Wordly Wise science & social studies - Amazon S3

Research-Based Vocabulary

Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies™
Dr. Ernest Balajthy

Introduction Wordly Wise Science &
Social Studies serves to develop
Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies™ is an online content-area vocabulary development
curriculum for grades 4 through 8. Developed to help students understand what they read domain-specific vocabulary
in the content areas, the program is equally valuable for on-level and struggling readers. knowledge through individualized
This domain-specific vocabulary is seen as the major stumbling block for most students at
these grade levels. computer-based instruction,
student engagement, construction
Educators increasingly recognize that vocabulary development is at the heart of
literacy achievement, which in turn is central to general academic achievement. This is of meaningful knowledge, and
especially so in the intermediate and middle school years, when content-area instruction online teacher-based
becomes central to school success. Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies serves to progress monitoring.
develop domain-specific vocabulary knowledge through individualized computer-based
instruction, student engagement, construction of meaningful knowledge, and online
teacher-based progress monitoring.

Recent federal education policies have identified vocabulary instruction as one of the
“five pillars” of reading development. Yet, for nearly twenty years previously, vocabulary
instruction received little attention from national educational organizations and experts
(Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2008). Fortunately, the publication of the report of the
National Reading Panel (NRP; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development,
2000) and the subsequent use of the report as a foundation for policy in No Child Left
Behind brought renewed attention to the importance of vocabulary instruction. The more
recent Common Core State Standards (CCSS) Initiative continues efforts to place a major
emphasis on vocabulary development, stating that students should be able to “Determine
the meaning of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases in a text relevant
to a grade [level] topic or subject area” (2010, p. 14).

In a series of studies by early-learning experts in Michigan, children who enter school
with poor vocabularies were studied. “The findings suggest many districts could be at
a disadvantage in meeting the increased requirements for vocabulary learning from the
Common Core State Standards,” said study co-author Susan B. Neuman, a professor in
educational studies specializing in early-literacy development at the University of Michigan
in Ann Arbor.

“Vocabulary is the tip of the iceberg: Words reflect concepts and content that students
need to know,” Ms. Neuman said. “This whole common core will fall on its face if kids are
not getting the kind of instruction it will require” (2013).

Many of the words targeted in Description of Wordly Wise Science and pictograph (Grade 6), and Manifest Destiny
Wordly Wise Science & Social & Social Studies and Industrial Revolution (Grade 8).
Studies are also parts of larger
word families, as is common The first task in developing any vocabulary Many of the words targeted in Wordly Wise
with content-area vocabulary. program is deciding which words should be Science & Social Studies are also parts of larger
taught. The words in Wordly Wise Science & word families, as is common with content-area
Social Studies and the topics used in the text vocabulary. The effort expended in teaching
passages have been carefully selected using a and learning one word can have its effects
variety of sources. These include national and multiplied as students encounter related words.
state standards in the social studies and sciences, Scott et al. (2008), for example, pointed out
science and social studies textbooks for grades that the word consume occurs only 5 times per
4–8, and content-area word lists developed by million words in text, but that related words
vocabulary experts (Fry & Kress, 2006; Marzano, (such as consumer, consumers, consumed,
2004). The program provides one module of consumption) occur 90 times per million words. A
instruction in science and one module in social target word such as doctrine can help students
studies at each grade level, 4–8, for a total of learn other words in the future: doctrinal,
ten modules. Each module has five lessons, each doctrinaire, doctrinally, as well as many words
targeting ten content-area words. There are 100 connected to a related word, doctor.
target words per grade, with a total of 500 target
words for the program. Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies is built on
a solid foundation of research-based instructional
Beck, McKeown, and Kucan’s (2002; 2008) principles and technologies:
vocabulary research has been based on grouping
words into three tiers (not to be confused with • The online instruction provides immediate
the unrelated tier terminology used in Response feedback as students complete activities.
to Intervention). According to Beck et al, Tier
One words are those typically known by students • Computer-based monitoring of student
and need no teaching. Tier Two words are those performance provides ongoing, frequent
frequently used in school—academic terms that assessments of the kind that have become
may be germane to a variety of disciplines, or widely accepted in Response to Intervention
content areas, such as profit and native. Some (RTI) efforts.
Tier Two words are unknown by most students
but are encountered frequently enough to • Lessons are designed according to well-
affect comprehension. Tier Three words are researched computer-based instructional
usually unknown by students because they are principles so that students who are struggling
specialized terms, sometimes called “domain with particular concepts are identified and
words,” such as ion and embargo. provided additional instruction and practice.

Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies instruction • Learning is multimodal, with audio
is designed to focus on content-area vocabulary enhancement of the on-screen materials and
development. Therefore, the target words in the frequent student response throughout the
program are primarily Tier Two and Tier Three lessons.
words. Examples of Tier Two words are rural and
society (Grade 4), excavate and heritage (Grade • Instruction integrates meaningful learning
6), and intervention and minority (Grade 8). Some connections between each lesson and
Tier Three words important to students’ content- standards-based, grade-appropriate content-
area reading in science and social studies are Bill area themes.
of Rights and prime meridian (Grade 4), hieroglyph
• Thematic passages are written at readability
levels easy enough so that readers can

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concentrate on the conceptual content and Furthermore, there are always students who …learners use what they already
the new vocabulary words. Lexile® scores for simply make good guesses and score high, when know as the foundation for
passages are at approximately two grade levels in reality they don’t really know the words. For linking new vocabulary and
below the nominal grade. students who are familiar with some of the
words, the activities can present validation and concepts into their permanent
• Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies is provide more practice to deepen knowledge. memory. Prior knowledge/
designed to promote success. As students In fact, prior knowledge of some of the target
complete each item in an activity, they can words may actually help their learning. Some experience supports increased
move on only after they have corrected any prior knowledge helps to build a bridge from vocabulary knowledge
wrong answers. Immediate feedback makes the known to the unknown. That is, learners use
this possible and helps provide a sense of what they already know as the foundation for (Anderson & Freebody, 1981;
accomplishment. linking new vocabulary and concepts into their Marzano, 2004).
permanent memory. Prior knowledge/experience
A Wordly Wise Science & Social supports increased vocabulary knowledge
Studies Lesson (Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Marzano, 2004).

What Do You Know?: Each lesson begins with Word List: Following the pre-test is the
a pre-test of the ten lesson words. This helps Word List, comprising ten words. Students are
students with the metacognitive tasks important introduced to individual words, their definitions,
to successful online learning (U. S. Department and their use in a context-rich sentence. A
of Education, 2009). These include activation student response activity to check understanding
of prior knowledge related to the lesson’s of the word’s meaning follows. Note that the
vocabulary and consideration of task-based Word List, along with audio definitions and
questions that are important to meeting the sample sentences, is available to students on
lesson’s requirements. Which words do I know, most screens as a pop-up window. Wherever
and how well do I know them? Which words do possible, Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies
I not know, and how much additional effort will provides varied types and levels of scaffolding to
be needed to learn them? These metacognitive ensure success.
tasks also involve the active reading task of
predicting content, as the student considers The Word List is followed by four interactive
and makes predictions about potential thematic practice activities, which students can choose
connections among the words. Like the rest of to do in any order. (Even such small levels
Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies, the pre- of student control over the progress of their
test offers audio support, removing a potential online instruction—involving merely the order
decoding obstacle to understanding. of activities—can have positive effects on
motivation.) These four online activities are
What should teachers do if particular students designed to provide an engaging, interactive set
demonstrate on the pre-test that they already of learning experiences with a number of varied
know some—or most—of the words? We exposures to each word. This understanding in
recommend that the lessons are valuable, even varied contexts is key to integration into students’
for those students who “test out” of a lesson. long-term memory.
First of all, the pre-test gives the teacher the
first glimpse into the student’s understanding The four exercises are:
of the lesson words. It is not expected that the • Get It Together: Students combine sentence
words are familiar at the point of the pre-test,
since in many cases they present new concepts, parts containing the vocabulary words to form
or at least new words for known concepts. meaningful sentences.

eps literacy and intervention 3

Vocabulary knowledge • Say What You Mean: Students replace an instructional activities are provided for each word.
has a high correlation with awkward definitional phrase in a sentence These activities depend upon the actual target
performance on reading with one of the vocabulary words. words, but they may include graphic organizers,
comprehension tests true-false or multiple-choice exercises, or an
(Cutting & Scarborough, 2006). • It’s Your Choice: Students choose answers to image, diagram, or mnemonic device appropriate
multiple-choice questions. to helping students learn the unmastered word
or words. A Quick Check assessment activity
• Word Smarts: Students use word parts, such concludes the section, assessing whether the
as roots, prefixes, and suffixes, to further Practice for Success work has been successful.
their understanding of word meanings—a Once students have completed the words they
key skill, particularly in context areas such as missed, a printable certificate screen affirms their
science. They also work with synonyms and accomplishment. Students can then move on to
antonyms to broaden their network of known the next assigned lesson.
vocabulary. Word Smarts activities use a variety
of exercise types. Teacher Support

Passage and Questions: Following these Teachers are provided support in the online
activities, students move on to reading the Resources. Materials include professional
passage, which features all ten lesson words. development articles on the role and function of
Students read the passage, with or without vocabulary instruction, vocabulary strategies, and
audio support, which consists of natural, human several downloadable PDFs that teachers can use
speech. The audio of the passage is in sync with students. These include word cards, graphic
with word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence organizers, enrichments, and extensions for the
tracking, so students can utilize the audio-visual Word Smarts activities, as well as word lists.
match to its fullest. The passage is followed by
a series of questions designed to demonstrate Teachers can assign lessons in several ways and
the student’s understanding of the topic and the for a variety of purposes through the Wordly Wise
lesson words. Science & Social Studies learning management
system. Since the words and topics are drawn
Crossword Puzzle Review: Before students from grade-level texts and standards, there is
take a post-test, they do an interactive crossword every expectation that during a school year,
puzzle for review. This provides a fun, game-like classroom curriculum will be in sync with at
review experience. least some of the topics. However, because this
sequence of study varies, teachers have the option
What Did You Learn?: Students then take to assign lessons in whichever order they feel best
a multiple-choice post-test, formatted exactly for their students. While some may choose to
like the pre-test. This makes comparisons easy assign a lesson on the solar system, for instance,
for the teacher who is progress-monitoring and as that topic is being covered in class, others may
for the student who is self-monitoring. Scores feel that assigning the solar system lesson before
are available for the teacher and the school via the class works with it will provide a leg up for
the learning management system. They are also students who struggle with comprehension.
reported to the students via a reporting screen.
Research Basis for Wordly Wise
Practice for Success: Any word on the post- Science & Social Studies
test that has not been mastered triggers a series
of supplemental Practice for Success activities. Though given short shrift for many years,
This series of activities begins much like the main vocabulary knowledge has long been recognized
lesson, with a word card that includes a definition
and a new sample sentence. Additional interactive

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as an important factor in reading comprehension. • In the upper-elementary and middle grades, Starting in the fourth grade,
Vocabulary knowledge has a high correlation students move into the “reading to learn” emphasis shifts from learning to
with performance on reading comprehension stage of literacy development, with content-
tests (Cutting & Scarborough, 2006). Carver’s area vocabulary learning increasingly at the read to using reading as a tool
(2000) cognitive model of reading included verbal heart of literacy achievement. to further enhance content-area
knowledge, along with word identification, as the studies. Wordly Wise Science &
two major aspects of reading development that can • Effective vocabulary instruction provides for
most effectively be improved through instruction. satisfactory depth of learning new words Social Studies is designed to
that ensures long-term retention. support the vocabulary learning
Jeanne Chall, well-known Harvard researcher
and theorist, described the fourth grade as a • Strategic learning of vocabulary provides of struggling students through
major transition point in schooling (1996). In students with the tools to generalize their that transition and during the
their earlier years, children “learn to read.” The word study to encounters with many other critical grade 4–8 years.
fourth to eighth grade stage was described by new words they will find in their readings
Chall as the “reading to learn” stage of literacy and studies.
development. Starting in the fourth grade,
emphasis shifts from learning to read to using Direct, Systematic Instruction
reading as a tool to further enhance content-area
studies. The CCSS Initiative makes a further case The publication of the National Reading Panel’s
for increased reading of informational text, i.e., (NRP) research survey in 2000 was a turning
content-area materials, recommending a 50%– point in schools’ increasing recognition of the
50% split between literary and informational text effectiveness of direct, explicit, and systematic
in grade 4; a 45%–55% split in grade 8; and a instruction in reading. One of the NRP’s “five
30%–70% split in grade 12. (2010, p. 5). Wordly pillars” of reading instruction was vocabulary.
Wise Science & Social Studies is designed to The report underscored the importance of
support the domain-specific vocabulary learning vocabulary development, noting that many
of students during the critical grade 4-8 years. studies demonstrated that “comprehension gains
and improvement on semantic tasks are results
One of the leading researchers on vocabulary of vocabulary learning” (p. 4–20). The NRP found
development, William Nagy, described the need that indirect learning of vocabulary through such
for increased attention to these grades in a activities as book reading did play an important
2005 research survey. He noted that schools role in increasing student readers’ vocabulary size,
emphasize learning of sight words in the primary but that indirect learning alone was insufficient
grades. Years later, as high school graduation (p. 4–24).
approaches, schools restart vocabulary instruction
in preparation for college entrance examinations. For example, Swanborn and deGlopper (1999)
But he warned that the critical middle grades are designed a meta-analysis of twenty studies of
too often left out of the overall K–12 vocabulary word learning during normal reading (often
development plan. These grades are critical times called incidental vocabulary learning). They found
in vocabulary development for future student that, on average, students learn about 15%
success in literacy and in schoolwork in general. of the unfamiliar words encountered during
According to research, effective vocabulary reading. But a close analysis of their statistical
instruction should be designed in line with these results indicated real concerns about incidental
principles: vocabulary learning, especially for struggling
readers. High ability readers demonstrated a 19%
• Direct, explicit instruction in vocabulary probability of learning an unfamiliar word in text.
plays a central role in increasing students’ Low ability readers, however, demonstrated only
vocabulary size.

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Students with superior a 7% probability. In their analysis, Swanborn exposition for which students may have
vocabulary find more success and deGlopper also found that density of inadequate background knowledge. At this
in reading. Therefore, they unfamiliar words was a factor. If only 1 in every stage, poor vocabulary skills increasingly affect
read more and achieve better 150 words is unknown (that is, very easy text), further academic development, and students
in school. Students with poor the probability of readers learning an unfamiliar can spiral down in failure at school (Snowling,
vocabulary struggle with word is 30%. For text in which 1 out of 10 words 2002), an effect often referred to as the Matthew
reading, read less, and do is unfamiliar, the probability is only 7%. Since Effect (Stanovich, 1986). Students with superior
poorly in school, falling further struggling readers spend so much of their reading vocabulary find more success in reading.
and further behind their peers. time in school dealing with frustration-level texts, Therefore, they read more and achieve better in
the likelihood that they will learn new words school. Students with poor vocabulary struggle
from casual reading is much reduced. with reading, read less, and do poorly in school,
falling further and further behind their peers.
Baumann and Kame’enui’s (2004) text, Vocabulary
Instruction: Research to Practice, divided Depth of Learning
its definition of comprehensive vocabulary
instruction into three major components: In his survey of research on vocabulary instruction,
teaching specific words; fostering word Nagy pointed out that schools’ goals should
consciousness, that is, being aware of and not be simply to expose students to a lot of
interested in word meanings; and teaching vocabulary words. Instead, schools need to bear
strategies for learning words independently. in mind that improved reading comprehension is
The instruction in Wordly Wise Science & Social the goal. “For vocabulary instruction to increase
Studies plays an important role in each of these. the comprehension of texts that contain the
It provides systematic attention to the learning instructed words, it must be fairly intensive”
of specific words that are of importance in the (Nagy, 2005, p. 28). He estimated that, for most
content areas. It communicates powerfully to students, between seven and twelve instructional
students that vocabulary growth is important, encounters with a word are necessary for it to be
an aspect of word consciousness. Students also learned in sufficient depth. The National Reading
practice a variety of strategies during direct Panel report (2000) also validated the importance
instruction that can then be transferred to their of repeated exposures to new vocabulary words
own independent reading situations. and called for “extended and rich instruction in
vocabulary” (p. 4–22).
Content-area Vocabulary Learning
Repetition is important, in part, because
Beginning vocabulary knowledge is understood knowledge of a word’s meaning is not an “all
best as part of readers’ general knowledge of or nothing” affair. Learning a new word usually
their world (Carver, 2000). “The research and occurs gradually, along a continuum, as learners
theory strongly suggest that teaching vocabulary are repeatedly exposed to that word. Nagy and
is synonymous with teaching background Scott (2000) called this aspect of vocabulary
knowledge. The packets of information that learning incrementality. One of the pioneers of
constitute our background knowledge all have vocabulary study, Edgar Dale (Dale & O’Rourke,
labels associated with them” (Marzano, 2004, 1986), suggested that there are four levels of
p. 35). So once students transition from the word knowledge, varying from “I never saw it
“learning to read” stage to a stage in which before” to “I know it”:
content-area reading and learning plays the
central role, the “reading to learn” stage (Chall, 1. The student has never seen the word.
1996), texts change from familiar situations—
realistic fiction, for example—to more abstract 2. The student has seen the word but cannot
verbalize its meaning.

6 eps literacy and intervention

3. The student can recognize the word in some Nagy and Scott (2000) suggested that these …simply presenting lists of
contexts and has partial knowledge of its traditional strategies need to be modified as words and their definitions
meaning. follows: Target vocabulary words must be does not sufficiently improve
integrated with content-area learning or with
4. The student has full knowledge of the word, students’ background knowledge. Instruction and vocabulary knowledge.
can explain its meaning(s), and understands its practice with target words needs to be repeated Growth comes as learners
use in varied contexts. so that students know the words thoroughly. make connections between
Traditional rote practice with target words should new words and concepts and
Part of the purpose of repetition has to do be replaced by active student involvement in the the words and concepts from
simply with the power of repeated practice in process of learning.
learning, but a great deal of repetition in the their own experience.
lessons is focused on moving a student toward Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies follows
a Level 4 understanding by use of the word in these recommendations: Students read content-
varied contexts. area text passages using the target words.
Different types of activities provide repetition of
In non-academic accounts of vocabulary target words in varying contexts. Students read
instruction, much attention is paid to the words in context and actively respond in a variety
breadth of vocabulary knowledge, that is, to the of meaning-based practice activities, and they are
sheer number of words “known” by readers. given immediate feedback to their responses.
Less attention has been paid to the depth of
vocabulary knowledge. Scott and Nagy (1997) Strategic Learning
noted that to know a word means more than
simply knowing its definition. Similarly, Proctor Knowledge of vocabulary that can be used for
et al. (2009) found that depth of vocabulary the learning of new words is sometimes called
knowledge is important to students’—including generative word knowledge (Nagy, 2005), or
bilingual students’—comprehension. Proctor’s simply strategic learning. One important aspect
research was based on an understanding of of vocabulary development is the learning of
word depth that included the different domains information about the meanings of specific
involved in knowing words, such as their words, as discussed in previous sections of
pronunciation (phonology); spelling (orthography); this paper. In this section, another aspect of
meaningful parts (morphology); part(s) of speech vocabulary study, strategic learning, is discussed.
(syntactic constructions); meaningful use in This gives students the ability to apply specific
sentences (semantic representations); appropriate word knowledge to new words they encounter in
use in sentences (pragmatics); and history and their independent reading and study of texts.
derivation (etymology).
Strategic learning includes using context,
So, simply presenting lists of words and their understanding word parts, and differentiating
definitions does not sufficiently improve among multiple meanings. Wordly Wise Science
vocabulary knowledge. Growth comes as learners & Social Studies teaches these strategies as an
make connections between new words and integral part of its vocabulary instruction, so
concepts and the words and concepts from students are better able to learn words that are
their own experience. Traditional strategies of not taught directly.
vocabulary instruction, such as having students
look up definitions in the dictionary, copy them, Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies lessons
and copy sample sentences from the board in incorporate a wide variety of vocabulary
preparation for a weekly quiz, are too frequently learning strategies. Students see these strategies
used in classrooms (Rupley & Nichols, 2005). modeled, and they develop an ability to use them
independently. (See Table 1.)

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Strategies using word parts have been found to (2007) estimated that the meanings of 60
be particularly helpful to middle grade students’ percent of words can be inferred from their word
ability to learn new words encountered in reading parts. In the expository texts that increasingly
and studying (Baumann et al., 2002; Baumann et replace narrative text in the upper grades, words
al., 2003). Direct, systematic instruction in word that contain word part clues to meaning occur
parts improves vocabulary knowledge (Baumann, twice as often (Ebbers, 2008).
2005; Baumann, et al, 2003). It also improves
students’ ability to infer the meanings of new Other Key Research Issues
words (Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle, and Watts-Taffe,
2006). The use of meaningful word parts includes The four key research-based vocabulary-learning
knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, and root words. principles described above serve as foundations
(This skill is sometimes called structural analysis, for Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies
morphemic analysis, or morphology.) Bromley instruction. Teachers and schools using the

Strategic learning includes Strategy Wordly Wise Science & Social Example from Wordly Wise
using context, understanding Use context Studies Activity Science & Social Studies
word parts, and differentiating Use word parts
among multiple meanings. (Morphology) Students see contextual use of words During condensation, water changes
Wordly Wise Science & Relate words in throughout the lesson activities and in from a liquid to a gas.
Social Studies teaches these families the passage.
strategies as an integral part Use graphic organizers In Word Smarts, students use The root spir means “breathe.”
of its vocabulary instruction, meaningful word parts as clues to Respiration is the act of breathing in
so students are better able Use mnemonics meanings of words. and out.
to learn words that are not In the Word List, students see related
taught directly. Use self-monitoring forms and parts of speech of target circulation n. The movement of gas or
words. liquid in a circular or looped path.
Table 1
In Practice for Success, students use circulate v. To follow a circular or
graphic organizers to achieve a deeper looped path.
understanding of words—for example,
categorizing and giving examples/non- Circulation Not Circulation
examples.
Water moving A rock falling off
through the water a cliff
cycle

In Practice for Success, students To remember the word caravan, picture
learn how mnemonics can help them a car followed by a van. Together, these
remember a word’s meaning; they vehicles form a caravan. A caravan
associate a word they are learning with is a group of vehicles (or people and
a known word or concept. Animation animals) that travel together as a unit.
provides a clear presentation of this
device. When water circulates, it dries up and
is gone forever.
Throughout the program, students
are guided to assess their own True
understanding of a word’s meaning.
Immediate feedback validates or False
corrects their choices. Unmastered
words trigger Practice for Success Feedback: When water circulates, it
activities. follows a path like a circle that keeps
repeating. If water dries up, it goes into
the sky and then returns as rain.

8 eps literacy and intervention

program may, however, have questions about the part of the program, such as repetition, Calderón and her colleagues
research basis pertaining to other aspects of its contextual use of target words, and word parts. (2005), for example, found
instruction. For example: A similar study by Carlo, August, and Snow that a direct instructional
(2005) with fifth grade ELL students also found approach—the approach at
• Can Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies that these three instructional components were the foundation of Wordly
be effectively used with English Language key to student success. Wise Science & Social
Learners? Studies instruction—is
The transition of ELL students into mainstream, effective for second-
• What role does the audio support in English-only classrooms is a critical point where language learners. This
Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies play in second-language learners need appropriate study included instructional
instruction? instructional support. Calderón, Hertz-Lazarowitz, components that are
and Slavin (1998) and Saunders and Goldenberg an important part of the
• Is there research that supports using (2001) have provided research evidence that extra
computer-based instruction to scaffold support in vocabulary learning will be an effective program, such as repetition,
vocabulary learning? part of this transition. contextual use of target
words, and word parts.
• What function does the learning The Report of the National Literacy Panel on
management system play in increasing the Language-Minority Children and Youth (August
effectiveness of vocabulary instruction? & Shanahan, 2006) reviewed existing research on
language-minority students. The report did note
English Language Learners that the effect sizes of instructional interventions
are lower than with students from English-
Children who speak a language other than speaking homes, indicating that additional and
English at home tend to have smaller vocabularies more intensive instruction is necessary. The report
than the general student population (August also noted that respect for cultural diversity and
& Shanahan, 2006; Proctor et al., 2009). Poor English instruction are important, in addition to
English vocabulary is one cause of poor reading the strategy instruction.
comprehension for English Language Learners,
or ELLs (Garcia, 1991; Verhoeven, 1990). The Audio Support
instruction in content-area vocabulary provided
by Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies is Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies lessons
appropriate for many ELL students. are entirely scaffolded by the use of audio
technology. The reading aloud of definitions,
Research on teaching academic vocabulary to examples, questions, and passages is done using
ELLs has dramatically increased in the last several natural, digitized speech by human readers. This
years as these students’ needs have become natural, digitized speech is understood better
more apparent (Townsend, 2009). The National than, and preferred to, the artificial, robotic,
Reading Panel’s (2000) survey of instructional phonemically synthesized speech sometimes
effectiveness found that strategies effective with found in computer-based instruction.
first-language learners are also effective with
second-language learners. With the increasing availability of technology in
classrooms, researchers have directed a good
Calderón and her colleagues (2005), for example, deal of attention to the use of audio support
found that a direct instructional approach—the for reading (Balajthy, 2007). Audio support is
approach at the foundation of Wordly Wise effective in improving comprehension with a wide
Science & Social Studies instruction—is effective variety of types of learners, including students
for second-language learners. This study included with attentional difficulties (Hecker et al., 2002),
instructional components that are an important

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In Wordly Wise Science & younger struggling readers (Leong, 1995; Montali is a preeminently natural form of communication.
Social Studies instruction, & Lewandowski, 1996), older struggling readers Listening is practically automatic and requires little
audio support plays a (Elkind, 1998; Wattenberg, 2004), and students conscious attention, so that other learning tasks
particularly important role. with disabilities (Wise & Olson, 1994). can be carried on at the same time” (p. 116). The
The goal is for struggling lower readability levels of Wordly Wise Science
readers to be able to focus Audio support can be helpful for proficient & Social Studies passages (two grade levels in
on vocabulary learning. readers, but it is even more helpful for readability easier than typical text at the students’
It is important that the struggling readers (Disseldorp & Chambers, grade level) helps avoid this overload. The audio
rigors of reading—a skill at 2002). Wolf (2007) verified established findings support provides an additional scaffold to help
which these students are that audio support during reading improves students appropriately focus on learning the new
challenged—not interfere the comprehension of struggling readers, but vocabulary words.
with that vocabulary this study also found that readers’ phonemic
learning… awareness and listening comprehension were Computer-Based Instruction
improved. Montali and Lewandowski (1996)
indicated that struggling readers performed as The explosive growth in online learning over
well as average readers when text was presented the past few years has been described as
in this bimodal condition of audio support with signaling a “revolution in the educational
visual reading. sector” (Natriello, 2005, p. 1892). The potential
of computers for providing direct teaching in
Mayer and Moreno (1998) compared the use of vocabulary was recognized from the early days
text and audio narration on learning of computer- in which the primitive microcomputers of the
based content-area lessons. They found that 1980s were being introduced to classrooms.
on their computer-based lesson presentations, Research quickly established that vocabulary
learners did best when they were able to instruction using computers can be more effective
integrate material from the screen with audio than traditional methods (Balajthy, Bacon, &
support. They called this result the split-attention Hasby, 1987). Teachers face difficulty in finding
effect, in that learners were able to learn best classroom time for vocabulary instruction. Only
when their attention could be directed in an about one percent of student time is spent in
integrated way both to the screen and to audio developing content-area vocabulary in traditional
support. Similar findings supporting the use of upper-elementary classrooms (Scott, Jamieson-
speech prompts in computer-based instruction Noel, & Asselin, 2003). The ability to use online
were reported in a study by Davidson, Elcock, and instruction to increase student time-on-task is one
Noyes (1996). of the greatest benefits of this technology.

In Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies Early surveys of research on online learning
instruction, audio support plays a particularly found that it is just as effective as traditional,
important role. The goal is for struggling readers face-to-face instruction (Russell, 1999). Time
to be able to focus on vocabulary learning. It and experience have resulted in instructional
is important that the rigors of reading—a skill improvements in delivery media and in
at which these students are challenged—not more sophisticated support systems. Newer
interfere with that vocabulary learning (a concept approaches, such as those employed in Wordly
sometimes called cognitive interference or Wise Science & Social Studies, offer promise
cognitive overload). Balajthy (1989), in his chapter of even better results (Zhao et al., 2005). In a
on “Voice Synthesis,” written when classroom 2009 U.S. Department of Education study on
computers were only beginning to use voice to the effectiveness of online learning, the authors
scaffold reading, described its benefits: “Speech cited a need for more research on K–12 online

10 e p s l i t e r a c y a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n

learning, but the statistical results from general and-practice format. In large measure, that is due As a tool, technology can
research supported its potential: “Students who to the nature of its instruction as tutorial rather help teachers provide
took all or part of their class online performed than simple drill-and-practice. Tutorial software needed supports for
better, on average, than those taking the presents information and guides learning in struggling readers,
same course through traditional face-to-face a way that imitates the interaction between including instructional
instruction” (p. xiv). The report noted that much an individual student and a human tutor. As reinforcement and
of the improved results could be attributed to the with a human tutor, tutorial software provides
greater time-on-task that online learning often motivation and uses the quality of the student opportunities for guided
makes possible. responses to determine what to do next (Grabe & practice” in vocabulary
Grabe, 2007). Instruction in Wordly Wise Science
The Carnegie Foundation’s Reading Next report & Social Studies vocabulary tutorials, involving instruction (Biancarosa &
on adolescent literacy development called for the development of sophisticated understandings Snow, 2004, p. 19).
increased use of classroom technology: “As of word meanings and uses, is a good deal more
a tool, technology can help teachers provide complex than that offered by standard drill-and-
needed supports for struggling readers, including practice software.
instructional reinforcement and opportunities
for guided practice” in vocabulary instruction Educational arcade drill-and-practice games
(Biancarosa & Snow, 2004, p. 19). Research also may be of use, especially in home situations.
suggests that such affective factors as motivation However, the “edutainment” nature of such
and self-esteem are increased by computer use activities has long been a concern to researchers.
(Cosden, 1988). In a discussion of vocabulary In their review of technology applications
development software, Balajthy and Lipa-Wade in special education, Woodward and Rieth
(2003) described how this affective impact (1997) noted that “arcade games compete for
works: “Computers confer status to the users, time and attention in the context of drill and
suggesting that they are engaged in cutting-edge practice… Arcade games seem to detract from
learning. That status can work to overcome the high amounts of practice required of students
negative image often associated with receiving with disabilities, if they are to master target
instruction as a struggling reader” (p. 99). skill areas” (p. 514). Direct instructional format
computer-based instruction, such as that in
In 2000, the National Reading Panel’s Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies, maximizes
comprehensive survey of reading research included time-on-task in learning and more closely
attention to computer-based learning. The report matches teaching methods preferred and used
cited a variety of newer studies finding that by classroom teachers.
“computer technology…may be a powerful way
of increasing vocabulary” (p. 4–26). The authors Learning Management System
of the report suggested that computers could
be used as tools to provide more time-on-task in The management system provides a variety of
practicing vocabulary, without additional burden reports for monitoring student progress for
on classroom teachers. They also found that teachers and administrators. The system allows
computer-based instruction made use of multiple ongoing monitoring of performance at several
modalities of learning for increased effectiveness, levels: the individual student, the classroom,
including speech support such as that provided in and the school. Frequent assessment of student
Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies. progress is crucial to achievement. The major
tenet of the Response to Intervention (RTI)
One key strength of Wordly Wise Science & reform efforts, as with all formative measures, is
Social Studies is that it uses a direct instructional that assessment is useful only if it is used to plan
approach, as opposed to an arcade game drill-

e p s l i t e r a c y a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n 11

The major tenet of the and adapt instruction. Wordly Wise Science & allow teachers, administrators, and evaluators
Response to Intervention Social Studies provides additional practice where to inspect students’ progress individually and by
(RTI) reform efforts, as with it is needed. class” (Biancarosa & Snow, 2004, p. 19).
all formative measures, is
that assessment is useful Much reading instructional software on the This computer-based progress monitoring also
only if it is used to plan and market today is “designed on what is now mirrors the nature of assessments called for by
adapt instruction. Wordly considered to be decade old technology” due to RTI. RTI programs include careful monitoring
Wise Science & Social insufficient progress monitoring (Lovell & Phillips, of the intervention’s success through the use
Studies provides additional 2009/2010). Wordly Wise Science & Social of frequent curriculum-based measurements
practice where it is needed. Studies provides the kind of assessment called (CBMs; Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007). The assessments
for by such reform efforts as RTI. Gehring noted in Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies are
the increasing recognition on the part of schools tightly connected to the vocabulary objectives of
of the importance of “technologies that help each lesson, rather than to the general student
educators analyze student-achievement data and progress in reading measured by CBMs. But
then adjust their teaching based on what those the research-validated connection between
results show” (2005, p. 38). vocabulary growth and reading achievement
suggests that assessed success in Wordly Wise
Classroom teachers involved in Tier 1 RTI Science & Social Studies vocabulary learning
instruction are able to monitor the performance would be reflected in overall growth in general
of each student, of groups within the class, and reading ability.
of the class as a whole. They can identify which
content themes appear to present the most One important aspect of the reports has to
challenges, as well as which kinds of activities. At do with integration of instruction. From the
the end of each lesson, they can identify which early days of computer-based instruction in the
target words presented the most difficulty to the classroom, it was clear that technology was most
class and plan for extra attention to those words. effective when it was integrated in a seamless
manner to support and extend classroom
Teachers and specialists involved in Tier 2 and instruction (Dias, 1999). Wordly Wise Science &
Tier 3 RTI instruction have the ability to “drill Social Studies reports serve not only to indicate
down” through the Wordly Wise Science & student performance, but also as reminders of
Social Studies reports to examine very specific the vocabulary words to which students are
data. For example, teachers are able to examine currently being exposed. This provides teachers
individual student performance on each of the with the cues to point out use of the current
major activities, including the practice activities vocabulary words as they occur in classroom
and the pre-test and post-test. They can also discussion or in traditional text readings, and
monitor student and class time-on-task to to encourage their use in student writing. This
determine which students are struggling to combination of traditional face-to-face teaching
complete the online activities. This can be of and online instruction (often called blended
special help to teachers and specialists who want learning or hybrid learning) offers advantages
to provide additional intervention to meet a over purely online instruction (U. S. Department
specific student’s individual needs. Assessment is of Education, 2009).
frequently administered and closely monitored so
that adjustments can be made in instruction to Wordly Wise 3000® and Wordly Wise
ensure that students are on target to achieving 3000® Online
mastery. It is one of the 15 elements of the
Carnegie Foundation’s Reading Next report on While Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies
improving literacy instruction: “Data should be is an online program for Grades 4 through 8
cataloged on a computer system that would that focuses on content-area vocabulary, its

12 e p s l i t e r a c y a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n

companion, Wordly Wise 3000 and Wordly Wise instruction as needed. Results are easy to access From the early days
3000 Online, is a general academic vocabulary in the online management system. of computer-based
program, one that teaches the general kinds
of words students need to achieve in school. Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies instruction instruction in the
The Common Core State Standards state that in vocabulary is based on key research principles classroom, it was clear
students should be able to “Determine the supporting direct instruction, content-area that technology was most
meaning of general academic and domain- vocabulary learning, depth of vocabulary learning,
specific words and phrases in a text relevant to a and the strengthening of strategic learning for effective when it was
grade [level] topic or subject area” (2010, p. 14). independent student reading situations. Research integrated in a seamless
Used in combination with Wordly Wise Science & shows clearly that vocabulary learning is at the
Social Studies, Wordly Wise 3000 provides a rich, heart of reading comprehension improvement. manner to support
wide-ranging vocabulary curriculum. The results of vocabulary growth through and extend classroom
students’ use of the program will have a positive
Conclusion impact on their literacy achievement. instruction.

Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies is designed Ernest Balajthy, Ed.D
to engage readers in grades 4–8 in learning
to improve literacy achievement through the Dr. Ernest Balajthy is Professor of Education
online, intensive development of vocabulary. It at the State University of New York College
focuses on vocabulary learning that is particularly at Geneseo. He teaches teacher preparation
appropriate during the “reading to learn” years, courses in reading and language arts and is
the kind of vocabulary that students encounter director of the SUNY-Geneseo Reading and
on a day-to-day basis in their content-area Literacy Center. Balajthy is the author of three
reading and studies. Target vocabulary words books and over 100 articles on teaching reading.
are carefully chosen and placed in the context His latest book is Struggling Readers: Assessment
of expository passages similar to those students and Instruction in Grades K–6. He speaks
will encounter in their science and social widely at national, state, and local conferences,
studies readings. Passages are written to be at and edits a column on using technology with
appropriate difficulty levels for students who are struggling readers for the journal Reading and
struggling with reading, but instruction is equally Writing Quarterly. Balajthy has been a classroom
helpful to on-level students. teacher, public school reading specialist, and
teacher educator for over 30 years. He was
Student learning is supported by Wordly Wise formerly chairperson of the SUNY-Geneseo
Science & Social Studies’s well-designed, Department of Elementary and Secondary
computer-based instructional organization that Education and Reading, as well as president of
individualizes instruction according to student the Special Interest Group on Microcomputers of
performance and that is based on key research the International Reading Association.
principles of vocabulary teaching and learning.
Students who struggle with a lesson’s vocabulary For more information about this and other research-
words are guided into additional online activities based materials from EPS Literacy and Intervention,
that reinforce learning. visit epsbooks.com or call 800.225.5750.

Online lessons focus on providing students with Copyright ©2013 by EPS Literacy and Intervention.
the depth of understanding and the number of All rights reserved.
engaged exposures to new words that are crucial
for long-term retention. Students’ performance
in each lesson is monitored and used to modify

e p s l i t e r a c y a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n 13

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