Human Body Encyclopedia

All about blood

Your blood type

There are four main types of blood,
called blood groups. Your blood group
affects who you can donate blood to.

People with blood group People with blood group

A A can give blood only to O O can donate blood to

Blood bank people with A or AB. almost anyone.
One in ten people
who go to hospital need extra People with blood group People with blood group
blood, so hospitals keep a store
of blood in a “blood bank”. The AB can only give blood B can give blood only to
blood is divided into separate AB to others with AB blood. B people with B or AB.
supplies of cells and plasma.
How much blood?
  W  h i te bloo  d   
ce   l  l   s       The average adult has about
10 pints (5.7 litres) of blood,
a    but a newborn baby
has only a cupful.
n   

d      

   p    
l a            

 te                The amount of blood
 e l         in your body grows
  st     with you. By age 10
you have up to 4 pints
   if        (2 litres).

Platelets are       h g
cells that become
sticky to make blood  .    e    s    a    e   s  i   d  t 
clot and form scabs.

By a year old a
baby has more
than
1 pint (half a
litre) of blood.

  . s   h t   n  o  m  r   u  o f  t   u o   b  A

Heart and blood

Blood cells

Nearly half the cells
in your body are blood

cells. They wear out
quickly, so you make
three million new ones
every second. Most are
made in bone marrow,
a jelly-like tissue in
hollow bones.

Red blood cells White blood cell

The most common cells in Tiny tunnels
your body are red blood Red blood cells are soft
cells. They are circular with and rubbery so as to
dimples in each side. Inside they squeeze through tiny gaps.
are packed with a red protein In the smallest blood vessels
which carries oxygen and is they travel in single file. All
called haemoglobin. the bumping and squeezing
eventually wears them out.

54 Which cells in the human body contain iron?

Blood cells

Stick together This white blood
Platelets are tiny fragments cell eats pus
of cells that help blood to and germs.
clot. They cluster around
breaks in blood vessels and This white blood cell
grow spiky stalks that help crawls between other
cells looking for
them stick together. germs.

Platelets stick Soldier cells
together in a There are lots of different
blood clot. white blood cells and
they all help guard your
Thicker blood body against invasion by
When people climb high germs. Some white blood
mountains, their bodies cells creep along the walls
make extra red blood of blood vessels and eat any
cells to help them breathe germs they find. Others make
in the thin mountain air. chemicals that destroy germs.
As a result, their blood
gets thicker. Pupils are normally
black but they look red
in photographs taken
with a flash.

  . s l  l  e c    d  o o l  b    d  e  R  ? t   x e t    n o i  t  s e   u  Q Seeing red
You can often see people’s
blood in photographs. If you
take a picture with a flash,
the light reflects off red blood
cells in the back of their eyes,

turning the pupils red.

55

Heart and blood

Bumps and cuts Caught in a net
The chemicals released by
Blood has the amazing ability platelets cause tangled fibres to
to turn from liquid to solid in form in the liquid part of blood.
minutes and so help mend The fibres trap blood cells like fish
cuts in your skin. in a net, forming a solid plug that
gets bigger and bigger.

Tangled fibres trap
blood cells.

Clotting

The moment you cut yourself,
your blood starts turning solid,
or clotting. The clot quickly
plugs the broken blood
vessels and stops them
from leaking.

Platelets in action
Platelets start the clotting
process. They change shape
to become stickier and
cluster around the cut. At
the same time, they release
chemicals into the blood.

Platelets in
the blood start to

work as soon as
you get a cut in

your skin.

56 How long does a small cut take to stop bleeding?

Bumps and cuts

Bloodsucker
A leech is a kind of worm that bites your
skin and sucks out your blood. Leech saliva
contains chemicals that stops blood from
clotting. As a result, the cut keeps
bleeding until the leech is full.

Leeches live in wet, swampy
places. They often slip down
people’s shoes and bite
their feet without
being noticed.

 c a V nasmtop pirbe    lb oo  ad t   s       a   First aid
A plaster can help a
n   cut to heal by closing the skin
d     and keeping out dirt. Plasters
also stop you scratching,
l   fr         e    
m  o    e     which can make
c      a cut worse.
h    

cl           e     
s     
o    

t      

t       

i         

 .n    

    g     

Scabs keep out Scabs Bumps and cuts
germs while When a blood clot
new skin dries, it forms a Painful bumps and cuts
grows. scab. New skin slowly are a part of your body’s
grows underneath the natural healing process.
scab, repairing the wound.
When the skin is ready, the scab A graze is a group of tiny
becomes loose and drops off. cuts. It forms when something
rough scrapes the skin quickly.
Platelets stick to each other After a few minutes, the
and to other blood cells, clot is thick enough to Blisters are bubbles of liquid
causing a clot to start stop blood escaping from that form when skin is
 forming. the wound. rubbed a lot. Don’t pop them!

Bruises are patches of blood
under the skin. They change
colour as they heal.

Black eyes are bruises that
form when blood pools under
the skin around the eye.

  .  s e t  u  n  i  m  t   h g  i e   d  n  a   e  e r  h t    n  e  e  w  t e  B 57

Heart and blood

Hormones

A hormone is a chemical that changes The pea-sized
the way part of your body works. pituitary gland is
Even tiny amounts of hormones are  just under your
powerful. Some work slowly over brain.
years, but others have instant effects.
Main gland
Growth hormone
Hormones are made in parts of 
Every day, your pituitary gland releases the body called glands. The most
about eight microscopic doses of  important is the pituitary gland
growth hormone, mostly when in your brain. Its hormones
you’re asleep. This hormone control many of the other glands.
makes your bones and
muscles grow.

The amount of growth
hormone you make in
one year is less than
this tiny pinch of sugar.

Growing up

Toddlers and teenagers have
very high levels of growth
hormone, which is why they
grow so quickly. Adults also
make growth hormone, but
the level falls with age.
58 What carries hormones around the body?

Hormones

Control chemicals The fright hormone

Hormones are important The hormone adrenaline makes you feel
 – they control many
body processes. scared or excited. It works in an instant,

Oestrogen is the female preparing your whole
sex hormone. It turns little
girls into adult women. body for sudden Your brain
action in case you becomes alert so
Testosterone is the male need to escape you can think
sex hormone. It turns little quickly.
boys into adult men.
from danger.
Melatonin helps control
the daily cycle of sleeping Adrenaline makes your
and waking. heart and lungs work
harder. Your heart
Glucagon raises the starts to pound and
level of sugar in your you gasp as your lungs
blood, giving you energy. take in extra air.

Parathyroid hormone Become Glands
tells your bones to release an expert ... above your kidneys
calcium into the blood. release
on growing up, adrenaline.
Sugar control pages 102-103
The hormone insulin helps control
the level of sugar in your blood. on sleep,
Some people don’t make enough pages 108-109
insulin and have to check their
blood sugar level regularly. They Your hairs stand
have a disease called diabetes. on end, making
your skin tingle.
People with diabetes
prick their skin to get a
drop of blood, so they
can check
how much sugar
it contains.

Adrenaline
travels to your arms
and legs
and prepares the
muscles for action.

 .   d  o o l  b  e   h  T 59

Lungs and breathing This flap shuts
when you eat so
Air bags  food can’t
go down your
We have to breathe all the windpipe.
time in order to supply our
bodies with oxygen and You breathe in
to get rid of carbon
dioxide. We use our through your The air travels down
lungs to do this. nose or mouth.
your windpipe.
Prepare the air
Each lung is a
Before the air reaches your lungs it spongy maze of 
travels through your mouth and tunnels.
nose and then goes down your
windpipe. It gets warm and
damp on its journey.

When you breathe
in, your lungs stretch
out and take in lots
of air.

  T  h e d iaphr agm    is    
a tram pol   i ne    
In and out     l  i k e
Your ribs and diaphragm help you to .

When you breathe

breathe. Your lungs fill with air when out your lungs The muscle under your
you raise your ribcage, then empty out squash down forcing lungs is called the
when you lower it. A muscle called the all the air out. diaphragm.It moves up

diaphragm helps you do this. and down as you
breathe.

60 How many breaths do you take in a day?

A helping hand Air bags
Some newborn babies
have trouble breathing. Curiosity quiz
They are put into an
enclosed cradle called Take a look through
an incubator. Extra these images related to
oxygen is pumped into breathing. You should
the incubator for them. be able to find them all
in the next few pages.

The view from the Windpipe
bottom of your Air from your mouth
windpipe. and nose enters your
windpipe, which
goes down your
throat into your
chest. Then it splits
into two passages – 
one for each lung.

The alveoli are
surrounded by tiny
blood capillaries to take
the oxygen round the
body.

Air sacs 61
Your lungs are full of tunnels
ending in tiny air sacs called
alveoli. Here, oxygen from the
air passes into your blood. Your
blood carries oxygen around
every part of your body.

  .  0  0 0  ,  3 2  t   u o   b  A

Lungs and breathing

Air and oxygen

The air you breathe contains a life-

giving gas called oxygen. Oxygen

O x  y g e  n  helps your cells get their energy
from food. They
would die within

minutes if you

During the day, trees stopped breathing.
take in carbon dioxide
 from the air and give
out oxygen.

Oxygen from trees

Trees help to clean the air by You normally take
about 20 breaths per
filtering out pollution. They minute – more if you’re
exercising.
also make oxygen, which

they release through d   i o  x  i d   e

their leaves.

Ca r b o n

Become
an expert...

on cells, the body’s
building blocks,
page 8-9

What is in air?

Air is all around

you, but you can’t Puffed out
see, smell, or taste it. Breathing heavily gives your
You can feel it when body extra oxygen so it can
the wind blows. work harder. You feel puffed
out and pant when your lungs
can’t supply your body with
oxygen quickly enough.

62 What is the kiss of life?

Air and oxygen

Airless places

Not every place has air
to breathe, so sometimes
people carry their own.

Fires burn up oxygen
and produce thick,
poisonous smoke.

Mountain tops When you breathe
have thin air with out under water you
little oxygen. make bubbles.

Space and planets Hold that breath!
near Earth have no People can spend a few moments under water
air to breathe. without breathing. Most people can manage
about a minute, but the world record is
Water contains around six minutes.
oxygen, but humans
cannot breathe it.

On a cold day you can You need to be able
see the water in your to control your
breath turn to steam as
it meets the air. breathing to blow up
a balloon.

   c  h p uff    ha    
v   
    u e    

   m    y     
o     
 u
    w
      o      o g
Wet air    ? t
Have you noticed that when      H
you breathe onto a window or
a mirror it becomes wet? That’s
because the air you breathe out
is slightly damp.

How much air?

You take in about half a litre
(0.8 pints) of air with each breath. If 

you breathe in deeply you can take
in about 3 litres (5 pints) in one gulp.

63

 .  h t   u  o  m  r  i e  h t  o t  n i  g  n  i   w o l  b   y  b  g  n i  h t   a  e r  b    d e  p   p o  t s  s  a  h  o  h   w  e   n  o  e   m  o s  g  n i  p  l e  h   f o   y  a   w   A

Lungs and breathing

Making sounds

Humans can make many more
sounds than other creatures.
Because the shape of your

face affects your voice,
your voice is unique.

  u can s p  e  a   k  wh   i s p e  r, h  u m, and    s  h   o   ut! 
,
   Y  o

Voice box

Your voice box has two jobs. You

use it to make sounds, and to seal

off your windpipe when you

eat so you don’t choke.

Open vocal cords

Closed vocal cords Vocal cords
Inside your voice box are
two flaps called vocal
cords. You make sounds
by pushing air between
them, causing them to
vibrate. Fast vibrations
produce high sounds,
slower ones, low sounds.

Adam’s apple

During puberty, a

Air supply boy’s voice box
grows bigger, giving
You use the air coming him a deeper voice.
out of your lungs to You can sometimes

produce sounds. So it’s see it bulging at the Adam’s
difficult to speak when front of the throat. It apple
you’re breathless.
is known as the
Adam’s apple.

64

Why do babies and children have higher voices than adults?

Making sounds

Loud sounds    s  n o re r ? 
Z       k   n  o w   a  z  z  Z Z
The harder air is forced
out of the lungs, the

louder the sound. So
when a baby takes a
big gulp of air you can

expect a really big cry! y    o  u
  D o
Shaping words Snoring

The air coming from the Sometimes, when
lungs is shaped by the
tongue, cheeks, and lips       Z  Z  Z  Z Z Z people sleep, the
to form specific sounds. fleshy parts at the
back of the nose and
Oo is made by pursing
your lips and pushing throat vibrate as they
them out.
breathe. This rattling
Ah sounds are made with
a low tongue and a wide is called snoring. It
open mouth.
can also happen when
Ee is made by stretching
your lips and keeping you have a cold.
your tongue up high.

Making music

Didgeridoo

You control your breath

when you speak, but you

Become need really excellent
an expert... breath control to
sing or play a
on puberty,
wind instrument.
pages 102-103

on body language,

pages 112-113

65

  . s  d  n   u  o s   r e   h g i  h  g  n  i c  u   d  o r  p  ,  r e  t s  a f  e t   a r  b i  v    h c i  h   w  , s   d  r  o c l   a  c o  v   r e  t  r o   h s  e  v  a  h    y e  h  T

Lungs and breathing

Ah-choo!

You need to keep your airways clear to
breathe at all times. If something gets

into your airways you have
to get it out pretty quickly!

  A    s   nf  a  e     s e  t z  ae  sc aa  nc at  rra!!v!! e  l     

   a  s

Sneezing

Sneezes are a quick way to get
rid of unwanted particles that
you have accidentally breathed
into your nose.
66 Why do you close your eyes when you sneeze?

Ah-choo!

Gulp! Usually the flap The flap closes
is up, holding your when you
The sticky mucus windpipe open. swallow.
(snot) in your nose
and airways traps Safety catch

dust and dirt in Unlike other animals, human beings use
the air that you the throat both for eating and breathing.
breathe. Every The epiglottis is a small flap of cartilage
day you swallow that shuts off your windpipe when you
about a glass of  swallow so food can’t accidentally go
down it and choke you.
the stuff.
 g e t i nt o  i t    
Nose hairs
Yawning is
The tiny hairs in your nose work like catching! Is there anyone
brooms to sweep out any particles that nearby? Give a yawn and
you’ve breathed in. They get trapped
in mucus and are swept along to be see if you can start
swallowed down your throat. a yawning epidemic!

Coughing Hiccups Yawning

Irritating particles that have Sometimes your diaphragm Nobody knows why we yawn

entered your throat are suddenly tightens, causing air but we do know one effect of 

thrown out when you cough. to rush into your lungs. This yawning: more oxygen in the

Coughing uses your vocal makes your vocal cords snap lungs. It seems we yawn to

cords, which is why a noise closed with a “hic”. Hiccups perk ourselves up when

comes out with the cough. seem to happen for no reason. we’re feeling tired or bored. 67

  .  e  z  e e   n s  e  h t   f o   e  c  r o f  e  h t   h t  i  w   e c  a f  r   u o  y   f o  t   u o  g  n i  t  o o   h s  s l l  a   b e   y e  r   u o  y    p o  t s  o  T

Skin, nails, and hair

All wrapped up

Skin covers your whole body. It protects
you from germs, water, and sunshine,
and helps keep your body at the right
temperature.

The skin on your Two layers
eyelids
is the thinnest Your skin has two main layers.
on your body. The top one – the one you can see – 

is called the epidermis.
Underneath is the
dermis, where there
are nerves and
blood vessels.

There are flat cells on Waterproof seal
the surface of your
Skin stops water getting into your

skin. These are made body when you have a shower or
 from a tough material
S     called keratin. When the go for a swim. It also stops fluids
cells die, they dry out and escaping from inside you.
k    flake off.
Magnified skin flakes
in       Skin cells lower down
is      a     replace the dead ones
that flake off.
so    r  t    of     s   t  r    e  t      
ch         House dust

Heavy load    y     Dust is mostly    n
Skin is the
heaviest single o     made of dead     o
part of your v     
body. It can skin. Dust mites           i n
weigh as much e      feed on this skin.
as a bag of  rc              They live in     s k
      s  t
o      beds, pillows,
and carpets.     e
 . a    
 t                k
shopping.      c

            i

Dust mites aren’t        h

          t 

really this big! They’re       e 

so small you can’t see        h
them.
68       T
How many dead skin flakes fall off every day?

All wrapped up

Sweat
Sweat pore

Sweat gland

If you uncurled a
sweat gland, it could
be over a metre (3ft)
long.

Skin colour

The colour of your skin is affected by a
substance called melanin. The more melanin
you have, the darker you will be. When you
are outside in the sun, your body produces
extra melanin to protect your skin. This melanin
makes your skin darker and you get a suntan.

o n t h e so les  o f   
  y  
 u  d y r b o i s
o   
  y  o
u   

r     

f        

. e     

e     
t       

Soggy skin Cooling down

When you soak in water for a long When sweat dries on your
time, the top layer of your skin gets skin, it helps to cool you
waterlogged and wrinkly.
down. Sweat comes from
coiled tubes under the
surface. It gets out
through tiny holes

called pores.

 .   n o i l l  i  m    n  e t  t   u o   b  A 69

Skin, nails, and hair Your fingertips have the
most sensitive skin on
At your fingertips your body.

Nails work with skin to protect
your body. They stop you
hurting the ends of your fingers
and help you to pick things up.

Arch  g e t i nt o  i t     The skin
Loop around your
Whorl Roll the soft  joints is loose and
part of your fingertip
on an ink pad. Now roll saggy so you can
your inky fingertip on a bend them
piece of paper. The easily.
mark you make is
On the surface
your very own
 fingerprint. To the naked eye,
your hand looks
Fingertip patterns smooth and solid.
Fingertips are covered
with swirly ridges that
help you grip things.
These are called
fingerprints. Everyone has
different fingerprints with
different patterns such as
arches, loops, or whorls.

Sweat leaves almost
invisible marks on all the
surfaces you touch.

Police use fingerprints to Under a
help catch criminals. microscope,
you can see all
the folds and
 flakes of 
dry, dead skin.

70 Why do you get white spots on your nails?

Nails grow from a root When you look at nail At your fingertips
under your cuticle. keratin close up, it has
lots of flaky layers. Family connections
Cuticle Like humans, birds and
animals have body parts
that are made of keratin.

Fat Claws look like
nails, but they are
Bone stronger and sharper.

The inside story Beaks are very
hard so birds can tear
Although nails are much  food and crack seeds.
harder than skin or hair,
they’re made from the

same basic material.
It is called keratin.

O      l  i  k  e a   n   i m  a   l  s    ’ c laws  .  

u     Holding on
It would be
r       difficult to hold

n   

a   

i l s          

a re 

heavy things if you

didn’t have fingernails.

They help to make your

fingertips straight and

strong. The other reason you

have fingernails is so you can

scratch when you’re itchy!

Nail growth
Nails start to grow before
you’re born, and they carry
on your whole life. They
grow quicker on your
hands than on
your feet.

Horns contain different kinds of 
keratin. Rhino horns are made of 

hair keratin.

71

 .   d e   k  c o  n  k   r o    d  e g  n  a  b    n  e e  b  s  a  h l i  a  n    w e  n  e  h t   n   a  e  m  s  t o   p s   e  s e   h  T

Skin, nails, and hair

H    Fairly hairy
a    

i        Hair is mostly made of keratin, just
r      

   g    

r     like skin and nails. You have about

o     

w    100 thousand hairs on your head
s   

f        and millions more on your body.
o    

r       

u     Hair close up
Each hair is covered with
   p     scales that overlap like
roof tiles. This makes
t         the hair strong and
protects it. Hair is dead
o      tissue, which is why it

s        doesn’t hurt to cut it.

ev            What’s your hair like?
 e n          
Hair grows out of tiny pockets or follicles.
   y The shape of these pockets controls
  ae whether hair is straight, wavy, or curly.

 r  Like moulds, follicles Slightly curvy
 s  shape each strand  follicles produce
of hair. Straight hair wavy strands
 b  grows out of straight of hair.
 follicles.
 e

  of   

  er 

  ti        

   af   
 s  ll            
 o
  u

 . t  

Head hair
Lots of body heat escapes from
your head, so the hair there is

long and thick to keep your
brain warm. Fine hairs
cover every other
part of you except
the palms of your
hands, soles of your
feet, and your lips.

72 How many hairs do you lose from your head every day?

Smooth surface Fairly hairy
Some men lose their Colour chart

hair as they grow Hair, like skin, gets
older. In fact, the its colour from a
chemical called
hair still grows, melanin. If you have
but it is shorter and no melanin in your
falls out more easily. hair, it will be white – 
if you have lots, it
A few people are will be jet black.
born without any
Brrrr...
hair at all – not When you’re cold, tiny muscles
even eyelashes. pull your body hair upright so it
forms a fuzzy layer to keep warmth in.
When the muscles pull, they make little
ridges called goose pimples.

Goose pimple

Follicles that are very
swirly in shape
produce tightly curled
hair.

  .  0  0 1  t   u o   b  A Good food
If your head is itchy, you
may have head lice. These creatures
cling to your hair and suck blood
from your scalp. When you play
with friends, the lice crawl from one
head to another. These fussy bugs
like clean heads best.

73

Fighting disease

Germs    s  e  s s p  r e ad throu g h  t h   e   ai   r       
         i   r u
Your body is a walking zoo. in        
It’s covered with bugs that      V
c     
feed and breed on you but
o    

u    

   g     

are mostly too small to see. h     

s       

Many do no harm, but some,  a    
 n
 d 
called germs, make you ill   n s
when they get inside you.   s  e  z   e e

   .

These viruses give
people colds or
the flu.

Vile viruses

Viruses are the smallest living

things on Earth. They break into

cells and force them to make new

viruses. Viruses can cause colds,

flu, measles, mumps, and warts.

Become

an expert... Verucca
A verruca (wart) is a patch
on clearing airways, of thickened skin caused by a
pages 66-67

visiting the doctor, virus. The virus often spreads

pages 110-111 from person to person in places

where people walk barefoot,

such as swimming pools.

74 What animal has killed more people than any other?

Beastly bacteria Germs

Bacteria are very common germs ba  c    t   e  r   i  a       Y    o u    r    h       
that often spread by touch. When o   a  
bacteria get into cuts, they cause
swellings and sores. Certain types n  a  n    y   n t h d    i  n  l   e    a    v  e  s        
cause deadly diseases if they
get into your stomach or lungs.   g   

  y   

o    

u    

  t o         

 u
  hc  

Big bugs Billions of Bacteria

Creatures much bigger There are more bacteria on your skin than
than bacteria or viruses there are people in the world. Most do little
also feed on your body harm, and some actually protect you from other
and can make you sick. germs. If you touch rotten food or faeces, your
hands will pick up more dangerous bacteria.
Giardia live in intestines
and spread in dirty water. Fungi
They cause diarrhoea.
Some germs are fungi
Threadworms live in (related to mushrooms).
the large intestine and Tinea (ringworm) is a
spread on dirty fingers. type of fungus that
grows through skin like
Follicle mites live in the a plant, sending out
roots of most people’s eye- long thin shoots.
lashes and do little harm.
The tinea fungus
Mosquitos suck people’s grows through your
blood and spread germs skin like a plant,
that cause deadly diseases. sending out long thin
shoots.
75
  . o t i  u   q  s  o  m  e   h  T

7  Poison tears F 
 6  Germs that land i  
on your eyes are  g
Body defences washed away by
tears, which come h 
Although you can’t see them, germs from glands above
your eyes. Tears  t 
are always landing on your body contain the chemical i  
lysozyme, which kills n
and trying to get inside it. Your bacteria by making
 g
 W body has lots of clever ways them burst open.
 d 

i  
 s 
 e
 a

 s 
 e

 cihh     of keeping them out.
                      gygese?aotueodvsaseinrinfrlr                  a  b o u t 1 li tr  e    ( 2    
Earwax flows

Sticky business slowly out of      k  e   p i  n      
Germs get into your lungs your ears all the
when you breathe in. They time, flushing out   a t     
dirt and germs. s     
   m
get trapped in a sticky liquid    )      

called mucus, which lines your     u o    
    o f          

airways. Tiny beating hairs       Y s a         

continually push the mucus up  l        

to your throat to be swallowed.  v i       
  a

  a

   a  d

  y

    .

Saved by spit
The liquid in your mouth
is called saliva. As well
as helping you digest food,
saliva protects your mouth,
tongue, and teeth from
attack by bacteria.

Become Acid attack
an expert... Glands inside
of your stomach
on eyes, make acid, which
pages 38-39 kills germs you’ve
on digesting food, swallowed. Your
pages 88-89 digestive system then
breaks down the germs
 . along with your food.
     in
     ks
  r
  u
  o
   Y

Fighting disease Antibodies
attacking
Fighting germs germs.

If germs break through your outer Antibodies
defences and invade your tissues,
your body fights back. The cells Some white blood
of your immune system hunt cells make chemicals
and destroy germs. This system
also remembers germs and protects called antibodies.
you from them in the future. These stick to the
surface of germs,
Killer cells Antibody telling other body

White blood cells called macrophages This germ is being cells to attack.
kill germs by swallowing them. When swallowed.
a macrophage finds a germ, it stretches
out, wraps around the germ, and pulls
it inside. Digestive juices
then destroy it.

This white blood
cell is called a
macrophage.

Heating up
Your body gets hotter when
it fights germs, which gives
you a high temperature.

78 How many tonsils are in your throat?

Extra protection Fighting germs
Doctors protect you from germs
with vaccines. Vaccines contain Lymph system
weak or dead germs that your
immune system learns to attack. Fluid continually leaks
If the real germ ever gets inside out of your blood vessels
you, your immune system and tissues. It returns to
remembers it and attacks the blood through tubes
very quickly. called lymph vessels.

Dotted along these
are swellings called
nodes, which filter
out germs.

The swellings Tonsils
in lymph vessels are At the back of your
called mouth are several
lymph nodes. patches of tissue
called tonsils. They
Killer milk are full of white
Breast milk contains blood cells that
germ-killing antibodies fight germs in your
that protect babies from throat. However,
disease. During the first the tonsils sometimes
few days of a baby’s life, fill with germs
the mother makes a themselves and
special milk called have to be removed.
colostrum, which is
packed with antibodies. 79

  .  s e   n o   r e l l  a    m s  r   u  o f   d  n  a   s e   n o   n i  a   m   o   w  T

Fighting disease Allergens

Allergies A substance that
triggers an allergy is
An allergy happens when your body called an allergen.
mistakes a harmless substance for
a germ and overreacts to it. Food, Wasp stings can kill
plants, dust, pets, and many other people who are allergic
substances can cause allergies. to them.

Who gets allergies? Antibiotic medicines can
give allergic people a rash
If you grow up in a large on the skin.
family or on a farm, your
immune system will get Hair and skin from pets
lots of practice against can cause an allergy very
germs. Some experts think similar to hayfever.
this makes you less likely
to get allergies. Moulds grow in damp
places. Their powdery
spores can cause asthma.

Biological washing
powder can cause a
skin reaction.

Dust mites are related Dust mites
to spiders and have Millions of these tiny beasts,
eight legs. which are smaller
than full stops, live
Mouth in your home. They
feed on dead
skin. Their
microscopic
faeces are a
major cause
of asthma.

80 What’s the most common type of allergy?

Allergies

Poison ivy

Poison ivy Pollen
A very common cause
Skin allergies of allergy is a powdery
If you touch a dust called pollen which
thing you’re is made by flowers.
allergic to, Pollen floats through
itchy red the air and enters our
spots may bodies as we breathe.
appear on
your skin. Skin allergies cause
Poison ivy itchy red spots that
plants, make-up, can look just like a
 jewellery, and clothes nettle rash.
can cause skin allergies.
Peanuts can be
Food allergies
Foods that cause deadly to Hayfever Hayfever can make
allergies include people with People who are allergic your eyes swollen,
strawberries, nuts, a nut allergy watery, and red.
seafood, and eggs.
These can give to pollen have hayfever.
an allergic
person a skin When they breathe in
rash, a runny
nose, a sore lots of pollen, their noses
mouth, nausea,
and diarrhoea. run and their eyes get

sore. Hayfever is worst

in spring and summer,

when grass flowers release

lots of pollen into the air.

Inhalers squirt out
medicine in a spray,
helping people with
asthma to breathe.

Asthma 81
People with asthma can
find it hard to breathe.
Their chests feel tight and
their breathing becomes
wheezy. Asthma can be
caused by an allergy to
dust mites, cat hairs, or
other substances in air.

  .  r   e  v   e  f   y   a   H

Digestive system

Digestive system

Food is made up of large, When you swallow,
complicated chemicals  food passes down a
that your body has tube called the
to break into small oesophagus.
chemicals that your
blood can absorb. Tube journey
This process is
called digestion. Your digestive system
is really just a long,
Physical digestion tangled tube. Food
travels about 9 metres
Some parts of your (30 feet) as it passes
from start to finish.
digestive system mash
Liver
up food physically,

 just like a food processor

does. Your mouth breaks

food into chunks. Your Become
stomach then churns an expert...
these around until

they form a on taste and smell,

slushy liquid. pages 36-37

on what’s in food,

pages 106-107

The Venus flytrap Large
catches insects and intestine
digests them with enzymes.
Venus
 flytrap Dragonfly

82 Chemical digestion Small
Many digestive organs intestine
make juices that break down
the chemicals in food. The juices Rectum
contain enzymes, which turn large
food molecules into small molecules.

Which is longer: your small intestine or your large intestine?

Digesting a meal Digestive system

A large meal takes a day or Bread starts to Curiosity quiz
break down in
more to pass through your Take a look through the
your mouth. digestive-system pages
digestive system. Different Fat starts to and see if you can spot
digestive organs make break down
in the small any of the cells and
enzymes that work intestine. tissues below.

on different parts

of the meal.

11 12 1 The fibre in Meat starts to
10 2 vegetables isn’t break down in
digested. your stomach.

9 3 6pm
4 Food gets swallowed
8 6 5 10 seconds after it
7
enters your mouth.

Stomach 11 12 1 10pm
10 2 A meal spends
3 about 4 hours in the
9 4 stomach, but very
rich food can spend
8 6
7 5

11 12 twice as long there.
10
1 3am
9 2 The meal is slowly
squeezed through
8 6 3 your small intestine,
7 4 sometimes causing

5 loud gurgling noises.

11 12 1 The next day
10 2 Undigested leftovers
reach the end of 
9 3 their journey about
4 a day after you
8 5 swallowed the food.
7
6

  . e  n  i  t  s  e t  n i l l   a   m s  r   u  o  Y 83

Digestive system

Chew it over

We use our teeth to bite off and chew
our food. During the course of your life
you will have two separate sets of teeth.

First teeth Adult teeth Wisdom teeth False teeth
Your first teeth start When you are six Your back teeth are If you don’t take
to grow when you’re your first teeth start called wisdom teeth. care of your teeth
about 6 months old. to fall out. Adult teeth They appear when you they will decay and
The front teeth with deeper roots grow are 17 or older, and fall out. Then you
usually appear first. to replace them. sometimes not at all. will need false teeth.

Types of teeth A child has 20 teeth,
an adult has 32.
Your mouth contains a selection of 
different types of teeth. Each type

is designed to do a different job. Canines grip and Incisors at the
tear food using a  front of your
Molars at the back of your mouth Premolars roughly crush and single rounded mouth slice up
have a flat edge so you can mash grind your food. They are point. chunks of food.
your food thoroughly. smaller than molars.

Roots

Without long roots your teeth might
break or fly out of your mouth if you
bit down hard on your food. The root
is held in place by a kind of cement.

84 What is another name for your first teeth?

Chew it over

      Bt  o  r  uk  se heptwdiec c  e a    y a   da   y    Brush your teeth!
aw  a    y   
. A sticky mixture of food
and bacteria builds up
on the surface of your

teeth if you don’t clean

them properly. It is

Decay called plaque.

Bacteria in plaque can eat

through tooth enamel and

attack the blood vessels

and nerves deep inside the

tooth. This is called decay.

It hurts, and the dentist

may need to give you a filling. Inside a tooth

The sugar in sweets Deep inside your teeth are lots of blood
sticks to your teeth, vessels and nerves. The nerves mean
 forming plaque. you can feel heat, cold, and pain.
Plaque contains
bacteria that causes
teeth to decay.

Enamel Enamel
The hardest and toughest
substance in your body is Enamel
tooth enamel. It contains
Blood
no living cells so it vessels
can’t repair itself if it and
nerves
is damaged.

Gum

 .  h  t  e e t   y  b  a  b   r o   h  t  e e t   k l  i   M 85

Digestive system

From mouth
to stomach

You start digesting food the moment
you bite into it. As your teeth tear
the food apart, enzymes in your spit
begin to attack it chemically. By the
time it reaches your stomach, your

meal is unrecognizable.

Seen close up, Get a grip
your tongue is
covered by tiny Your tongue is a super
bumps and stalks strong, flexible
bundle of muscle
that make its that pushes food
surface rough to against your
teeth as you
improve its grip. chew. It has a
rough surface
for good grip.

86 Tongue Mouth watering

The slimy liquid in
your mouth is saliva.
It moistens food to
make it easier to
chew and swallow.
Saliva also contains
an enzyme that
breaks down starch,
one of the main
ingredients in bread,
rice, and pasta.

Uvula

What is the scientific name for burping?

This flap shuts From mouth to stomach
off your nose
when you Tongue
swallow.

This flap closes
your windpipe
as you swallow.

When your stomach is Swallowing
empty, its stretchy wall Swallowing is a reflex action, which
is full of folds. means it happens automatically without
you having to think about it. When your

tongue pushes food to the back of 
the mouth, the swallowing
reflex begins.

Stretchy stomach
Your stomach has
a very stretchy
wall so that it can
expand to hold
big meals. Glands
in the wall make
acid and enzymes
that start digesting
protein in meat.

Down the tube Food leaves your
Swallowed food gets pushed stomach through a
down a muscular tube called small ring
the oesophagus. The muscles of muscle.
work so well that you would
still be able to swallow if you
were standing on your head.

Stomach action

Your stomach’s wall is made of 

muscles that squeeze in ripples

to churn food about. When the

food is ready to leave, the

muscles squirt it out. 87

  .     n   o   i  t     a  t   c    u   r    E

Digestive system

Inside the intestines

When food leaves your stomach, it enters
a long, tangled tube. This has two parts.
The first is your small intestine, which is
long and narrow. The second is your large
intestine, which is shorter but fatter.

Small intestine

The small intestine
finishes off the job of 
digestion. Digested

food soaks
through its wall

and enters the
blood to be

carried away.

Finger blobs
Tiny, finger-shaped
blobs called villi line
the small intestine.
They speed up the
absorption of food.

Muscles push A squeezing action Pushed along
 food through your travels along the intestine Your intestines use a special kind of muscle
intestines just like this in waves. action called peristalsis to move food along.
hand pushes a ball along Rings of muscle in the intestines squeeze
a stocking. behind the food, pushing it.

88 How tall would you be if your intestines weren’t coiled up?

Inside the intestines
Large intestine

Undigested leftovers
end up in the large
intestine. Here, water
and some vitamins
are absorbed. The
rest passes out of 
your body as poo.

Slippery slime
The walls of the intestines
are covered with a slippery
liquid called mucus. Mucus
helps food slide along and
protects the intestines from
their own digestive juices.

Become
an expert...

Poo is stored in a pouch on how muscles work,
called the rectum before it pages 26-27
leaves your body.
on nose mucus,

pages 66-67

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Urinary system Blood flows in and
out of the kidneys
Waterworks through large blood

Your body gets rid of waste vessels.
chemicals and excess water by
making urine. Urine comes from Kidney
two organs called kidneys. They
filter and clean blood as it flows Your kidneys act
through, removing chemicals like sieves, filtering
that your body doesn’t need. unwanted substances from
your blood and turning
The kidneys them into urine.
clean your blood.

Urine dribbles away
through a tube called
the ureter.

The ureters Urinary system If you put your hands
carry away on your hips and your
urine. Your kidneys, bladder, thumbs on your back,
and the tubes connected your kidneys are next
The bladder to them make up your
stores urine. urinary system. The last to your thumb tips.
part of the urinary system
is the urethra. Urine comes
out of this tube when you
go to the toilet.

The urethra gets

rid of urine.

90 How long do your kidneys take to clean all the blood in your body?

Inside a kidney Waterworks

The blood vessels entering your kidneys Balancing act
divide into smaller and smaller branches. Your kidneys keep
These lead to a million tiny filtering units the water level in
your body perfectly
called nephrons. balanced. If you
drink too much,
Blood flows your kidneys make
through a knot of  watery urine to get
tiny vessels. rid of any excess.
When your body
Fluid passes out is short of water,
into a chamber. your kidneys pass
less into your urine.

The fluid leaves This part of the brain When the water
through this monitors the water level is low, the
tube. level in blood. pituitary gland
releases the
Inside a nephron hormone ADH.
As blood flows through a nephron, fluids
leave the blood vessel and pass to a long, 91
looped tube. Useful chemicals are then
reabsorbed into blood.

Water disposal A low water ADH travels
level also triggers to your
Here’s how your body a feeling of thirst, kidneys in
gets rid of water. making you drink. your blood.

Urine makes up more Water Your kidneys save
than half of the water control water, making your
that leaves your body. Your kidneys work urine stronger.
together with your brain
Breath contains over to control your water
a quarter of the water level. When this level
your body gets rid of. is low, your brain
releases a hormone that
Sweat is only about one makes your kidneys
twelfth of the water save water.
leaving your body.
  .  s  e t  u  n  i  m   5 2  t   u o   b  A
Poo is fairly dry and
contains only a little bit
of your liquid waste.

Urinary system

The stretchy bladder

All day long, a small stream of  Nappy rash
urine trickles out of each kidney.
It collects in an organ called the Babies sometimes get
bladder, which stores the urine a rash under nappies.
until you go to the toilet. This happens when
urine mixes with
Filling up poo and makes the
skin sore.
Your bladder stretches as
it fills up. This sends a
signal to your brain,
making you want to
go to the toilet.

 X-ray of full bladder X-ray of empty bladder

Full stretch The bladder’s
muscly wall
An adult’s bladder stretches from squeezes to push
the size of a plum to the size urine out.
of a grapefruit and can hold
about 500 ml (1 pint) of 
urine. Your bladder is
about the size of an
orange when it’s full.

Grapefruit Orange Inside the bladder

92 The bladder has a waterproof 
lining to stop it leaking. Urine

leaves through a tube called the
urethra, which is normally

Plum

kept shut by two muscles.

How much urine do you make each day?

The stretchy bladder

What is urine? Camel urine

Urine is made of water and waste

chemicals. The main waste is Camels can last for months without water so

urea, which your body makes they can survive in the driest deserts. They
when it breaks save water by making thick, syrupy urine
down protein. that is twice as salty as seawater.
The colour of 

urine depends

on how much

you drink. If 

you drink lots of 

water, your urine

will turn pale.

Camels store
 fat in their humps,
which they use for

energy.

The yellow colour Bladder control
comes from a
chemical that is In young children, the muscles that
made when old open the bladder work automatically.
blood cells are
broken down.

Tubes called As children get older, they      l.
ureters bring learn to control one of        r o
urine from the the muscles.
       t
kidneys.
    n

     o 

       c

        r

      e

        d

       d

            l a

      b
     l  e   a     r n
Potty training      t o
Children gradually gain
control of their bladder     e
around the age of two,
    v
but they still wet the     a
This muscle opens bed at night. By the age        h
automatically when to
the bladder is full. leacran nosftfaoyurd,rmyaosaswtt neclihlg.ihldt r e  nT    o    d      d               l e  r s

Urethra

We have

to control this

muscle.

 . t   a  e   w s   d  n  a   k  n  i r  d    u o  y    h c  u   m    w o  h    n o  g  n i  d   n e   p e  d  , s l  u f  p   u c  8  - 4 93

Reproduction and growth The first cells
After 36 hours, the cell has
Making a baby divided and made an exact
copy of itself. These are the
You need a mother and a father to first two cells of a baby.
make a baby. The mother’s body does
most of the work, but the father also Eggs are the biggest cells in
has an important job – his sperm joins the human body. But they
with the mother’s egg and a new are still very small – ten
life begins... would fit across a pinhead.

Sperm are amazing
viewed under a microscope.
They look like tiny tadpoles. You
can see their tails wriggling as
they swim.

By the time the

Sperm race baby is born,

Millions of sperm swim towards the fertilized cell
the egg cell. Only one sperm can
 join with the egg to make a new cell. will have become
100 trillion cells.

94 What is another name for the uterus?

Making a baby

Divide again The future you At three days
You don’t grow much in Each cell is unique to The cells have carried on
the first few days. The two you. Cells are full of  dividing. There are now 16 cells
cells divide to make four, instructions about what and they are almost ready to
then eight, and so on. you will look like. plant themselves in the uterus.

Where it all happens The cells start dividing as
they move down the
The sperm fertilizes the egg in a tunnel, called a Fallopian tube towards
Fallopian tube. The fertilized egg moves down the uterus.

the tunnel towards the mother’s uterus. Millions of sperm
The journey takes about five days.  from the father
travel up here
towards the egg..

This is the uterus. It This is the mother’s
is about the size of a ovary. It releases
pear and has one egg every month.
muscular walls.
Arriving in the uterus
The ball of cells plants 95
itself in the wall of the
uterus. In this warm,
dark place the baby
will spend the next
40 weeks growing
and developing.

 .   b   m  o  w  e   h  T

Reproduction and growth

Growing in the womb

By eight weeks old, the baby is no longer a bundle of 
cells. It looks like a tiny person and is called a “foetus”.
The foetus does not eat, drink, or breathe by itself. All its
needs are taken care of by its mother.

Boy or girl?

Parents can find out Parents often choose not
about a baby’s to find out their child’s
health and sex sex so they
can have a surprise on
before it is born. A its birthday.
scanning machine
shows the baby on a  y  w e e ks o ld   
screen. This is many .
parents’ first sight of 

their child.

wee ks      i  S  x  t e en we  e  k  s     ol          n  t
  E  i g   h t d         e
ol   d       .      w
     T
. 

Food and oxygen
 from the mother
travel through this
special cord.

The size of a strawberry The size of a lemon The size of a grapefruit
The foetus has eyes, a nose, At 16 weeks the foetus can At 20 weeks the foetus is
lips, and a tongue. It lives make different faces, clench getting more active. It is still
in a protective bag of liquid its fist, and suck its thumb. It quite small so there’s plenty
and uses its tiny muscles to can hear its first sounds but of room to kick around and
swim around gracefully. its eyes are not open yet. turn somersaults.

96 When do we first start to dream?

Growing in the womb

- Twent y    tw  o    w  

ee    k     
s    
o l       
d     
. 

You might feel
the baby move
if you put your hand
on a pregnant
woman’s tummy.

Fuzzy foetus

By 22 weeks, the
baby is quite well developed but fairly

thin. It will spend the next few weeks
growing a layer of fat under its skin. It

is covered in soft, fine hair.

What’s it like Happy birthday!
in there?
At last, after around
It is quite noisy in the 40 weeks, the
womb with the sounds of  moment comes for
the mother’s heartbeat and the baby to be born.
stomach rumbles. The baby Newborn babies can
can also hear noises outside breathe, suck, and
the womb and loud bangs swallow. They
may make it jump. It learns communicate by
to recognize its mother’s crying if they are
voice long before it is born. hungry or feel
uncomfortable.
  . s   k  e  e  w   0 2  t   u o  b  a  t  a ,   n  r o  b   e r  a   e  w   e  r o  f e  B
97

Reproduction and growth

Identical twins Double trouble

Identical twins are

made when a fertilized There are two different types of 
egg splits into two

separate cell clusters. twins – identical and non-identical.

Fertilization occurs Identical twins have the same genes.
when a single sperm fuses Non-identical twins are like any
with the egg. other brother or sister so only half 

The fertilized egg splits their genes are the same.
into two. We don’t know
what makes this happen. Nice and cosy

Two cell clusters The two babies grow and develop
develop into two together, sharing their mother’s
separate babies. womb. Identical twins share one
placenta. Non-identical twins
Non-identical have a placenta each.
twins

Non-identical twins

are made when the

mother releases two

eggs instead of one.

Each egg is fertilized by
a different sperm. Two
babies then develop.

Growing up

Identical twins often
notice amazing

similarities in their
taste and behaviour.

Sometimes they can
even tell what the
other is thinking!

98 Do identical twins have exactly the same fingerprints?

Multiple births Double trouble

Even rarer than being Twins in
a twin is being a triplet, the family
or even a quadruplet... Once a couple has
had one set of 
Triplets: One in 8,100 twins, they are
natural pregnancies more likely to have
produces triplets. another. Also, if 
your mother, or
Quadruplets: It’s rarer to her  mother, is a
be a quad. One in 729,000 non-identical twin
pregnancies produces quads. you may inherit
the trait and have
Quintuplets: Having five twins yourself!
children is usually a result
of fertility treatment. Mirror twins
Some identical twins are called mirror
Sextuplets: There are twins. Often, one will be left handed
currently only around and the other right handed, and
30 sets of six in the world. their fingerprints appear to mirror
each other.

Seven children are
called “septuplets”.
All these children are

non-identical.

Record-breakers!
There are presently only two
sets of septuplets in the world.
These ones are named Kenneth,
Brandon, Nathan, Joel, Alexis,
Natalie, and Kelsey. They were
born in Iowa in America in 1997.

99

 .   b   m  o  w  e  h t   n i   y l t   n  e  r e f f i  d    d e  d l   u  o  m  s  a   w  s  p i  t  r  e g  n i f  r  i e  h t    n o   n i   k s  t  f  o s  e  h t   e s  u   a  c e  b  ,  o  N

Life cycle New skills

The early years Children’s brains are
changing all the time
Babies’ bodies grow very fast, but as they learn new skills
their brains develop quickly too. at an amazing rate.
Learning to move around and talk
are both huge tasks. Smiling: most babies
start to smile at around
6 weeks old.

Drinking: babies learn
to drink from a lidded cup
between 6 and 12 months.

Eating: most babies can

feed themselves from a

Big head Babies’ big heads hold bowl at around 15 months.
Babies have enormous heads in relation big brains! They need
to the size of their bodies! As you get them because there’s Learning colours:
older, the rest of your body catches up. lots to learn. children can name
colours by 3 years old.

g  r ows  Brushing teeth: 5 year

v e  r   y     fa   s    t   du   r   ing olds can brush their teeth
without help.

f i r s t ye   ar   
bo d y...Y ou   r 

y o u r

Babies are so bendy
they can suck
their own toes!

Four days Six weeks Six months
Newborns spend most of  Babies cry when they are Babies have a lot more control
their time asleep. Even cold or hungry. By this over their bodies now. Their
when they’re awake they age, they start to make muscles are stronger so they
don’t open their eyes much. cooing sounds too. can sit up without help.

100 When do you reach half your adult height?

The early years

Chatterbox
By one year,
a baby is trying
to speak. By two,
children can use
100 different
words, and by
three most know
more than 1000
different words.

Being able to talk makes it   o  u  r s econd !

easier to play with other

 g  ychildren.
      s  l o  w s dow   n  du    r  i  n
        ly  
By three, children
        r d know the difference
 h  a between boys

.. . a   n  d

and girls.

One year Two years
By this age babies can
understand simple words. Children this age
They also take their first can walk and run,
few steps. climb stairs, and
kick balls. They
are starting to get 101
dressed alone but
can’t do up
buttons, zips,
buckles, and
shoelaces.

 .  d  l o   s r   a e  y   o  w t   d  n   u  o r  a   t  A

Life cycle What can you do?

Growing up Do you realize how much
work goes into learning
As a child, you learn to walk and all these amazing skills?
talk, run and jump, go to the toilet
alone, eat with cutlery, read and Shoelaces: At six years
write, and even make friends! old, most children can do
up their own shoelaces.

Making friends Riding a bike: At seven,

By five years old, many children can ride a
children can two-wheeled bike.

form friendships Reading: Some children
and play learn to read at four, some
together. They at five, and some at six!

start to care

what other Writing: You should

people think write fairly clearly by

of them. the time you are seven.

   y   o   u  r f eatu    re   s    b e co    m e c  l e a  r e  r...
 , 
   y  
y  o  u  r baby fa   t    me  l  t   s There’s still plenty
a  w   a of time to play
after school
   s hours.

   A

You’re learning Sitting
new skills such still and
as skipping. thinking are
skills too.

Age 4-5 Age 5-6 Age 7-10
By this age, a child can speak It’s time to learn to read, Boys and girls like different
clearly in basic sentences, write, do sums, and maybe things at this age so they
and knows many thousands even start playing a musical have more friends of their
instrument. own sex.
of words.
Why do you grow?
102

Growing up

Hair is here!

During puberty both boys and girls
get more hair on their bodies. Boys
also start to grow hair on their faces
and may start to shave.

look   
   u m  
    y   o o r    e l i ke y o   
u   
     d
    n !        

  . a
..

Times when you
grow fast are
called growth
spurts.

During adolescence, your
thoughts and feelings
change as much as your
body.

Age 11-13 What’s next?

Your body is about to start The time when you are more
growing very fast again. Boys than a child but not quite grown
have their growth spurt a year up is called adolescence. Your
or two later than girls. body changes a huge amount,
which is known as puberty.

 .  d  n  a  l g    y r  a t i  u t i  p  r   u o  y   y  b    d  e c  u   d  o r  p l   a c  i   m e   h c   a  , e   n  o   m  r o  h   h  t   w  o  r  G 103