be determined by the pilot that the following near zero visibility due to light refraction at certain angles
documents are, as appropriate, on board, attached, or affixed to from the sun.
the airplane:
AFM/POH must be the reference for conducting the visual
• Original Airworthiness Certificate (14 CFR part 91, preflight inspection, and each manufacturer has a specified
section 91.203) sequence for conducting the actions. In general, the following
items are likely to be included in the AFM/POH preflight
• Original Registration Certificate (14 CFR part 91, inspection:
section 91.203)
• Master, alternator, and magneto switches are OFF
• Radio station license for flights outside the United
States or airplanes greater than 12,500 pounds (Federal • Control column locks are REMOVED
Communications Commission (FCC) rule)
• Landing gear control is DOWN
• Operating limitations, which may be in the form of
an FAA-approved AFM/POH, placards, instrument • Fuel selectors should be checked for proper operation
markings, or any combination thereof (14 CFR part in all positions, including the OFF position. Stiff fuel
91, section 91.9) selectors or where the tank position is not legible or
lacking detents are unacceptable.
• Official weight and balance
• Trim wheels, which include elevator and may include
• Compass deviation card (14 CFR part 23, section rudder and aileron, are set for takeoff position.
23.1547)
• Avionics master OFF
• External data plate (14 CFR part 45, section 45.11)
• Circuit breakers checked IN

• Flight instruments must read correctly. Airspeed zero;
altimeter when properly set to the current barometric
setting should indicate the field elevation within 75
feet for IFR flight; the magnetic compass should
indicate the airplane’s direction accurately; and
the compass correction card should be legible and
complete. For conventional wet magnetic compasses,
the instrument face must be clear and the instrument
case full of fluid. A cloudy instrument face, bubbles in
the fluid, or a partially filled case renders the compass
unusable. The vertical speed indictor (VSI) should
read zero. If the VSI does not show a zero reading, a
small screwdriver can be used to zero the instrument.

2-3

Airplane Airworthiness CheckAiOrOpRrairgOaliigAaridPnppiiOninralelCoAapaaEflrefnolclSaaAixicaemRArttntii1iDearsranpnVeepdw0rtAlgngginasOSol0oFoWlauir,astLstnreRlichaaimisltitnegnamhrotL—Dluia—ihsDetigceuineicatttttmhe3riraeerSe1otMu—tva0Itsrtn2nymni—hiaeoasassPDNanmCnnestentCl2iaeendasuoneop4fytexm,tantro1BnesttrwemlNmri2ttCafDaiha(ihffc,eclFaoil5nasnauciiaxgrctnA:0drsneakttidhhtC0/eRmctiohEDonHete(msuspr(gonFnu4oF(:rooPsnacFeAr5bDAseu,uotyiA.bRhl71nRnouotdsRsbs-1tdrete23i’:e9d3)Dssar390D1—1e2inuO.1(-n-.u14F2y3e2t.2phe525t0C10hc41ee40.1-317oCe22r731m)aU-m0-))3fR3toon1ib1n1runi3i-mtgn-e2lte2had0H)0ost1i1:aSfo32DanntanduttbheeFoesA1oroe-Ak3ro-1(afA-p(2FFp0MAr1oR/3vPe9Od1H.9),)RVeFARqTlOtua(MiDAmiclTiahiOartereFensoyeLtimmiuleAp)mfaMd-VoperepnEFnpelSrlFedaetdeeALtiLEaFdR-gerirsTpRLCenaafnurAsIqeIravgtNFPotn(eseufu9nSutEneouRlydeotisrGrl1trgidloGriexeicisesss—-Bci.Ihiuecec2iuinnpeaGtGoCtgeeraaoi0rd—gnFoctnmaelporaaocl5tieelnAcsLuithmuPurLFbsgraRigaolagegwiigaoaieopgtgesfteoehrsunrona9hhritag1ttttieon

Figure 2-4. A sample airworthiness checklist used by pilots to inspect an aircraft.

The VSI is the only flight instrument that a pilot has • If the airplane has retractable gear, landing gear down
the prerogative to adjust. All others must be adjusted and locked lights are checked green.
by an FAA-certificated repairman or mechanic.
• Mechanical air-driven gyro instruments must be • Check the landing gear switch is DOWN, then turn the
inspected for signs of hazing on the instrument face, master switch to the ON position and fuel qualities must
which may indicate leaks. be noted on the fuel quantity gauges and compared to a
visual inspection of the tank level. If so equipped, fuel
Ensure that seats properly latch into the seat rails pumps may be placed in the ON position to verify fuel
through the seat lock pins and that seat rail holes pressure in the proper operating range.
are not abnormally worn to an oval shape.
• Other items may include checking that lights for
both the interior and exterior airplane positions are
operating and any annunciator panel checks.

Figure 2-5. Seats should be inspected to ensure that they are Advanced avionics aircraft have specific requirements for
properly latched into the seat rails and checked for damage. testing Integrated Flight Deck (IFD) “glass-panel” avionics
and supporting systems prior to flight. IFD’s are complex
electronic systems typically integrating flight control,
navigation and communication, weather, terrain, and traffic
subsystems with the purpose to enhance a pilot’s situational
awareness (SA), aeronautical decision-making (ADM), and
single-pilot resource management (SRM) capability. Ground-
based inspections may include verification that the flight

2-4

deck reference guide is in the aircraft and assessable, system Figure 2-7. Example of rivet heads where black oxide film has
driven removal of “Xs” over engine indicators, pitot/static formed due to the rivet becoming loose in its hole.
and attitude displays, testing of low level alarms, annunciator
panels, setting of fuel levels, and verification that the avionics these areas as load-related stresses are concentrated along
cooling fans, if equipped, are functional. [Figure 2-6] The spar lines and attach points. Spar lines are lateral rivet lines
AFM/POH specifies how these preflight inspections are to that extend from one side of the wing to the other, horizontal
take place. Since an advanced avionics aircraft preflight stabilizer, or vertical stabilizer. Pilots should pay close
checklist may be extensive, pilots should allow extra time for attention to spar lines looking for distortion, ripples, bubbles,
these aircraft to ensure that all items are properly addressed. dents, creases, or waves as any structural deformity may be
an indication of internal damage or failure. Inspect around
Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section rivet heads looking for cracked paint or a black-oxide film
Generally, the AFM/POH specifies a sequence for the pilot that forms when a rivet works free in its hole. [Figure 2-7]
to inspect the aircraft which may sequence from the cabin
entry access opening and then in a counterclockwise direction Additional areas that should be scrutinized are the leading
until the aircraft has been completely inspected. Besides the edges of the wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizer. These
AFM/POH preflight assessment, the pilot must also develop areas may be impact damaged by rocks, ice, birds, and or
awareness for potential areas of concern, such as signs of
deterioration or distortion of the structure, whether metal
or composite, as well as loose or missing rivets or screws.

Besides all items specified in the AFM/POH that must
be inspected, the pilot should also develop an awareness
for critical areas, such as spar lines, wing, horizontal, and
vertical attach points including wing struts and landing gear
attachment areas. The airplane skin should be inspected in

NAV1 KDRO KFMN DIS 16.3 NM BRG 212° COM1
NAV2 COM2
GPS AP ALT 7680FT

E 6500

A ATTITUDE FAIL V
I AE
RF HDG LR
SA T F TF
PI IA A
EL T I SI
E U L PL
D DE
EE
TAS
D
A212IHDG UP
HDG 220° CRS 212°

0

GPS TERM

D195I D212I 10 NM
OAT 0°C
XPDR UTC 19:24:36

ADF/DME MSG

Figure 2-6. Ground-based inspections include verification that “Xs” on the instrument display are displayed until the sensor activates.
2-5

hangar rash incidents—dents and dings may render the is sometimes difficult to identify unless a fuel sample is held
structure unairworthy. Some leading edge surfaces have up against a white background in reasonable white lighting.
aerodynamic devices, such as stall fences, slots, or vortex
generators, and deicing equipment, such as weeping wings Aircraft piston engines certificated for grade 80/87 run
and boots. If these items exist on the airplane which the pilot satisfactorily on 100LL if approved as an alternate. The
intends to fly, knowledge of an acceptable level of proper reverse is not true. Fuel of a lower grade should never be
condition must be gained so that an adequate preflight substituted for a required higher grade. Detonation will
inspection may take place. severely damage the engine in a very short period of time.
Detonation, as the name suggests, is an explosion of the
On metal airplanes, wingtips, fairings, and non-structural fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder. During detonation, the
covers may be fabricated out of thin fiberglass or plastic. fuel/air charge (or pockets within the charge) explodes rather
These items are frequently affected by cracks radiating from than burning smoothly. Because of this explosion, the charge
screw holes or concentrated radiuses. Often, if any of these exerts a much higher force on the piston and cylinder, leading
items are cracked, it is practice to “stop-drill” the crack to to increased noise, vibration, and cylinder head temperatures.
prevent crack progression. [Figure 2-8] Extra care should be The violence of detonation also causes a reduction in
exercised to ensure that these devices are in good condition power. Mild detonation may increase engine wear, though
without cracks that may render them unairworthy. Cracks some engines can operate with mild detonation regularly.
that have continued beyond a stop drilled location or any new However, severe detonation can cause engine failure in
adjacent cracks that have formed may lead to in-flight failure. minutes. Because of the noise that it makes, detonation is
called "engine knock" or "pinging" in cars.
Inspecting composite airplanes can be more challenging as
the airplanes generally have no rivets or screws to aid the pilot When approved for the specific airplane to be flown,
in identifying spar lines and wing attach points; however, automobile gasoline is sometimes used as a substitute fuel
delamination of spar to skin or other structural problems may in certain airplanes. Its use is acceptable only when the
be identified by bubbles, fine hair-line cracks, or changes in particular airplane has been issued a Supplemental Type
sound when gently tapping on the structure with a fingertip. Certificate (STC) to both the airframe and engine.
Anything out of place should be addressed by discussing the
issue with a properly rated aircraft mechanic. Jet fuel is a kerosene-based fuel for turbine engines and a
new generation of diesel-powered airplanes. Jet fuel has a
Fuel and Oil stubborn, distinctive, non-gasoline odor and is oily to the
While there are various formulations of aviation gasoline touch. Jet fuel is clear or straw colored, although it may
(AVGAS), only three grades are conventional: 80/87, appear dyed when mixed with AVGAS. Jet fuel has disastrous
100LL, and 100/130. 100LL is the most widely available consequences when introduced into AVGAS burning
in the United States. AVGAS is dyed with a faint color reciprocating airplane engines. A reciprocating engine
for grade identification: 80/87 is dyed red; 100LL is dyed operating on jet fuel may start, run, and power the airplane
blue; and 100/130 is dyed green. All AVGAS grades have a for a time long enough for the airplane to become airborne
familiar gasoline scent and texture. 100LL with its blue dye only to have the engine fail catastrophically after takeoff.

Jet fuel refueling trucks and dispensing equipment are marked
with JET-A placards in white characters on a black background.
Because of the dire consequences associated with misfueling,
fuel nozzles are specific to the type of fuel. AVGAS fuel filler
nozzles are straight with a constant diameter. [Figure 2-9]
However, jet fuel filler nozzles are flared at the end to prevent
insertion into AVGAS fuel tanks. [Figure 2-10]

Figure 2-8. Cracks radiating from screw holes that have been stop- Using the proper, approved grade of fuel is critical for safe,
drilled to prevent crack progression. reliable engine operation. Without the proper fuel quantity,
grade, and quality, the engine(s) will likely cease to operate.
Therefore, it is imperative that the pilot visually verify that
the airplane has the correct quantity for the intended flight
plus adequate and legal reserves, as well as inspect that the
fuel is of the proper grade and that the quality of the fuel is

2-6

Figure 2-9. An AVGAS fuel filler nozzle is straight with a constant Figure 2-11. Evidence of fuel leakage can be found along rivet lines.
diameter.
fuel system from deteriorated gas cap seals exposed to rain
acceptable. The pilot should always ensure that the fuel caps or from the supplier’s storage tanks and delivery vehicles.
have been securely replaced following each fueling. Sediment contamination can arise from dust and dirt entering
the tanks during refueling or from deteriorating rubber fuel
Many airplanes are very sensitive to its attitude when tanks or tank sealant. Deteriorating rubber from seals and
attempting to fuel for maximum capacity. Nosewheel or main sealant may show up in the fuel sample as small dark specks.
landing gear strut extension, both high as well as low, and
the slope of the ramp can significantly alter the attitude of The best preventive measure is to minimize the opportunity
the aircraft and therefore the fuel capacity. Always positively for water to condense in the tanks. If possible, the fuel tanks
confirm the fuel quantity indicated on the fuel gauges by should be completely filled with the proper grade of fuel
visually inspecting the level of each tank. after each flight, or at least filled after the last flight of the
day. The more fuel that is in the tanks, the less room inside
The pilot should be aware that fuel stains anywhere on the the tank exists for condensation to occur. Keeping fuel tanks
wing or any location where a fuel tank is mounted warrants filled is also the best way to slow the aging of rubber fuel
further investigation—no matter how old the stains appear tanks and tank sealant.
to be. Fuel stains are a sign of probable fuel leakage. On
airplanes equipped with wet-wing fuel tanks, evidence of Sufficient fuel should be drained from the fuel strainer quick
fuel leakage can be found along rivet lines. [Figure 2-11] drain and from each fuel tank sump to check for fuel grade/
color, water, dirt, and odor. If water is present, it is usually
Checking for water and other sediment contamination is a key in bubble or bead-like droplets, different in color (usually
preflight item. Water tends to accumulate in fuel tanks from clear, sometimes muddy yellow to brown with specks of
condensation, particularly in partially filled tanks. Because dirt), in the bottom of the sample jar. In extreme water
water is heavier than fuel, it tends to collect in the low points contamination cases, consider the possibility that the entire
of the fuel system. Water can also be introduced into the fuel sample, particularly if a small sample was taken, is water.
If water is found in the first fuel sample, continue sampling
until no water and contamination appears. Significant and/
or consistent water, sediment or contaminations are grounds
for further investigation by qualified maintenance personnel.
Each fuel tank sump should be drained during preflight and
after refueling. The order of sumping the fuel system is often
very important. Check the AFM/POH for specific procedures
and order to be followed.

Figure 2-10. A jet fuel filler nozzle is flared at the end to prevent Checking the fuel tank vent is an important part of a preflight
an inadvertent insertion into an AVGAS fuel tank. assessment. If outside air is unable to enter the tank as fuel is
drawn into the engine, the eventual result is fuel starvation

2-7

and engine failure. During the preflight assessment, the pilot environment in a precise and controlled manner. The landing
should look for signs of vent damage and blockage. Some gear, tires, and brakes must be inspected to ensure that the
airplanes utilize vented fuel caps, fuel vent tubes, or recessed airplane can be positively controlled on the ground. Landing
areas under the wings where vents are located. The pilot gear on airplanes varies from simple fixed gear to complex
should use a flashlight to look at the fuel vent to ensure that retractable gear systems.
it is free from damage and clear of obstructions. If there is a
rush of air when the fuel tank cap is cracked, there could be Fixed landing gear is a gear system in which the landing
a serious problem with the vent system. gear struts, tires, and brakes are exposed and lend themselves
to relatively simple inspection. However, more complex
Aviation oils are available in various single/multi-grades airplanes may have retractable landing gear with multiple
and mineral/synthetic-based formulations. It is important to tires per landing gear strut, landing gear doors, over-center
always use the approved and recommended oil for the engine. locks, springs, and electrical squat switches. Regardless of
The oil not only acts as a lubricant but also as a medium to the system, it is imperative that the pilot follow the AFM/
transfer heat as a result of engine operation and to suspend POH in inspecting that the landing gear is ready for operation.
dirt, combustion byproducts, and wear particles between
oil changes. Therefore, the proper level of oil is required to On many fixed-gear airplanes, inspection of the landing gear
ensure lubrication, effective heat transfer, and the suspension system can be hindered by wheel pants, which are covers used
of various contaminators. The oil level should be checked to reduce aerodynamic drag. It is still the pilot’s responsibility
during each preflight, rechecked with each refueling, and to inspect the airplane properly. A flashlight helps the pilot in
maintained to not have the oil level fall below the minimum peering into covered areas. On low-wing airplanes, covered
required during engine operation. or retraceable landing gear presents additional effort required
to crouch below the wing to properly inspect the landing gear.
During the preflight assessment, if the engine is cold, oil
levels on the oil dipstick show higher levels than if the The following provides guidelines for inspecting the landing
engine was warm and recently shutdown after a flight. When gear system; however, the AFM/POH must be the pilot’s
removing the oil dipstick, care should be taken to keep the reference for the appropriate procedures.
dipstick from coming in contact with dirty or grimy areas. The
dipstick should be inspected to verify the oil level. Typically, • The pilot, when approaching the airplane, should look
piston airplane engines have oil reservoirs with capacities at the landing gear struts and the adjacent ground for
between four and eight quarts, with six quarts being common. leaking hydraulic fluid that may be coming from struts,
Besides the level of oil, the oil’s color provides an insight hydraulic lines from landing gear retraction pumps,
as to its operating condition. Oils darken in color as the oil or from the braking system. Landing gear should be
operating hours increase—this is common and expected relatively free from grease, oil, and fluid without
as the oil traps contaminators; however, oils that rapidly any undue amounts. Any amount of leaking fluid is
darken in the first few hours of use after an oil change may unacceptable. In addition, an overview of the landing
indicate engine cylinder problems. Piston airplane engines gear provides an opportunity to verify landing gear
consume a small amount of oil during normal operation. The alignment and height consistency.
amount of consumption varies on many factors; however,
if consumption increases or suddenly changes, qualified • All landing gear shock struts should also be checked
maintenance personnel should investigate. to ensure that they are properly inflated, clean, and
free from hydraulic fluid and damage. All axles,
It is suggested that the critical aspect of fuel and oil not be links, collars, over-center locks, push rods, forks, and
left to line service personnel without oversight of the pilot fasteners should be inspected to ensure that they are
responsible for flight. While line personnel are aviation free from cracks, corrosion, rust, and determined to
professionals, it is the pilot who is responsible for the safe be airworthy.
outcome of their flight. During refueling or when oil is added
to an engine, the pilot must monitor and ensure that the correct • Tires should be inspected for proper inflation, an
quantity, quality, and grade of fuel and oil is added and that acceptable level of remaining tread, and normal wear
all fuel and oil caps have been securely replaced. pattern. Abnormal wear patterns, sidewall cracks,
and damage, such as cuts, bulges, imbedded foreign
Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes objects, and visible cords, render the tire unairworthy.
The landing gear, tires, and brakes allow the airplane to
maneuver from and return to the ramp, taxiway, and runway • Wheel hubs should be inspected to ensure that they are
free from cracks, corrosion, and rust, that all fasteners
are secure, and that the air valve stem is straight,
capped, and in good condition.

2-8

• Brakes and brake systems should be checked to ensure rivets and other fasteners as this may be a sign of a lack of
that they are free from rust and corrosion and that security. Any cowling security issues must be referred to a
all fasteners and safety wires are secure. Brake pads competent and rated airplane maintenance mechanic.
should have a proper amount of material remaining
and should be secure. All brake lines should be secure, From the cowling, a general inspection of the propeller
dry, and free of signs of hydraulic leaks, and devoid spinner, if so equipped, should be completed. Not all airplane/
of abrasions and deep cracking. propeller combinations have a spinner, so adherence to the
AFM/POH checklist is required. Spinners are subjected to
• On tricycle gear airplanes, a shimmy damper is used great stresses and should be inspected to be free from dents,
to damp oscillations of the nose gear and must be cracks, corrosion, and in proper alignment. Cracks may not
inspected to ensure that they are securely attached, only occur at locations where fasteners are used but also on
are free of hydraulic fluid leaks, and are in overall the rear facing spinner plate. In conditions where ice or snow
good condition. Some shimmy dampeners do not may have entered the spinner around the propeller openings,
use hydraulic fluid and instead use an elastomeric the pilot should inspect the area to ensure that the spinner
compound as the dampening medium. Nose gear links, is internally free from ice. The engine/propeller/spinner is
collars, steering rods, and forks should be inspected balanced around the crankshaft and a small amount of ice
to ensure the security of fasteners, minimal free play or snow can produce damaging vibrations. Cracks, missing
between torque links, crack-free components, and for fasteners, or dents results in a spinner that is unairworthy.
proper servicing and general condition.
The propeller should be checked for blade erosion, nicks,
• On some conventional gear airplanes, those airplanes cracks, pitting, corrosion, and security. On controllable pitch
with a tailwheel or skid, the main landing gear may propellers, the propeller hub should be checked for oil leaks
have bungee cords to help in absorbing landing loads that tend to stream directionally from the propeller hub toward
and shocks. The bungee cords must be inspected for the tip. On airplanes so equipped, the alternator/generator drive
security and condition. belts should be checked for proper tension and signs of wear.

• Where the landing gear transitions into the airplane’s When inspecting inside the cowling, the pilot should look for
structure, the pilot should inspect the attachment signs of fuel dye, which may indicate a fuel leak. The pilot
points and the airplane skin in the adjacent area—the should check for oil leaks, deterioration of oil and hydraulic
pilot needs to inspect for wrinkled or other damaged lines, and to make certain that the oil cap, filter, oil cooler,
skin, loose bolts, and rivets and verify that the area is and drain plug are secure. This may be difficult to inspect
free from corrosion. without the aid of a flashlight, so even during day operations,
a flashlight is handy when peering into the cowling. The
Engine and Propeller inside of the cowling should be inspected for oil or fuel stains.
Properly managing the risks associated with flying requires The pilot should also check for loose or foreign objects inside
that the pilot of the airplane identify and mitigate any the cowling, such as bird nests, shop rags, and/or tools. All
potential hazards prior to flight to prevent, to the furthest visible wires and lines should be checked for security and
extent possible, a hazard becoming a realized risk. The condition. The exhaust system should be checked for white
engine and propeller make up the propulsion system of the stains caused by exhaust leaks at the cylinder head or cracks
airplane—failure of this critical system requires a well- in the exhaust stacks. The heat muffs, which provide cabin
trained and competent pilot to respond with significant time heating on some airplanes, should also be checked for general
constraints to what is likely to become a major emergency. condition and signs of cracks or leaks.

The pilot must ensure that the engine, propeller, and associated The air filter should be checked to ensure that it is free from
systems are functioning properly prior to operation. This starts substantial dirt or restrictions, such as bugs, birds, or other
with an overview of the cowling that surrounds the airplane’s causes of airflow restrictions. In addition, air filters elements
engines looking for loose, worn, missing, or damaged are made from various materials and, in all cases, the element
fasteners, rivets, and latches that secure the cowling around should be free from decomposition and properly serviced.
the engine and to the airframe. The pilot should be vigilant as
fasteners and rivets can be numerous and surround the cowling Risk and Resource Management
requiring a visual inspection from above, the sides, and the
bottom to ensure that all areas have been inspected. Like other Ground operations also include the pilot’s assessment of the
areas on the airframe, rivets should be closely inspected for risk factors that contribute to safety of flight and the pilot’s
looseness by looking for signs of a black oxide film around management of the resources, which may be leveraged to
the rivet head. Pay attention to chipped or flaking paint around

2-9

maximize the flight’s successes. The Risk Management may encounter inadvertent instrument conditions, loss
Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2) should be reviewed for a of airplane control may result.
comprehensive discussion of this topic, but presented below
are a summary of key points. • If the pilot’s lack of training is not properly assessed,
the pilot may be placed in flight regimes that exceed
Approximately 85 percent of all aviation accidents have been the pilot’s stick and rudder capability.
determined by the National Transportation Safety Board
(NTSB) to have been caused by “failure of the pilot to...” Risk Assessment
As such, a reduction of these failures is the fundamental Risk assessment determines the degree of risk and whether
cornerstone to risk and resource management. The risks the degree of risk is worth the outcome of the planned activity.
involved with flying an airplane are very different from Once the planned activity is started, the pilot must consider
those experienced in daily activities, such as driving to whether or not to continue. A pilot must always have viable
work. Managing risks and resources requires a conscious alternatives available in the event the original flight plan
effort that goes beyond the stick and rudder skills required cannot be accomplished. Thus, hazard and risk are the two
to pilot the airplane. defining elements of risk management. A hazard can be a real
or perceived condition, event, or circumstance that a pilot
Risk Management encounters. Risk assessment is a quantitative value weighted
Risk management is a formalized structured process for to a task, action, or event. When armed with the predicted
identifying and mitigating hazards and assessing the risk assessment of an activity, pilots are able to manage and
consequences and benefits of the accepted risk. A hazard is mitigate their risk.
a condition, event, object, or circumstance that could lead to
or contribute to an unplanned or undesired event, such as an In the example where marginal weather is the identified
incident or accident. It is a source of potential danger. Some hazard, it is relatively simple to understand that the risk
examples of hazards are: associated with flight and that the consequences of loss
of control in inadvertent meteorological conditions (IMC)
• Marginal weather or environmental conditions are likely to be severe for a pilot without certification,
proficiency, competency, and currency in instrument flight.
• Lack of pilot qualification, currency, or proficiency A risk assessment in this example would determine that
for the intended flight the risk is unacceptable and as a result, mitigation of the
risk is required. Proper risk mitigation would require that
Identifying the Hazard flight be cancelled or delayed until weather conditions
Hazard identification is the critical first step of the risk were not conducive for inadvertent flight into instrument
management process. If pilots do not recognize and properly meteorological conditions.
identify a hazard and choose to continue, the consequences
of the risk involved is not managed or mitigated. In the Risk Identification
previous examples, the hazard identification process results Identifying hazards and associated risk is key to preventing
in the following assessment: risk and accidents. If a pilot fails to search for risk, it is likely
that he or she will neither see it nor appreciate it for what
• Marginal weather or environmental conditions is it represents. Unfortunately, in aviation, pilots seldom have
an identified hazard because it may result in the the opportunity to learn from their small errors in judgment
pilot having a skill level that is not adequate for because even small mistakes in aviation are often fatal. In
managing the weather conditions or requiring airplane order to identify risk, the use of standard procedures is of
performance that is unavailable. great assistance. Several procedures are discussed in detail
in the Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2).
• The lack of pilot training is an identified hazard
because the pilot does not have experience to either Risk Mitigation
meet the legal requirements or the minimum necessary Risk assessment is only part of the equation. After
skills to safely conduct the flight. determining the level of risk, the pilot needs to mitigate the
risk. For example, the VFR pilot flying from point A to point
Risk B (50 miles) in marginal flight conditions has several ways
Risk is the future impact of a hazard that is not controlled to reduce risk:
or eliminated. It can be viewed as future uncertainty created
by the hazard. • Wait for the weather to improve to good VFR
conditions.
• If the weather or environmental conditions are not
properly assessed, such as in a case where an airplane

2-10

• Take a pilot who is more experienced or who is thereby reducing situational awareness and leading to
certified as an instrument flight rules (IFR) pilot. complacency. Information from these systems needs to be
continually monitored to ensure proper situational awareness.
• Delay the flight. It is essential that pilots be aware not only of equipment
• Cancel the flight. capabilities, but also equipment limitations in order to
• Drive. manage those systems effectively and safely.

Resource Management Information workloads and automated systems, such as
Crew resource management (CRM) and single-pilot resource autopilots, need to be properly managed to ensure a safe
management (SRM) is the ability for the crew or pilot to flight. The pilot who effectively manages his or her workload
manage all available resources effectively to ensure that the completes as many of these tasks as early as possible to
outcome of the flight is successful. In general aviation, SRM preclude the possibility of becoming overloaded by last
is more often than CRM. The focus of SRM is on the single- minute changes and communication priorities in the later,
pilot operation. SRM integrates the following: more critical stages of the approach. Routine tasks delayed
until the last minute can contribute to the pilot becoming
• Situational Awareness overloaded and stressed, resulting in erosion of performance.
By planning ahead, a pilot can effectively reduce workload
• Human Resource Management during critical phases of flight.

• Task Management Task Management
Pilots have a limited capacity for information. Once
• Aeronautical Decision-making (ADM) information flow exceeds the pilot’s ability to mentally
process the information, any additional information becomes
Situational Awareness unattended or displaces other tasks and information already
Situational awareness is the accurate perception of being processed. For example, do not become distracted
operational and environmental factors that affect the flight. and fixate on an instrument light failure. This unnecessary
It is a logical analysis based upon the airplane, external focus displaces capability and prevents the pilot’s ability to
support, environment, and the pilot. It is awareness on what appreciate tasks of greater importance.
is happening in and around the flight.
Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM)
Human Resource Management Flying safely requires the effective integration of three
Human Resource Management requires an effective use of separate sets of skills: stick-and rudder skills needed to
all available resources: human, equipment, and information. control the airplane; skills related to proficient operation
of aircraft systems; and ADM skills. The ADM process
Human resources include the essential personnel routinely addresses all aspects of decision-making in the flight deck
working with the pilot to ensure safety of flight. These and identifies the steps involved in good decision-making.
people include, but are not limited to: weather briefers, While the ADM process does not eliminate errors, it helps
flight line personnel, maintenance personnel, crew members, the pilot recognize errors and enables the pilot to manage the
pilots, and air traffic personnel. Pilots need to effectively error to minimize its effects. These steps are:
communicate with these people. This is accomplished by
using the key components of the communication process: • Identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight;
inquiry, advocacy, and assertion. Pilots must recognize the
need to seek enough information from these resources to • Learning behavior modification techniques;
make a valid decision. After the necessary information has
been gathered, the pilot’s decision must be passed on to those • Learning how to recognize and cope with stress;
concerned, such as air traffic controllers, crew members, and
passengers. The pilot may have to request assistance from • Developing risk assessment skills;
others and be assertive to safely resolve some situations.
• Using all resources; and
Equipment in many of today’s aircraft includes automated
flight and navigation systems. These automatic systems, • Evaluating the effectiveness of one’s own personal
while providing relief from many routine cabin or cockpit ADM skills.
tasks, present a different set of problems for pilots. The
automation intended to reduce pilot workload essentially Ground Operations
removes the pilot from the process of managing the aircraft,
The airport ramp can be a complex environment with airport
personnel, passengers, trucks and other vehicles, airplanes,

2-11

helicopters, and errant animals. The pilot is responsible Stop Come ahead Emergency stop
for the operation of their airplane and must operate safely Cut engines
at all times. Ground operations provide unique hazards, All clear (O.K.) Left turn
and mitigating those hazards requires proper planning and
situational awareness at all times in the ground environment. A
fundamental ground operation mitigation tactic is for the pilot
to always have reviewed the airport diagram prior to operating
and have it readily available at all times. Whether departing
to or from the ramp, the pilot must maintain a high level of
awareness that requires preparation to maximize safety. This
includes being familiar and competent with the following:

• Refueling operations

• Passenger and baggage security and loading

• Ramp and taxi operations

• Standard ramp signals

During refueling operations, it is advisable that the pilot
remove all passengers from aircraft during fueling operations
and witness the refueling to ensure that the correct fuel and
quantity is dispensed into the airplane and that any caps and
cowls are properly secured after refueling.

Passengers may have little experience with the open ramp of Start engine Pull chocks Insert Chocks
an airport. The pilot must ensure the safety of their passengers
by only allowing them to undertake freedoms for which they NIGHT OPERATION
have been given direction by the pilot. At no time should
passengers be allowed to roam the ramp without an escort to
ensure their safety and ramp security. Baggage loading and
security should be directly supervised by the pilot. Unsecured
baggage or improperly loaded baggage may adversely affect
the center of gravity of the airplane.

Ramp traffic may vary from a deserted open space to a Slow down Right turn Same hand
complex environment with heavy corporate or military movements as
aircraft. Powerful aircraft may produce an environment, from day operations
exhaust blast or rotor downwash, which could easily cause a
light airplane to become uncontrollable. Mitigating these light Figure 2-12. Standard hand signals used to assist pilots in managing
airplane hazards is important to starting off on a safe flight. a safe departure from the ramp to the taxiway or runway.

Some ramps may be staffed by personnel to assist the Prior to engine start, the pilot must ensure that the ramp area
pilot in managing a safe departure from the ramp to the surrounding the airplane is clear of persons, equipment, and
taxiway. These personnel use standard hand signals and the other hazards from coming into contact with the airplane
pilot should be familiar with the meaning of those signals. or the propeller. Also, an awareness of what is behind the
[Figure 2-12] airplane prior to engine start is standard practice. A propeller
or other engine thrust can produce substantial velocities, result
Engine Starting in damage to property, and injure those on the ground. The
hazard of debris being blown into persons or property must
Airplane engines vary substantially and specific procedures be mitigated by the pilot. At all times before engine start, the
for engine starting must be accomplished in reference to anti-collision lights should be turned on. For night operations,
approved engine start checklist as detailed in the airplane’s
AFM/POH. However, some generally accepted hazard
mitigation practices and procedures are outlined.

2-12

the position (navigation) lights should also be on. Finally, necessary to “hand prop” an aircraft for starting. Hand
just prior to starter engagement, the pilot should always call propping an aircraft is a hazardous procedure when done
“CLEAR” out of the side window and wait for a response perfectly. The consequences of not mitigating the hazards
from anyone who may be nearby before engaging the starter. associated with hand propping can lead to serious injury,
fatalities, and runaway airplanes. All alternatives must be
When activating the starter, the wheel brakes must be depressed considered prior to hand propping an aircraft and, when a
and one hand is to be kept on the throttle to manage the initial decision is made to do so, the procedure must be carried
starting engine speed. Ensuring that properly operating brakes out only by competent persons who have been trained to
are engaged prior to starter engagement prevents the airplane accomplish the procedure, understand how to mitigate the
from rapidly lunging forward. After engine start, the pilot hazards, and take all the necessary precautions.
manipulates the throttle to set the engine revolutions per
minute (rpm) at the AFM/POH prescribed setting. In general, Even though today most airplanes are equipped with
1,000 rpm is recommended following engine start to allow electric starters, it is still helpful if a pilot is familiar with
oil pressure to rise and minimize undue engine wear due to the procedures and dangers involved in starting an aircraft
insufficient lubrication at high rpm. It is important in low engine by turning the propeller by hand; however, a person
temperatures that an airplane engine use the proper grade of unfamiliar with the controls must never be allowed to occupy
oil for the operating temperature range and engine preheat the pilot’s seat when hand propping.
when temperatures approach and descend below freezing.
It is critical that the procedure never be attempted alone. Hand
The oil pressure must be monitored after engine start to ensure propping should only be attempted when two properly trained
that pressure is increasing toward the AFM/POH specified people, both familiar and experienced with the airplane
value. The AFM/POH specifies an oil pressure range for and hand propping techniques, are available to perform the
the engine, if the limits are not reached and maintained, procedure. The first person is responsible for directing the
serious internal engine damage is likely. In most conditions, procedure including pulling the propeller blades through.
oil pressure should rise to at least the lower limit within 30 The second person must be seated in the airplane to ensure
seconds. To prevent damage, the engine should be shut down that the brakes are set, and controls are properly exercised,
immediately if the oil pressure does not rise to the AFM/POH and to follow direction of the person pulling the propeller.
values within the required time.
When hand propping is necessary, the ground surface near the
Engine starters are electric motors designed to produce rapid propeller should be stable and free of debris—loose gravel,
rotation of the engine crankshaft for starting. These electric wet grass, mud, oil, ice, or snow might cause the person
motors are not designed for continuous duty and should the pulling the propeller through to slip into the rotating blades as
engine not start readily, avoid continuous starter operation for the engine starts. Unless a firm footing is available, relocate
periods longer than 30 seconds without a cool down period the airplane to mitigate this dire consequences hazard.
of at least 30 seconds to 1 minute (some AFM/POH specify
times greater than these given). Engine starter motors service Both participants should discuss the procedure and agree on
life is drastically shortened from high heat through overuse. voice commands and expected action. To begin the procedure,
the fuel system and engine controls (tank selector, primer,
Although quite rare, the starter motor may remain electrically pump, throttle, and mixture) are set for a normal start. The
and mechanically engaged after engine start. This can be ignition/magneto switch should be checked to be sure that it
detected by a continuous and very high current draw on the is OFF. Then the descending propeller blade should be rotated
ammeter. Some airplanes also have a starter engaged warning so that it assumes a position slightly above the horizontal. The
light specifically for this purpose. The engine should be shut person doing the hand propping should face the descending
down immediately if this occurs. blade squarely and stand slightly less than one arm’s length
from the blade. If a stance too far away were assumed,
The pilot should be attentive for sounds, vibrations, smell, it would be necessary to lean forward in an unbalanced
or smoke that are not consistent with normal operational condition to reach the blade, which may cause the person to
experience. Any concerns should lead to a shutdown and fall forward into the rotating blades when the engine starts.
further investigation.
The procedure and commands for hand propping are:
Hand Propping
• Person out front says, “GAS ON, SWITCH OFF,
A spinning propeller can be lethal should it strike someone. THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”
Historically, when aircraft lacked electrical systems, it was

2-13

• Pilot seat occupant, after making sure the fuel is ON, An essential requirement in conducting safe taxi operations
mixture is RICH, magneto switch is OFF, throttle is where the pilot maintains situational awareness of the
is CLOSED, and brakes are SET, says, “GAS ON, ramp, parking areas, taxiways, runway environment, and
SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES the persons, equipment and aircraft at all times. Without
SET.” such awareness, safety may be compromised. Depending on
the airport, parking, ramp, and taxiways may or may not be
• Person out front, after pulling the propeller through to controlled. As such, it is important that the pilot completely
prime the engine says, “BRAKES AND CONTACT.” understand the environment in which they are operating. At
small, rural airports these areas may be desolate with few
• Pilot seat occupant checks the brakes SET and turns aircraft which limits the potential hazards; however, as the
the magnetos switch ON, then says, “BRAKES AND complexity of the airport increases so does the potential
CONTACT.” for hazards. Regardless of the complexity, some generally
accepted procedures are appropriate.
The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downward
rapidly, pushing with the palms of both hands. If the blade • The pilot should make themselves familiar with the
is gripped tightly with the fingers, the person’s body may be parking, ramp, and taxi environment. This can be done
drawn into the propeller blades should the engine misfire and by having an airport diagram, if available, out and in
rotate momentarily in the opposite direction. As the blade is view at all times. [Figure 2-13]
pushed down, the person should step backward, away from
the propeller. If the engine does not start, the propeller should • The pilot must be vigilant of the entire area around
not be repositioned for another attempt until it is verified that the airplane to ensure that the airplane clears all
the magneto switch is turned OFF. obstructions. If, at any time, there is doubt about a
safe clearance from an object, the pilot should stop the
The words CONTACT (magnetos ON) and SWITCH OFF airplane and check the clearance. It may be necessary
(magnetos OFF) are used because they are significantly to have the airplane towed or physically moved by a
different from each other. Under noisy conditions or high ground crew.
winds, the words CONTACT and SWITCH OFF are less likely
to be misunderstood than SWITCH ON and SWITCH OFF. • When taxiing, the pilot’s eyes should be looking
outside the airplane scanning from side to side while
When removing the wheel chocks or untying the tail after the looking both near and far to assess routing and
engine starts, it is critical that everyone involved remember potential conflicts.
that the propeller is nearly invisible. Serious injuries and
fatalities have occurred when people who have just started • A safe taxiing speed must be maintained. The primary
an engine walk or reach into the propeller arc to remove the requirements for safe taxiing are positive control, the
chocks, reach the cabin, or in an attempt to reach the tail ability to recognize any potential hazards in time to
of the airplane. Before the wheel chocks are removed, the avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn where and
throttle should be set to idle and the chocks approached only when desired, without undue reliance on the brakes.
from the rear of the propeller. One should never approach Pilots should proceed at a cautious speed on congested
the wheel chocks from the front or the side. or busy ramps. Normally, the speed should be at the
rate where movement of the airplane is dependent on
The procedures for hand propping should always be in the throttle. That is, slow enough so when the throttle
accordance with the AFM/POH and only accomplished is closed, the airplane can be stopped promptly.
if no alternatives are available, and then only by persons
who are competent with hand propping procedures. The • The pilot should accurately place the aircraft centered
consequences of the hazards associated with hand propping on the taxiway at all times. Some taxiways have above
are serious to fatal. ground taxi lights and signage that could impact the
airplane or propellers if the pilot does not exercise
Taxiing accurate control. When yellow taxiway centerline
stripes are marked, this is more easily accomplished
Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its by the pilot visually placing the centerline stripe so it
own power while on the surface. Since an airplane is moved is under the center of the airplane fuselage.
under its own power between a parking area and the runway,
the pilot must thoroughly understand and be proficient in • When taxiing, the pilot must slow down before
taxi procedures. attempting a turn. Sharp high-speed turns place
undesirable side loads on the landing gear and may

2-14

SW-2, 12 JAN 2012 to 09 FEB 2012 SW-2, 12 JAN 2012 to 09 FEB 2012

Figure 2-13. Airport Diagram of Monterey Peninsula (MRY), Monterey, California.

2-15

result in tire damage or an uncontrollable swerve Wind Wind
or a ground loop. Swerves are most likely to occur
when turning from a downwind heading toward an Use up aileron on Use up aileron on
upwind heading. In moderate to high-wind conditions, left-hand wing and right-hand wing and
the airplane may weathervane increasing the
swerving tendency. neutral elevator neutral elevator

Steering is accomplished with rudder pedals and brakes. To Use down aileron Use down aileron
turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot should apply the on left-hand wing on right-hand wing
rudder in the desired direction of turn and use the appropriate and down elevator and down elevator
power or brake to control the taxi speed. The rudder pedal
should be held in the direction of the turn until just short of Wind Wind
the point where the turn is to be stopped. Rudder pressure
is then released or opposite pressure is applied as needed. Figure 2-14. Control positions of the nosewheel airplane.

More engine power may be required to start the airplane sharp turns at low speed, the throttle should always be at
moving forward, or to start a turn, than is required to keep it idle before the brakes are applied. It is a common error to
moving in any given direction. When using additional power, taxi with a power setting that requires controlling taxi speed
the throttle should immediately be retarded once the airplane with the brakes.
begins moving to prevent excessive acceleration.
When taxiing with a quartering headwind, the wing on the
The brakes should be tested for proper operation as soon as upwind side (the side that the wind is coming from) tends to
the airplane is put in motion. Applying power to start the be lifted by the wind unless the aileron control is held in that
airplane moving forward slowly, then retarding the throttle direction (upwind aileron UP). Moving the aileron into the UP
and simultaneously applying just enough pressure to one position reduces the effect of the wind striking that wing, thus
side, then the other to confirm proper function and reaction reducing the lifting action. This control movement also causes
of both brakes. This is best if the airplane has individual left/ the downwind aileron to be placed in the DOWN position,
right brakes to stop the airplane. If braking performance is thus a small amount of lift and drag on the downwind wing,
unsatisfactory, the engine should be shut down immediately. further reducing the tendency of the upwind wing to rise.

When taxiing at appropriate speeds in no-wind conditions, the When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevator should
aileron and elevator control surfaces have little or no effect be held in the DOWN position, and the upwind aileron,
on directional control of the airplane. These controls should DOWN. Since the wind is striking the airplane from behind,
not be considered steering devices and should be held in a these control positions reduce the tendency of the wind to
neutral position. [Figure 2-14] get under the tail and the wing and to nose the airplane over.
The application of these crosswind taxi corrections helps to
The presence of moderate to strong headwinds and/or a strong minimize the weathervaning tendency and ultimately results
propeller slipstream makes the use of the elevator necessary in making the airplane easier to steer.
to maintain control of the pitch attitude while taxiing. This
becomes apparent when considering the lifting action that Normally, all turns should be started using the rudder pedal
may be created on the horizontal tail surfaces by either of to steer the nosewheel. To tighten the turn after full pedal
those two factors. The elevator control in nosewheel-type deflection is reached, the brake may be applied as needed.
airplanes should be held in the neutral position, while in When stopping the airplane, it is advisable to always stop
tailwheel-type airplanes, it should be held in the full aft with the nosewheel straight ahead to relieve any side load on
position to hold the tail down. the nosewheel and to make it easier to start moving ahead.

Downwind taxiing usually requires less engine power after During crosswind taxiing, even the nosewheel-type
the initial ground roll is begun, since the wind is pushing airplane has some tendency to weathervane. However,
the airplane forward. To avoid overheating the brakes and
controlling the airplane’s speed when taxiing downwind,
the pilot must keep engine power to a minimum. Rather
than continuously riding the brakes to control speed, it is
appropriate to apply brakes only occasionally. Other than

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the weathervaning tendency is less than in tailwheel-type roll forward slightly to ensure that the nosewheel or tailwheel
airplanes because the main wheels are located behind the is in alignment with the longitudinal axis of the airplane.
airplane’s center of gravity, and the nosewheel’s ground
friction helps to resist the tendency. The nosewheel linkage While performing the before-takeoff checklist in accordance
from the rudder pedals provides adequate steering control for with the airplane’s AFM/POH, the pilot must divide their
safe and efficient ground handling, and normally, only rudder attention between the inside and outside of the airplane. If
pressure is necessary to correct for a crosswind. the parking brake slips, or if application of the toe brakes
is inadequate for the amount of power applied, the airplane
Taxiing checklists are sometimes specified by the AFM/POH, could rapidly move forward and go unnoticed if pilot attention
and the pilot must accomplish any items that are required. If is fixed only inside the airplane. A good operational practice
there are no specific checklist items, taxiing still provides an is to split attention from one item inside to a look outside.
opportunity to verify the operation and cross-check of the
flight instruments. In general, the flight instruments should Air-cooled engines generally are tightly cowled and equipped
indicate properly with the airspeed at or near zero (depending with baffles that direct the flow of air to the engine in
on taxi speed, wind speed and direction, and lower limit sufficient volumes for cooling while in flight; however,
sensitivity); the attitude indictor should indicate pitch and on the ground, much less air is forced through the cowling
roll level (depending on airplane attitude) with no flags; the and around the baffling. Prolonged ground operations may
altimeter should indicate the proper elevation within prescribed cause cylinder overheating long before there is an indication
limits; the turn indictor should show the correct direction of of rising oil temperature. To minimize overheating during
turn with the ball movement toward the outside of the turn engine run-up, it is recommended that the airplane be
with no flags; the directional gyro should be set and crossed headed as nearly as possible into the wind and, if equipped,
checked to the magnetic compass and verified accurate to the engine instruments that indicate cylinder head temperatures
direction of taxi; and the vertical speed indictor (VSI) should should be monitored. Cowl flaps, if available, should be set
read zero. These checks can be accomplished on conventional according to the AFM/POH.
mechanical instrumented aircraft or glass cockpits.
Each airplane has different features and equipment and the
Before-Takeoff Check before-takeoff checklist provided in airplane’s AFM/POH
must be used to perform the run-up. Many critical systems
The before-takeoff check is the systematic AFM/POH are checked and set during the before-takeoff checklist. Most
procedure for checking the engine, controls, systems, airplanes have at least the following systems checked and set:
instruments, and avionics prior to flight. Normally, the
before-takeoff checklist is performed after taxiing to a run-up • Fuel System—set per the AFM/POH and verified ON
position near the takeoff end of the runway. Many engines and the proper and correct fuel tanks selected.
require that the oil temperature reach a minimum value as
stated in the AFM/POH before takeoff power is applied. • Trim—set for takeoff position which includes the
Taxiing to the run-up position usually allows sufficient time elevator and may also include rudder and aileron trim.
for the engine to warm up to at least minimum operating
temperatures; however, the pilot verifies that temperatures are • Flight Controls—checked throughout their entire
in their proper range prior to the application of high power. operating range. This includes full aileron, elevator,
and rudder deflection in all directions. Often, pilots
A suitable location for run-up should be firm (a smooth, paved do not exercise a full range of movement of the flight
or turf surface if possible) and free of debris. Otherwise, the controls, which is not acceptable.
propeller may pick up pebbles, dirt, mud, sand, or other loose
objects and hurl them backwards. This damages the propeller • Engine Operation—checked to ensure that temperatures
and may damage the tail of the airplane. Small chips in the and pressures are in their normal ranges; magneto or
leading edge of the propeller form stress risers or high stress Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)
concentrations. These are highly undesirable and may lead operation on single or dual ignition are acceptable
to cracks and possible propeller blade failure. The airplane and within limits; and, if equipped, carburetor heat is
should also be positioned clear of other aircraft and the functioning. If the airplane is equipped with a constant
taxiway. There should not be anything behind the airplane that speed or feathering propeller, that its operation is
might be damaged by the propeller airflow blasting rearward. acceptable; and at minimum idle, the engine rpm
continues to run smoothly.
Before beginning the before-takeoff check, after the airplane
is properly positioned for the run-up, it should be allowed to • Electrical System—verified to ensure voltages are
within operating range and that the system shows the
battery system charging.

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• Vacuum System—must show an acceptable level of • Engine instruments normal and in green ranges?
vacuum, which is typically between 4.8 and 5.2 inches
of mercury ("Hg) at 2,000 rpm. Refer to the AFM/POH • Doors latched and windows closed as required?
for the manufacturer’s values. It is important to ensure
that mechanical gyroscopic instruments have adequate • Controls held so rudder is used to keep airplane
time to spool up to acceptable rpm in order for them to parallel to centerline and ailerons are used to keep
indicate properly. A hasty and quick taxi and run-up airplane on centerline?
does not allow mechanical gyroscopic instruments
to indicate properly and a departure into instrument After-Landing
meteorological conditions (IMC) is unadvisable.
During the after-landing roll, while maintaining airplane
• Flight Instruments—rechecked and set for the track over runway centerline with ailerons and heading down
departure. Verify that the directional gyro and the runway with rudder pedals, the airplane should be gradually
magnetic compass are in agreement. If the directional slowed to normal taxi speed with normal brake pressure before
gyro has a heading bug, it may be set to the runway turning off of the landing runway. Any significant degree of
heading that is in use or as assigned by air traffic turn at faster speeds could result in subsequent damage to the
control (ATC). landing gear, tires, brakes, or the airplane structure.

• Avionics—set with the appropriate frequencies, To give full attention to controlling the airplane during the
initial navigation sources and courses, autopilot landing roll, the after-landing checklist should be performed
preselects, transponder codes, and other settings and only after the airplane is brought to a complete stop beyond
configurations based on the airplane’s equipment and the runway holding position markings. There have been many
flight requirements. cases where a pilot has mistakenly manipulated the wrong
handle and retracted the landing gear, instead of the flaps,
• Takeoff Briefing—made out loud by the pilot even due to improper division of attention while the airplane was
when no other person is there to listen. A sample moving. However, this procedure may be modified if the
takeoff briefing may be the following: manufacturer recommends that specific after-landing items
be accomplished during landing rollout. For example, when
“This will be normal takeoff (use normal, short, or soft performing a short-field landing, the manufacturer may
as appropriate) from runway (use runway assigned), recommend retracting the flaps on rollout to improve braking.
wind is from the (direction and speed), rotation speed In this situation, the pilot should make a positive identification
is (use the specified or calculated manufacturer’s of the flap control handle before retracting the flaps.
takeoff or rotation speed (VR)), an initial turn to (use
planned heading) and climb to (use initial altitude in Clear of Runway and Stopped
feet). The takeoff will be rejected for engine failure
below VR, applying appropriate braking, stopping Because of different configurations and equipment in various
ahead. Engine failure after VR and with runway airplanes, the after-landing checklist within the AFM/POH
remaining, I will lower pitch to best glide speed, must be used. Some of the items may include:
land, and apply appropriate braking, stopping straight
ahead. Engine failure after VR and with no runway • Power—set to the AFM/POH values such as throttle
remaining, I will lower pitch to best glide speed, no 1,000 rpm, propeller full forward, mixture leaned.
turns will be made prior to (insert appropriate altitude),
land in the most suitable area, and apply appropriate • Fuel—may require switching tanks and fuel pumps
braking, avoiding hazards on the ground as much switched off.
possible. If time permits, fuel, ignition, and electrical
systems will be switched off.” • Flaps—set to the retracted position.

Takeoff Checks: • Cowl flaps—may be opened or closed depending on
temperature conditions.
Runway numbers on paved runways agree with magnetic
compass and heading indicators before beginning takeoff • Trim—reset to neutral or takeoff position.
roll. The last check on engines as power is brought to full
takeoff power includes: • Lights—may be switched off if not needed, such as
strobe lights.
• Is power correct?
• Avionics—may be switched off or to standby,
• RPM normal? such as the transponder and frequencies changed to
contact ground control or Common Traffic Advisory
• Engine smooth? Frequency (CTAF), as required.

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• Install chocks and release parking brake in accordance Oil levels should be checked and quantities brought to AFM/
with AFM/POH. POH levels. Fuel should be added based on the immediate
use of the airplane. If the airplane is going to be inactive, it
Parking is a good operating practice to fill the fuel tanks to prevent
water condensation from forming inside the tank. If another
Unless parking in a designated, supervised area, the pilot flight is planned, the fuel tanks should be filled based on the
should select a location and heading that prevents propeller flight planning requirements for that flight.
or jet blast of other airplanes from striking the airplane
unnecessarily. Whenever possible, the airplane should be The aircraft should be hangared or tied down, flight controls
parked headed into the existing or forecast wind. Often secured, and security locks in place. The type of tie downs
airports have airplane tie downs located on ramp areas may vary significantly from chains to well-worn ropes.
which may or may not be aligned with the wind or provide Chains are not flexible and as such should not be made taught
a significant choice in parking location. After stopping in as to allow the airplane some movement and prevent airframe
the desired direction, the airplane should be allowed to roll structural damage. Tie down ropes are flexible and may be
straight ahead enough to straighten the nosewheel or tailwheel. reasonably cinched to the airplane’s tie down rings. Consider
utilizing pitot tube covers, cowling inlet covers, rudder gust
Engine Shutdown locks, window sunscreens, and propeller security locks to
further enhance the safety and security of the airplane.
The pilot should always use the procedures in the airplane’s
AFM/POH shutdown checklist for shutting down the engine Hangaring is not without hazards to the airplane. The pilot
and securing the airplane. Important items may include: should ensure that enough space is allocated to the airplane
so it is free from any impact to the hangar, another aircraft,
• Parking Brake—set to ON. or vehicle. The airplane should be inspected after hangaring
to ensure that no damage was imparted on the airplane.
• Throttle—set to IDLE or 1,000 rpm. If turbocharged,
observe the manufacturer’s spool down procedure. Chapter Summary

• Magneto Switch Test—turn momentarily OFF then In this chapter emphasis was placed on determining the
quickly ON again at idle rpm to check for proper airworthiness of the airplane, preflight visual inspection,
operation of switch in the OFF position. managing risk and pilot-available resources, safe surface-
based operations, and the adherence to and proper use of the
• Propeller—set to FULL INCREASE, if equipped. AFM/POH and checklists. To maximize the safety of flight
operations, a pilot must recognize that flight safety begins by
• Avionics—turn OFF. properly preparing for flight and by managing the airplane,
environment, resources, and themselves until the airplane is
• Alternator—turn OFF. returned to its tie-down or hangar at the termination of flight.
This is accomplished by the pilot ensuring that the airplane
• Mixture—set to IDLE CUTOFF. is in a safe condition for flight and it meets all the regulatory
requirements of 14 CFR part 91 by an effective and continuous
• Magneto Switch—turn ignition switch to OFF when assessment of the risks and utilization of resources, and by the
engine stops. pilot honestly evaluating and determining their preparedness
and continuation for acting as PIC.
• Master Switch—turn to OFF.

• Secure—install control locks and anti-theft security
locks.

Post-Flight

A flight is not complete until the engine is shut down and the
airplane is secured. A pilot should consider this an essential
part of any flight.

Securing and Servicing

After engine shutdown and deplaning passengers, the pilot
should accomplish a post-flight inspection. This includes a
walk around to inspect the general condition of the aircraft.
Inspect near and around the cowling for signs of oil or fuel
streaks and around the oil breather for excessive oil discharge.
Inspect under wings and other fuel tank locations for fuel stains.
Inspect landing gear and tires for damage and brakes for any
leaking hydraulic fluid. Inspect cowling inlets for obstructions.

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