The Third Force in the Vietnam Wars The Elusive Search for Peace 1954-75 by Sophie Quinn-Judge (z-lib.org)

190 THE THIRD FORCE IN THE VIETNAM WAR

discussions to normalize relations with its former enemy. For the people
of South Vietnam, the liberation from suspicion only truly began after
the full normalization of US– Vietnamese relations in 1996.

The communist policies implemented after 1975 were in my view
not inevitable; had a peaceful political solution been implemented
earlier, had there been a serious effort to make the Paris Agreement
work, the end of the Vietnam War might have been much different.
The southern general Trần Va˘n Tra` said as much in an essay published
in 1993:

If the withdrawal of US troops had not been coupled with the
maintenance of the Thiệu regime and a strong army . . . the history
of Vietnam might certainly have taken a different course. The
prospects would have been numerous: the restoration of peace in
South Vietnam as early as 1973; a three-component coalition
government in power; the possibility that the United States would
shift from a military assistance programme to one of economic aid;
and, in the end thereafter, gradual reunification of Vietnam by
peaceful means . . . Such a peace would certainly have brought
honor to all sides; there would have been no victors or losers.
Justice would have been the sole victor.41

But by 1975, the unstable international situation made political control
of the South the primary concern of the DRV. The early period of
economic reform, beginning with timid changes in agricultural
production in 1981 and continuing through the late 1980s, was a
time of alternating encouragement and restrictions on reformers,
especially in southern Vietnam. The fundamental lack of trust shown by
Hanoi towards the South appeared again and again, and in the late 1980s
may have been exacerbated by the rapid changes in the communist
world. The spectre of a US plot against the socialist world may or may
not have been taken seriously in the Vietnamese security organs. But
they took no chances, and in the end made sure that the northern
establishment remained firmly in control of the reform process. This
seems to have been at the root of the destruction of the flourishing
economic venture linking Minh Hải province and Laos.

Although the Vietnamese were spared the horrors of the Pol Pot
regime in Cambodia, the new government in southern Vietnam

THE END OF THE REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM AND REUNIFICATION 191

categorized its population in a way that echoed the divisions in Khmers
Rouges society: there were those who had been with the revolution for
many years, in KR parlance, the ‘base people’, and those who had lived
under the capitalist, US-backed governments, the ‘new people’. The role
of a ‘Third Segment’ as a bridge between these two groups was not
valued in Hanoi because the communist government viewed itself as the
unique source of wisdom and rectitude.

Urban areas, in particular Saigon, were viewed by some in the
politburo as dangerous remnants of the old capitalist system. Saigon
represented Western decadence: war profiteers, prostitutes, parasitical
urban traders and existentialist fence-sitters. Anyone who had served the
southern government was officially considered an enemy, in spite of the
fact that many families had had members fighting on both sides of
the conflict. This denigration of the urban was linked to real post-war
social problems caused by the forced depopulation of much of the
countryside. But at the same time it reflected Confucian and Maoist
ideas of the purity of the peasantry and rural life. In the last decade of
reform, however, as investment in manufacturing, construction and the
service sector has brought wealth and employment to Vietnam’s cities,
the leading role of Hồ Ch´ı Minh City in Vietnam’s economy has put
those anti-urban prejudices to rest.

As Vietnam gradually becomes a spiritually as well as politically
unified nation, looking back at the long years of war, one can only feel
that the whole phenomenon was, as Robert McNamara finally admitted,
‘wrong, terribly wrong’.42 Our geopolitical fears have changed so much
since 1956, or 1964, or 1973, that the original reasons for the war
become harder and harder to fathom. The thoughts of the final US CIA
chief as he helicoptered over Saigon on his way to an aircraft carrier on
the South China Sea show that even a committed Cold Warrior could see
the futility of the US attempt to leave its imprint on this distant
country: ‘in the end, seeing how it ended, I thought that we really did a
miserable job for these people and they would have been much better off
if we had never gone there in the first place’.43

While working on this manuscript, I have become convinced that
some variation on the formula of coalition government and neutrality
was possible in the south of Vietnam until late 1974. A negotiated peace
backed by US guarantees would have brought better results than the
long war that the USA inflicted on this nation. Throughout the years of

192 THE THIRD FORCE IN THE VIETNAM WAR

division, from 1954 to 1973, it is true that most programmes for peace
were intimately linked to the communist party. During the early years
after 1954, the communists and their allies clearly would have preferred
a political settlement, as they badly needed peace to restore their
economies. Trade and freedom of movement would have benefitted both
parts of divided Vietnam.

But once US troops had entered the war, those in the DRV
leadership who advocated a negotiated peace saw their positions
weakened by the stubborn brutality of US policy. The USA must bear
some responsibility, along with the Chinese and Soviet mentors of the
DRV, for shaping our enemy over the years. By refusing to negotiate
seriously with moderates in the DRV, we doomed them to a loss of
credibility and influence. By 1968, although negotiations were just
beginning in Paris, the chief ideologist of the Workers’ Party, Trường
Chinh, announced that a negotiated settlement was not the party’s
goal. The realities of the balance of power, however, meant that the
DRV had to make a settlement in 1972 – 3. At that moment both parts
of Vietnam were hungry for peace. However, the obduracy of the US
government, unwilling to desert an unpopular ally who supported our
war aims, preordained a violent end to the conflict. The Vietnamese
were left a nation of winners and losers, instead of a nation where
everyone had a stake in the peace. Those who had sought a middle way
were marginalized by the winners and forgotten by the losers.

NOTES

Introduction

1. From a personal letter from Jean Lacouture to Dr Trần Thi Lieˆn.
2. Fredrik Logevall, Choosing War: The Lost Chance ˙for Peace and the

Escalation of War in Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1999, 2001.
3. This information comes mainly from Vol. II of Norman Sherry’s The Life of
Graham Greene, 1939– 1955. London: Jonathan Cape, 1994, pp. 412– 34.
On Lansdale’s role, see his memoir, In the Midst of Wars: An American’s Mission to
Southeast Asia. New York: Harper & Row, 1972, pp. 196– 9.
4. See The Pentagon Papers, Vol. I (Gravel Edition). Boston: Beacon Press, 1971,
pp. 72 – 5.
5. Some examples: Ilya Gaiduk, The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War. Chicago:
Ivan R. Dee, 1996; Qiang Zhai, China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950– 1975.
Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2000; Mari Olsen,
Changing Alliances: Moscow’s Relations with Hanoi and the Role of China, 1949–
1964. Oslo: Faculty of Arts, University of Oslo, 2005.
6. Robert S. McNamara, James Blight and Robert Brigham, with Thomas
Biersteker and Col. Herbert Schandler, Argument without End: In Search of
Answers to the Vietnam Tragedy. New York: Public Affairs, 1999; Lloyd
C. Gardner and Ted Gittinger, The Search for Peace in Vietnam, 1964– 1968.
College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2004; James G. Hershberg,
Marigold: The Lost Chance for Peace in Vietnam. Washington, DC and Stanford,
CA: Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Stanford University Press, 2012.
7. McNamara et al., 1999, p. 241, citing Chester Cooper, The Lost Crusade, p. 308.
8. See Gaiduk, The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War, for a documented history of
Soviet involvement. He underlines the fact that the Soviets were in part
motivated by a need to defend themselves against Chinese charges that they
were ‘revisionists’ (pp. 37 –8).

194 NOTES TO PAGES 5 –12

9. See Chen Jian, Mao’s China and the Cold War. Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina, 2001, pp. 214– 15. The effects of Mao’s domestic and international
policies on the DRV leadership is a complex issue, which requires further study.
There are two articles in the journal Cold War History, November 2005, which
touch on Chinese influence on the DRV leadership: Martin Grossheim,
‘“Revisionism” in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam: New Evidence from the
East German Archives’; and Sophie Quinn-Judge, ‘The Ideological Debate in
the DRV and the Significance of the Anti-Party Affair, 1967– 8’.

10. Trần Ngoc Chaˆu and Ken Fermoyle, Vietnam Labyrinth: Allies, Enemies, & Why
the U.S. L˙ost the War. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University Press, 2012, p. 327.

Chapter 1 The Vietnamese Response to Colonialism:
Early Twentieth-Century Transformations

1. Laˆp Trường [Point of View], 1 August 1964.
2. C˙harles G. Cogan, ‘“How Fuzzy Can One Be?” The American Reaction to De

Gaulle’s Proposal for the Neutralization of (South) Vietnam’, in The Search for
Peace in Vietnam, 1964– 1968, ed. Lloyd C. Gardiner and Ted Gittinger. College
Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2004, p. 154.
3. Frances Fitzgerald, Fire in the Lake. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1972,
p. 86.
4. David G. Marr, ‘The Rise and Fall of “Counterinsurgency”: 1961– 1964’, in
The Pentagon Papers: Critical Essays (Gravel Edition), Vol. V, ed. Noam Chomsky
and Howard Zinn. Boston: Beacon Press, 1972, p. 204.
5. Ibid, p. 206.
6. Two outstanding historians of Vietnam, Alexander Woodside and David Marr,
published books on Vietnamese colonial history in 1971 and 1976: David
G. Marr, Vietnamese Anticolonialism. Berkeley: University of California, 1971;
Alexander B. Woodside, Community and Revolution in Modern Vietnam. New
York: Houghton Mifflin, 1976. The work of French sociologist Paul Mus
also became available in English in 1970 in John T. McAlister and Paul Mus,
The Vietnamese and their Revolution. New York: Harper, 1970.
7. See David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest. New York: Ballantine Books,
1969, 1971; Frances Fitzgerald, Fire in the Lake: The Vietnamese and the Americans
in Vietnam. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1972; Jonathan Schell: The
Real War: The Classic Reporting on the Vietnam War. New York: Pantheon Books,
1988 – this last is a compilation of two earlier books published in the 1960s.
8. On the OSS link see Archimedes Patti, Why Viet Nam? Prelude to America’s
Albatross. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
9. Pe´ralle, ‘De la diffusion de la m´edicine europ´eene en cochinchine’, Bulletin de la Soci´et´e
des Etudes Indo-chinoises de Saigon, 1895, no. 30, p. 22.
10. The Catholic scholar Nguyễn Trường Tộ was the rare exception of a scholar
educated in French mission schools who made lengthy proposals for

NOTES TO PAGES 12 –23 195

government reform and modernization after travels in Europe in the 1860s, all

of which were rejected. See Sources of Vietnamese Tradition, ed. George E. Dutton,

Jayne S. Werner and John K. Whitmore. New York: Columbia University

Press, 2012, pp. 284– 9.

11. Marr, Vietnamese Anticolonialism, p. 157.

12. Ibid., p. 99.

13. Joseph R. Levenson, Liang Ch’i-Ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China. Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1967, pp. 96–7.

14. Huỳnh Thu´ c Kha´ng, Phan Taˆ y-Hồ Tieˆn sinh l_ich sử. Huế: NXB Anh Minh, 1959
(text written in 1926), p. 15.

15. Nguyễn Q. Thắng, Phong Tra`o Duy Taˆn: Ca´c Khuoˆn M_a˘t Tieˆu Biểu. Hanoi: NXB
Va˘n Hoa´ Thoˆng Tin, 2006, pp. 607– 8.

16. Ibid., pp. 55 – 7.

17. Phan Chaˆu Trinh, A Complete Account of the Peasants’ Uprising in the Central Region

(Trung Kỳ Daˆn Bieˆ´n oTfhWỉ Mis_actonKsyi´n),, trans. Peter Baugher and Vu˜ Ngự Chieˆu.
Madison: University Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1983,

p. 91.

18. Pierre Brocheux, ‘Elite, bourgeoisie, ou la difficulte´ d’eˆtre’, in Saigon 1925–

1945, De la ‘Belle Colonie’ a` l’e´closion re´volutionnaire ou la fin des dieux blancs. Paris:

Editions Autrement, 1992, pp. 138– 40.

19. Marr, Vietnamese Anticolonialism, p. 164.

20. Phan Chaˆu Trinh, A Complete Account, pp. 89– 91.

21. Ibid., p. 20, ‘Introduction’ by Peter Baugher.

22. Ibid., p. 94.

23. For information on Hồ Chı´ Minh in France, see Sophie Quinn-Judge, Ho Chi

Minh: The Missing Years. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003,

chapter 1, pp. 11 – 42.

24. David Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial: 1920– 1945. Berkeley: University of

California, 1981, pp. 145– 6.

25. Ibid., p. 150.

26. Ibid., p. 110.

27. Ibid., p. 163.

28. Nguyễn Hiền Ðức, L4_6ic.h Sử Phaˆt Gia´o d¯a`ng trong. Ho Chi Minh City: NXB
t.p. HCM, 1995, p. ˙

29. Li Tana, Nguyˆ˜en Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth

Centuries. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, SEAP, 1998, p. 108.

30. See George Dutton, The Tay Son Uprising: Society and Rebellion in Eighteenth-

Century Vietnam. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2006, pp. 202 – 3,

on the Tay Son pogrom in Saigon.

31. L. Jammes, ‘Quelle est la religion des Annamites?’ Bulletin de la Socie´t´e des Etudes

indochinoises, 1895, n. 30, pp. 32– 5.

32. Pascal Bourdeaux, ‘Les e´ve´nements de 1930–1931 en Indochine et leur

porte´e sur le mouvement de renovation du Bouddhisme en Cochinchine’ [‘The

events of 1930– 1931 in Indochina and their influence on the Buddhist

196 NOTES TO PAGES 23 – 36

renewal movement in Cochinchina’], unpublished article from EuroSEAS 2004,

Paris, p. 9.

33. Nguyễn Lang, Vieˆt Nam Phaˆt Giao Sử Luaˆn [A Historical Discussion of
Vietnamese Buddh˙ism], III. Sa˙n Jose´: La´ Bối, 1˙ 993 (first printed in Paris 1985),

pp. 51 – 2.

34. Ibid., pp. 53 – 4.

35. Bourdeaux, ‘Les e´ve´nements de 1930– 1931’, p. 22.

36. Jayne Susan Werner, Peasant Politics and Religious Sectarianism: Peasant and Priest

in the Cao Dai in Viet Nam. Monograph Series No. 23; New Haven: Yale

University Southeast Asia Studies, 1981, p. 7.

37. Werner, Peasant Politics, pp. 12 –13, and note 50 on p. 76.

38. Nguyễn Lang, Viˆet Nam, pp. 64– 5. There is a strong belief that, in fact, Nguyễn
Lang is Th´ıch N˙hất Hanh.
˙
39. Ibid., pp. 65 – 6.

40. Ibid., p. 71.

Chapter 2 Giving Peace a Chance: First Efforts to Build a
Neutralist Political Movement, 1954 –64

1. The Pentagon Papers (Gravel Edition), Vol. I. Boston: Beacon Press, 1971, p. 211.

2. Paris, Ministe`re des Affaires e´trange`res [hereafter MAE], Asie, se´rie CLV, Sud

Vietnam, dossier 10; Lalouette to Couve de Murville, 24 February 1960.

3. George McTurnan Kahin and John W. Lewis, The United States in Vietnam. New

York: Dial Press, 1967, pp. 77 – 8.

4. Seth Jacobs, Cold –W1a9r6M3.aLnadnahrianm: N, MgoˆDÐ:_inRhoDwmi˙ˆemananadndthLe iOttrliegfiinesldof, America’s War
in Vietnam, 1950 2006, p. 86.

5. Vương Va˘n Ðoˆng, Binh Bie´ˆn 11 – 11 – 1960 [Revolt of 11 November 1960].

California: NXB Va˘n Nghệ, 2000, p. 55 – 6.

6. Bernard Fall, ‘Vietnam in the Balance’, Last Reflections on a War. New York:

Schocken Books, 1972, p. 184.

7. Thı´ch Npph.ấ3t 6H–a˙7n.h, Lotus in a Sea of Fire. New York: Fellowship of Reconciliation,
1967,

8. Leˆ Cung, Phong tra`o Phaˆt Gia´o Mieˆ`n Nam Viˆet Na˘m 1963 [The South Vietnamese
Buddhist Movement in˙ 1963]. Huế: NXB˙Thuận Ho´a, 2003, pp. 69–71.

9. Thı´ch Trı´ Quang, ‘Tư Rach Ca´t tới Toa` Ðai Sứ M˜ı’ [‘From Rach Cat to the US
Embassy’], Di˜ˆen Ða`n [Fo˙rum ], October 20˙03, no. 133, p. 25.

10. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Hanoi, 1976, ‘The Diplomatic Struggle as a Part of

the People’s National Democratic Revolution (1945– 1954)’, Vol. II, trans.

Merle L. Pribbenow; p. 36. Cited with the permission of the Cold War

International History Project, Woodrow Wilson Center.

11. Ba´o Ca´o T1_9ai54H˙oˆiinNVga˘hn_i la`ˆn thứ sa´u của Ban Chaˆ´p Ha`nh Trung Ương Ðảng, Kho´a II,
15 July taˆ p (Tập 1 – 25). Hanoi: NXB Ch´ınh Tri
kiˆen d¯ảng toa` n ˙
˙ ˙
Quốc Gia, p. 168.

NOTES TO PAGES 36 – 43 197

12. Georges Chaffard, Indochine: dix ans d’inde´pendance. Paris: Calmann-Le´vy, 1964,

pp. 116– 19.

13. Nehru’s Speech to the Indian Parliament, February 1953, cited in La Tribune

(Phnom Penh), 26 October 1956, p. 3.

14. Mike Mason, Development and Disorder: A History of the Third World since 1945.

Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1997, pp. 30 – 4. This is a

useful discussion of the early use of the term ‘Third World’.

15. Sukarno speech, 18 April 1955, quoted in Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold

War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 100.

16. Claire TVriầentnTamh˙i Lieˆn, ‘Nguyễn Mpaa˙pnehr Ha`: A Voice for a Neutral Solution in
South (1954 – 1957)’, presented at the Association of Asian

Studies annual conference in Chicago, 25 March 2001, pp. 3 – 6. I am deeply

indebted to Claire for introducing me to Nguyễn Manh Ha` and La Tribune. She
has published her research in French in: ‘Aux origin˙es de la “Troisie`me force”:

Nguyễn Manh Ha` et la solution neutraliste pour le Sud Vietnam’, in Indochine
entre les deux˙ accords de Gene`ve, 1954– 1962, ed. Christopher Goscha and Karine

Laplante. Paris: les Indes savants, 2008, pp. 347– 70.

17. State Archive II, Ho Chi Minh City, PTT First Republic, file 4314, telegram

18-2-1956, p. 2a.

18. Trần Thi Lieˆn, ‘Nguyễn Manh Ha`’, pp. 3 – 6.
19. Ibid., p.˙10. ˙

20. State Archive II, Ho Chi Minh City, PTT First Republic, file 4070, pp. 2 – 3,

telegram from Ngoˆ Trong Hiếu, representative of Republic of Vietnam to the
Royal Cambodian Gov˙ernment, to Minister of Foreign Affairs, government of

the Republic of Vietnam, 14 November 1956.

21. Trần Thi Lieˆn, ‘Nguyễn Manh Ha`’, p. 9, n. 21.
22. Ibid., p.˙9. ˙

23. Ibid., p. 12, note 29.

24. State Archive II, HCM, PTT First Republic, file 4314, pp. 1 – 2; report from

Haussaire Vietnam Paris on article of 16 February 1956 in France Observateur.

25. State Archive II, HCM, PTT First Republic, file 4115, Reports of the General

Staff on activities of Viet Cong and other forces and religious sects, 1955– 6,

p. 9 (6 March 1956); pp. 135–6 (30 April 1956).

26. Pentagon Papers, I, p. 210.

27. General Nguyễn Va˘n Hinh, Chief of Staff of the Vietnamese National Army in

1954, plotted to overthrow Diệm in the autumn of 1954, but was removed

28. from his post by Bảo ÐHa˙Ci M(P,entPagTonT Papers, I, p. 219). file 4070, on the
State Archive II, First Republic,

Activities of the communist (sic) newspaper La Tribune in Phnom Penh in

1956; p. 4.

29. Ban Bieˆn Soan Lich Sử Taˆy Nam WBộarKihna´nthgeCWhieếsnt,erLn_icMh SekửoTnaˆgy Nam Bộ Kha´ng
Chie´ˆn [Histo˙ry o˙f the Resistance Delta], Vol. II,

1955– 69. Hanoi: NXB Ch´ınh Tri Quốc Gia, 2010, p. 123.
Pentagon Papers, I, p. 305. ˙
30.

198 NOTES TO PAGES 43 –51

31. State Archives II, PTT First Republic, file 4127, Chỉ th_i, kı´nh gởi ca´ c anh
(Tı`nh hı`nh Cao-Ða`i từ Te´ˆt d¯´ˆen na`y), p. 78.

32. State Archives II, PTT First Republic, file 4115, Political Activities in Nam Bộ

6 July 1956, p. 6.

33. (ÐT1r_i9ầnn4h5HK–ảh1ia´9nP7gh5u˙)C.nhHgie´ˆồnanC[dThLı´hưeMuRinPehhsiưCsơtiantnygc:eTNhHXainBshtoT, rePydHso,fốLS_Ciachhig´ıSoMửn –iSnaC`hih,-Gợ19o`Ln9ớ,4nC,–hpGợp-.iLa2ớn9D,7iG–nh8ia].

34. William J. Duiker, The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam (2nd edn). Boulder,

CO: Westview Press, 1996, pp. 199– 201.

35. Excerpts from ‘rDepưrờinngteLdốiinCGa´ acrhetMh a˙PnogrtMeri’sềnViNetnamam’ :(T‘ThheeDPeafitnhitiovfe Revolution in
the South’) are Documentation

of Human Decisions, Vol. II. Stanfordville, NY: Earl M. Coleman Enterprises,

1979, pp. 24 – 30. Porter’s translation was made from the document captured in

Long An province, South Vietnam, in 1957.

36. LMLL___iiicAcchhhEsss,ửủửATSTasaˆ`aˆiyiye-,NGNsaoe`´anmrmi,eBCB˙Coˆh˙oˆLợKV-KhL,ha´o´San´nung-gGdCCiVhaihiˆ´eeiÐnˆ´et,n_nin,VahmVoloK,.lhId.Ia´oI,nIsp,sgpipeC.r.1h11i7´ˆe311n4,,–.tpe2pl,..C23h10ỉ 0JTu–hn1˙ie.c1h9ốn6g0 Luật 10/59.
37. n. 633/634
38.
39.

from Lalouette.

40. MAE, Asie se´rie CLV, Sud Vietnam, dossier 12, Note, 12 December 1960.

41. MAE, Asie se´rie CLV, Sud Vietnam, dossier 12, conf. Telegram 11 December

1961 to MAE.

42. Robert McNamara et al., Argument without End (New York: Public Affairs,

1999), p. 107.

43. Ibid., p. 107.

44. Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS) 1961, Vol. I, doc. 209, 3 November

1961.

45. Duiker, The Communist Road, pp. 222– 3.

46. Gareth Porter, A Peace Denied: The United States, Vietnam and the Paris Agreement.

Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1975, p. 18, quoting Journal de Gene`ve,

29 August 1963.

47. State Archives II, PTT First Republic, file 9376; Paris, 6 February 1963, letter to

Minister of Foreign Affairs from Dr Pham Khắc Hy, RVN Ambassador in Paris.
48. FRUS 1961– 3, Vol. XXIV, Laos Crisi˙s, Document 410.

49. In July 1962, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara was told in Honolulu that

there had been ‘tremendous progress’ in the past six months of counter-

insurgency operations. As late as September–October 1963, he saw ‘little danger

of the political crisis affecting the prosecution of the war’. See Pentagon Papers, II,

p. 164.

50. Author’s interview with Lưu Ðoa`n Huynh, Hanoi, 29 October 2003.

51. Trần Thi Hoa`i Traˆn, LVựacnLHượannghC, h1ı´9n7h4T,r_pi p[T. h1e55P–ol6it,i1ca6l4F.oIrtciess]o.ftSeanigsoanid: Ðtha˙aitHtho˙ec
Luật Kh˙oa, Ðai Hoc
three main re˙ligio˙ us ˙tradi˙tions in Vietnam are so intermingled that it is

impossible to say precisely what elements belong to which tradition.

NOTES TO PAGES 51 –57 199

52. Thı´ch Tr´ı Quang, ‘Tiểu truyện tự ghi’ [‘A taped autobiography’], Dieˆ˜n Ða`n

[Forum ], October 2003, no. 133, pp. 24–5. (This issue of the Paris-based journal
Dieˆ˜n Ða`n includes excerpts from what seems to be a longer autobiography.)

53. Archive No. II, PTT 18071, về tổ chức Hội Phật Gia´o 1952 – 63.

54. MAE, CLV Sud Vietnam 47, from M. Jean-Felix Charvet, Charge´ d’Affaires a.i.,

to M. Couve de Murville, 15 August 1961.

55. Thı´ch Tr´ı Quang, ‘Từ Ra´ch Ca´t tới Toa` Ðai sứ Mı˜’ [‘From Rach Cat to the US
Embassy’], p. 25. ˙

56. Hoa`ng Nguyeˆn Nhuận, Kỷ niˆem 40 na˘m Phaˆt gia´o nhaˆp cuoˆc 1963– 2003
[Commemorating Forty Years˙ since the Bud˙ dhists En˙tered˙ the Picture],

pp. 7 – 8, accessed online at ,giaodiem.com//hnn-phudong63.htm..

57. Edward Miller, in a departure from earlier scholarship, gives credit to

French Col. Roger Trinquier, a French counter-insurgency specialist, as the

main influence behind Nhu’s Strategic Hamlet programme. See Edward Miller,

Misalliance: Ngo Dinh Diem, the United States and the Fate of South Vietnam.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013, pp. 232– 3.

58. Pentagon Papers, II, p. 225.

59. Hoang va˘n Gia`u, Laˆp Trường, ‘Gia´o Chức Ðai Hộc Ði’ [Point of View,
‘The University Teac˙hers’ Trip’], two-part serie˙s, 21 and 28 March 1964,

part II, p. 10.

60. Miller, Misalliance, p. 234.

61. Porter, A Peace Denied, p. 18.

62. Charles G. Kogan, ‘American Reaction to De Gaulle’s Proposal for

Neutralization’, in The Search for Peace in Vietnam 1964– 1968, ed. Lloyd

C. Gardner and Ted Gittinger. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University

Press, 2004, p. 146.

63. Paris, MAE CLV, Sud Vietnam, file 78, 10 September 1963 note confidentielle a.s.

Directeur d’Asie, conversation avec le Professeur Bửu Hội, 5 September 1963.

64. Porter, A Peace Denied, p. 19; on New Delhi negotiations he cites an interview

with Trần Va˘n D˜ınh, in 1963 Diệm’s acting ambassador in Washington.

65. Cao Huy Thuần, ‘MToaa`yn2t0r˙i0v3a`, Nnog.o1a˙2i 9th, upộpc.’ [‘Totalitarianism and Dependency’],
Dieˆ˜n Ða`n Forum, 17 – 22.

66. MAE, CLV – Sud Vietnam, file 78, Lalouette letter to Couve de Murville,

4 September 1963, p. 4.

67. Ibid. (File 78), p. 5.

68. Personal conversation in Hanoi, February 2010, with Dr Ha` Hoa`ng Hợp, the

emissary’s son.

69. Personal conversation in Hanoi, February 2010, with Mr Nguyễn Va˘n Khoan.

70. State Archive II, Phủ Thủ Thướng [Prime Minister’s Office], file 1310, Phieˆn

hop nga`y thứ ba, 10 December 1963, p. 80.
71. St˙ate Archive II, file 1304, p. 47, 3 December 1963 to Maitre Jacquemart, Avocat.

72. George McT. Kahin, Intervention: How America Became Involved in Vietnam. New

York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986, p. 195.

73. ‘Sau cuộc Chinh Ly´’ [‘After the Reshuffle’], Laˆp Trường, 30 January 1964, p. 3.
˙

200 NOTES TO PAGES 58 – 63

74. State Archive II, Prime Minister’s Office, file 1304, p. 133, 11 November 1963,

from Major General Dương Va˘n Minh to Prime Minister.

75. Pentagon Papers, II, p. 307.

76. Ibid., pp. 307– 8.

77. Kahin, Intervention, pp. 186–7.

78. Ibid., p. 188.

79. The Pentagon Papers, II, p. 308.

80. ‘Hồ sơ về Tướng Dương Van Minh’, Ho`ˆn Viˆet, May 2009, no. 23, pp. 8– 9.
˙
81. Ibid., p. 9.

82. Kahin, Intervention, pp. 185–6.

83. MAE, CLV Cambodge file 86, communique´ a` Saigon n. 1210/1211, 6 November

1963, signed ‘Beausse’.

84. Gareth Porter, ed., Vietnam: The Definitive Documentation of Human Decisions,

Vol. II. Stanfordville, NY: Earl M. Coleman Enterprises, 1979, pp. 229– 30;

‘Memorandum from Senator Mike Mansfield to President Lyndon Johnson’,

7 December 1963.

85. Porter, Vietnam: The Definitive Documentation, pp. 239– 40, telegram from Lodge

to Johnson, 22 February 1964.

86. George M. Kahin and John W. Lewis, The United States in Vietnam (New York:

The Deal Press, 1967), pp. 152–3.

Chapter 3 Hanoi: Between Mao and Khrushchev, 1956 –65

1. William J. Duiker, The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam (2nd edn). Boulder,

CO: Westview Press, 1996, p. 200.

2. Ibid., p. 213.

3. Vietnamese memoirs that mention these events include Vu˜ Thư Hieˆn, Ðeˆm giữa

ban nga`y [Darkness in the Daytime]. Germany: thiện chı´ xuất bản, 1997,

pp. 276 – 7N;aatniodnNalguAysễsnemVa˘bnlyT].rấnC,aVliife´ˆotrcnhioa:MV_e a˘&n Quoˆ´c Hoˆi [Writing for Mother
and the Nghệ˙, 1995, pp. 326– 31.

The East German documentation is discussed by Martin Grossheim in

‘“Revisionism” in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam: New Evidence from

the East German Archives’, Cold War History, Vol. V, no. 4, November 2005,

pp. 451– 77.

4. Marie Olsen, Soviet – Vietnam Relations and the Role of China, 1949– 1964:

Changing Alliances. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006, p. 129.

5. Grossheim, ‘Revisionism’, p. 454.

6. Duiker, The Communist Road, p. 222.

7. Roderick MacFarquhar, The Origins of the Cultural Revolution, part 3: The Coming

of the Cataclysm 1961– 1966. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press,

Columbia University Press, 1997, p. 368.

8. Grossheim, ‘Revisionism’, p. 453.

9. Personal interview with Hoa`ng Minh Ch´ınh in his home, Hanoi, 1995.

NOTES TO PAGES 64 –71 201

10. Edwin E. Moise, Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the

Revolution at the Village Level. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,

1983, p. 231.

11. Moise, Land Reform, pp. 246–7, quoting speech by Vo˜ Nguyeˆn Gia´p to a public

meeting in Hanoi, 29 October 1956, printed in Nhaˆn Daˆn, 31 October 1956, p. 2.

12. Nhaˆn Daˆn, 25 March 1951.

13. Ngoˆ Ða˘ng Tri, 80 na˘m (1930 –2010) Đảng Coˆng Sản Viˆet Nam, Những cha˘ng
tin v˙a` Truyền T˙ hoˆng, 3˙62.
Bđưyờn1g9l6_ic0h sử. Hanoi: Nha` Xuất Bản Thoˆng Secretariat member. 2010, p.
neither man would be listed as a

14. Frank Dikotter, Mao’s Great Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating

Catastrophe, 1958– 1962. New York: Walker and Company, 2010, p. 7.

15. Kim N.B. Ninh, A World Transformed: The Politics of Culture in Revolutionary

Vietnam, 1945– 1965. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002,

pp. 152– 3.

16. Qiang Zhai, China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950– 1975. Chapel Hill: University

of North Carolina Press, p. 123.

17. Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, The Power of Everyday Politics: How Vietnamese Peasants

Transformed National Policy. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2005,

p. 68.

18. Grossheim, ‘Revisionism’, p. 453.

19. Qiang Zhai, China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950– 1975. Chapel Hill, University

of North Carolina Press, 2000, p. 48, citing Gareth Porter.

20. Grossheim, ‘Revisionism’, p. 453.

21. Qiang Zhai, China and the Vietnam Wars, p. 124.

22. Ibid.

23. Nguyễn Va˘n Trấn, Vieˆ´t cho pMp_e., p. 326.
24. Grossheim, ‘Revisionism’, 454– 5.

25. In my interview with Hoa`ng Minh Ch´ınh in 1995, he said that Hồ Chı´ Minh

had been ‘voˆ hiệu hoa´’ – ‘made powerless’ or ‘ineffective’.

26. The quotations from Decree 68 are from ‘Chỉ Thi của Ban B´ı Thư, Số 68-CT/TW,
19 November 1963, ‘Về việc mở cuộc vận động n˙aˆng cao tinh thần cảnh gia´c ca´ch

mang, vv’ [Secretariat Decree number 68, ‘On beginning mobilization to raise
th˙e spirit of revolutionary vigilance, etc.’]; in Va˘n Kiˆen Đảng toa`n taˆp, 24, 1963.
p˙p. ˙
Hanoi: Nha` Xuất Bản Chı´nh Tri Quốc Gia, 2003, 655 – 6.
Decree 68, p. 656. ˙
27.

28. Ibid., p. 657.

29. Ibid., p. 658.

30. Ibid., p. 660.

31. Party veteran NguyễnVa˘n Trấn gives a second-hand description in his memoir

Vonie´ˆtsechvoerMal_e,opccpa.s3io2n6s–, a9n.dHtehsaatyas that Hồ Chı´ Minh was prevented from speaking
number of participants abstained when it came

time to cast their ballots for or against Resolution 9.

32. Hoa`ng Minh Ch´ınh’s ‘Open Letter’ of 27 August 1993, reprinted in a number
of Vietnamese e´migre´ publications, including Di˜ˆen Ða`n (Forum).

202 NOTES TO PAGES 71 –79

33. Gaiduk, The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War, pp. 6 – 7.
34. Hoa`ng Va˘n Hoan’s memoirs, A Drop in the Ocean (Beijing: Foreign Languages

Press, 1988), pp. 317–20, criticize Leˆ Duẩn for taking a more nuanced attitude
towards the Soviet Union than some others in the Politburo, and for agreeing to
sign a joint communique´ with the Russians at the close of the early 1964 visit.
35. Lien-Hang T. Nguyen’s portrayal of Trấn Quốc Hoa`n as beholden to Leˆ Duẩn for
his power is an assumption without any real evidence to support it. Hoa`n was
already ensconced in the northern power structure by 1945, as head of the
Northern Regional Committee, while by 1953 he was Minister of the Interior.
See Lien-Hang T. Nguyen, Hanoi’s War. Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 2012, pp. 55 – 6.
36. See Sophie Quinn-Judge, ‘The Ideological Debate in the DRV and the
Significance of the Anti-Party Affair’, Cold War History, November 2005, Vol. V,
no. 4, pp. 479–500.
37. Lien-Hang T. Nguyen’s claim that in 1963 ‘Leˆ Duẩn and his faction
simultaneously began to neutralize the moderate opposition in the North and to
marginalize the indigenous revolutionary leadership in the south’ has no basis
in any documentation that I know of, so far as Leˆ Duẩn’s role is concerned. Leˆ
Duẩn was himself an indigenous southern revolutionary, known to support the
national democratic revolution. See Hanoi’s War, p. 63.
38. BLW_iảacnhr:sCửRhTeı´vanˆoylhuNttiraoi˙nmQaBnu˙oˆdốKcChGha´aninagg,Ce2hi0ni1e´ˆnt0h,,etậpMp.e22k,o9n19g9.5DD5eal–tva6i,d91.E9Hl3lồi0oC–tth1’s´ı9M7st5uin,dhVy,oClTi.thyIeI:.NVAihertam`nXaomnuekấste,
NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2003, supports this version of events in its broad outlines,
although he specifically covers Ð`ınh Tường province in the Eastern Mekong
Delta. See pp. 776– 7.
39. Duiker, The Communist Road to Power, p. 212.
40. Leˆ Duẩn, Thư va`o Nam [Letters to the South]. Hanoi: Nha` Xuất Bản Sự Thật,
1985. The following quotes are from the letter ‘To Anh Mười Cu´ c va Trung
Ương Cuc Miện Nam’, pp. 50 – 67, July 1962.
41. The foll˙owing quotes are from Burchett’s typewritten notes, recently made
available by Wilfred Burchett’s son. My thanks to David Marr for passing these on.
42. Elliott, The Vietnamese War, p. 771.
43. Kahin, Intervention, p. 183.
44. Leˆ Duẩn, Thư va`o Nam, pp. 68–93. Page citations below are from this document.
45. Douglas Pike, Viet Cong: The Organization and Techniques of the National
Liberation Front of South Vietnam. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1966, p. 107,
and p. 360 for the extended quote.

Chapter 4 The Buddhists and the Urban Anti-War
Movement, 1964 –7

1. David Marr, ‘A Study of Political Attitudes and Activities among Young Urban
Intellectuals in South Vietnam’, unpublished MA dissertation, University of

NOTES TO PAGES 79 –83 203

California, Berkeley, 1965. In Yale library Special Collections, archives and
manuscripts, Group 743, Box 1, folder 2, p. 79.
2. George McTurnan Kahin and John W. Lewis, The United States in Vietnam. New
York: The Dial Press, 1967, p. 153. Robert Topmiller says that Khanh told him
in 1996 that the US Embassy gave the ‘green light’ for the coup to go ahead. See
his Lotus Unleashed, Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2002, p. 156,
note 42.
3. Document 158, ‘Memorandum for the President’, Secretary of Defense,
16 March 1964, Pentagon Papers, III, pp. 499–510. David Marr notes that all
such estimates, up or down, relied on very shaky data and methodology.
4. Kahin and Lewis, The United States in Vietnam, pp. 154, 156.
5. Texas Tech Vietnam Archive online, CIA Weekly Report, OCI no. 1294/64,
‘The Situation in South Vietnam (21 – 26 August 1964)’, p. 3.
6. Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, unpublished memoir, My Vietnam Journey: An Insider’s
Account of Revolution, War and Peace in Vietnam, p. 44. A Vietnamese version of
this memoir has been published as Ha`nh Trı`nh của Moˆt Sinh Vieˆn Sa`i Go`n từ
Chie´ˆn Tranh d¯e´ˆn Hoa` Bı`nh. Hanoi: Nha` Xuất Bản Lao ˙Động, 2013.
7. Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, My Vietnam Journey, pp. 48 – 9.
8. MAE, CLV Sud Vietnam, file 47; Georges Perruche, Charge´ d’Affaires de France
a` M. Maurice Couve de Murville, Paris, Direction des Affaires Politiques (Asie-
Oce´anie), 30 May 1964.
9. Ibid.
10. MAE, CLV Sud Vietnam, file 47; from Serge Lebocq, Consul de France a`
Tourane a` M. Georges Perruche, Charge´ des Affaires de France au Viet-Nam,
Saigon; 17 December 1963.
11. Takashi Oka, Letters on Vietnam, letter of 31 May 1966. These letters were
written from December 1964 to 1967, when Oka was a fellow of the Institute of
Current World Affairs in New York. A bound collection of these letters is in the
SOAS library, University of London.
12. Ibid., p. 4.
13. ‘Politician from the Pagoda’, Time Magazine, 22 April 1966, p. 4.
14. See James McAllister, ‘“Only Religions Count in Vietnam”: Thich Tri
Quang and the Vietnam War’, Modern Asian Studies, 2008, 42, 4, pp. 751 –
82. This well-researched article cites many documented conversations
between Trı´ Quang and US personnel, in all of which Tr´ı Quang
expresses anti-communism and appreciation for the US role in South
Vietnam. In this reading, Trı´ Quang’s motivation was to achieve a major
Buddhist share in the government, if not control. But his disillusionment
with US actions in the spring of 1966 seems to have dampened his trust in
the USA.
15. MAE, CLV Sud Vietnam, file 77; from Georges Perruche, Charge´ d’Affaires a`
Maurice Couve de Murville, a/s ‘Bouddhisme Vietnamien’, Saigon, 3 July 1964,
p. 8.
16. Ibid., p. 17.

204 NOTES TO PAGES 84 –96

17. See Robert J. Hanyok, ‘Skunks, Bogies, Silent Hounds, and the
Flying Fish: The Gulf of Tonkin Mystery, 2 – 4 August 1964’,
Cryptologic Quarterly, Winter 2000/Spring 2001 Edition, Vol. XIX, No. 4/
Vol. XX, No. 1.

18. New York Times, 25 August; Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, My Vietnam Journey, p. 48.
19. Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, My Vietnam Journey, p. 50.
20. Topmiller, The Lotus Unleashed, p. 21.
21. MAE, CLV Sud-Vietnam, file 47, Communique´, 31 August 1964.
22. Texas Tech online archive, CIA, ‘The Situation in South Vietnam (21– 26

August, 1964)’, p. 3.
23. Jack Raymond, ‘CIA Aide Suggests Saigon “Settlement”’, New York Times,

23 August 1964, pp. 3, 5.
24. Peter Grose, ‘Ill Will in Vietnam’, New York Times, 26 December 1964, p. 2.
25. Trương Như Tảng with David Chanoff and Đoa`n Va˘n Toai, A Vietcong Memoir:

An Inside Account of the Vietnam War and its Aftermath. San D˙ iego and New York:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985, p. 93.
26. Ibid., p. 96.
27. New York Times, 25 February 1965.
28. Kahin and Lewis, The United States in Vietnam, p. 175.
29. Bu` i Diễm with David Chanoff, In The Jaws of History. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1987, p. 131.
30. Ibid., p. 137.
31. Ibid.
32. Henry Kamm, ‘Paris Again Asks Neutral Vietnam’, New York Times, 26 August
1964, p. 4.
33. MAE, CLV Cambodge 227, cable de Charles Malo, Charge´ d’Affaires a.i.,
19 March 1965.
34. MAE, CLV Cambodge 277, anonymous cable from Phnom Penh, 17 March
1965.
35. Saigon Daily News, 20 May 1965. Decree Law 004/65.
36. Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, My Vietnam Journey, p. 69.
37. Thı´ch Nhất Hanh, Lotus in a Sea of Fire, p. 48; Soeur Chaˆn Khoˆng, La force de
l’amour. Paris: L˙ a Table ronde, 1995, pp. 99 – 104.
38. Interview with Đoa`n Thanh Lieˆm, Media PA, 27 October 2007.
39. Interview with Hồ Ngoc Nhuận, Hồ Ch´ı Minh City, 11 November 2003.
40. Unless otherwise noted,˙ this biography comes from a self-published memoir by
Hồ Ngoc Nhuận, Đời hay Chuyˆen về những người tu` của toˆi [Life or Tales of
Prisoner˙s I Have Known], Hồ C˙ hı´ Minh City, 2003. pp. 388–91 cover his
assignment with the Youth Ministry.
41. Interview with Hồ Ngoc Nhuận, 2003.
42. Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, My˙Vietnam Journey, p. 69.
43. Oka, letter of 4 July 1966, p. 11.
44. Pentagon Papers, II, p. 373.
45. Ibid., p. 374.

NOTES TO PAGES 96 –105 205

46. Topmiller (The Lotus Unleashed) provides a detailed description of these events,
including the complex interactions among the US military in Danang and the
forces loyal to Kỳ, pp. 112 – 33.

47. Frances Fitzgerald, Fire in the Lake: The Vietnamese and the Americans in Vietnam.
Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1972, pp. 289– 91.

48. Pentagon Papers, II, p. 371.
49. Leˆ Duẩn, Thư va`o Nam. Hồ Chı´ Minh City: NXB Sự Thật, 1985, pp. 181 – 2,

Letter to Saigon – Gia Ðinh Regional Committee, 1 July 1967.
50. Professor Leˆ Cung, perso˙nal interview in Huế, 2003.
51. Oka, letter of 4 July 1966, p. 5.
52. Robert Shaplen, The Road from War: Vietnam 1965– 1970. New York: Harper &

Row, 1970, pp. 77 – 8.
53. Ibid., p. 77.
54. Bu` i Diễm, In The Jaws of History, p. 166.
55. Soeur Chaˆn Khoˆng, La Force de l’Amour. Paris: Editions de la Table Ronde, 1995,

p. 154.
56. Letter of 22 November 1966 from Thı´ch Nhất Hanh to Alfred Hassler,

Swarthmore Peace Collection, FOR collection, Section˙II, series G-6, Box 16.
57. Soeur Chaˆn Khoˆng, La Force de l’Amour, p. 158.
58. Ibid., pp. 169 – 70.
59. David Wurfel, 21 September 1967, ‘Preliminary Report of Vietnam Election

Observer’, p. 3. Swarthmore College Peace Collection, FOR, DG 013 G1, Box 1.
60. Letter of 22 November 1966 from Thı´ch Nhất Hanh to Alfred Hassler,

Swarthmore Peace Collection, FOR collection, Section˙II, series G-6, Box 16.
61. Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, My Vietnam Journey, chapter 5, ‘A Generation’s Illusion’.
62. Pentagon Papers, II, p. 402.
63. Ibid.
64. Trần Ngoc Chaˆu with Ken Fermoyle, Vietnam Labyrinth: Allies, Enemies,

and Why ˙the US Lost the War. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 2012,
pp. 285 – 6.
65. Aˆ u Trường Thanh and VU˜ Va˘n Huyện, Declaration of candidacy, 30 June 1967.
Swarthmore College Peace Collection, FOR DG 013, G1 Box 1.
66. David Wurfel, ‘Preliminary Report’, p. 7.
67. Trương Như Tảng, My Vietnam Journey, pp. 103 – 4.
68. Ibid., p. 106.

Chapter 5 The Turning Point: The Teˆ´t Offensive

1. Thı´ch Nhất Hanh address on ‘The Third Solution’, Center for the Study of
Democratic Ins˙titutions, 15 December 1967, p. 2 in Swarthmore Peace

Collection, DG 013, Section 2 Series G, Box 7.

2. Leˆ Đức Tho ‘Xaˆy dựng đảng kiểu mới mac-xit-le-nin-it 2v,ữn1g96m8a˙,nphp’.[‘3B2u–il4d.ing a
Strong, Ne˙w-style Marxist – Leninist
Party’], H_oc Taˆ p
˙

206 NOTES TO PAGES 106 –115

3. Soeur Chaˆn Khoˆng, La Force de l’Amour, pp. 186– 7.

4. Ly´ Cha´nh Trung, ‘Những con vật co´ hai chaˆn’ [‘Two-legged Beasts’], Ða´ˆt Nước,
1967, no. 2, p. 20; reprinted in Ðoˆ´i dieˆn với chiˆ´en tranh [Facing the War]. Hồ Ch´ı
Minh City: nxb Trẻ, 2000, pp. 9 – 20˙ .

5. Civilian Casualty, Social Welfare, and Refugee Problems in South Vietnam, Hearings

before the Subcommittee on Refugees and Escapees, US Senate Judiciary

Committee, 10 May– 16 October 1967.

6. Thı´ch Nhất Hanh, ‘The Third Solution’, from a report by the Fellowship of
Reconciliation,˙ December 1967, p. 2, in Swarthmore Peace Collection, DG

013, Section 2 Series G, Box 7.

7. Ibid., p. 4.

8. Ibid., p. 10.

9. Soeur Chaˆn Khoˆng, La Force de l’Amour, pp. 200– 2.

10. Ngoˆ Vı˜nh Long, ‘The Tet Offensive and its Aftermath’, in The American War

in Vietnam, ed. Jayne Werner and David Hunt. Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia

Program, Cornell University, 1993, p. 35. The main Vietnamese source on the

plans of the Saigon underground is Trần Bach Đằng, whose essay ‘Mậu Thaˆn,
Cuộc Tổng Diễn Tập Chiến Lược’ [‘The Y˙ ear of the Monkey: The General

Strategic Rehearsal for the Campaign’] is published in Chung Moˆt Bo´ng Cờ:
V`eˆ Ma˘t Traˆn Daˆn Toˆc Giải Pho´ng Miˆ`en Nam Viˆet Nam [Under On˙e Flag: The
Natio˙nal L˙iberation˙Front of South Vietnam]. H˙ anoi: Nha` Xuất Bản Ch´ınh tri
˙
Quốc Gia, 1993, pp. 316 – 26.

11. Nguyễn Thuy Nga, Beˆn Nhau Tr_on Đời (Hoˆ`i Ky´). Hồ Ch´ı Minh City: self-
published, 20˙00, p. 166.

12. Qiang Zhai, China and The Vietnam Wars, 1950– 1975. Chapel Hill: University

of North Carolina Press, 2000, pp. 179– 80. For more discussion of Chinese aid

to the DRV see Chen Jian, Mao’s China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill:

University of North Carolina Press, 2001, pp. 215– 29.
13. Trần Quỳnh, Hoˆ´i Ky´ ve´ˆ Lˆe Duaẩn (1960 –1986) [Memoirs of Leˆ Duẩn], p. 30

(unpublished draft manuscript).

14. Gaiduk, The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War, p. 94.

15. Roderick MacFarquar and John K. Fairbank, eds, The Cambridge History of

China: The People’s Republic, Part Two, Vol. XV, ‘Revolutions within the Chinese

Revolution’. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 232– 47.

16. PRO, FCO 15/535, Priority Washington to Foreign Office, Telegram no. 2233,

30 June 1967.

17. PRO, FCO 15/535, Secret, Immediate Hanoi to Foreign Office, tel. No. 421,

3 July 1967.

18. G.C. Herring, ed., The Secret Diplomacy of the Vietnam War (Austin: University of

Texas, 1983), pp. 717– 25 on the meeting between the two French envoys,

Pham Va˘n Dồng and HCM. On Hồ Chı´ Minh’s movements see William Duiker,
Ho˙Chi Minh: A Life (New York: Hyperion, 2000), p. 556.

19. See Judith Stowe, ‘“Revisionism” in Vietnam’, a paper delivered at the AAS

conference in Washington, DC, 1998, for a summary of the Anti-Party Affair.

NOTES TO PAGES 115 –118 207

While I am not in agreement with all of her conclusions, she put together the

first coherent account of these events that exists in English. Her paper was

published in French in the journal Communisme, 2001, no. 65 – 6. Georges

Boudarel wrote an earlier account of this affair in Cent Fleurs e´closes dans la nuit du

Vietnam. Paris: Jacques Bertoin, 1991, pp. 256–64.

20. See e.g. ‘Thư ngỏ của coˆng daˆn Hoa`ng Minh Chı´nh’ [‘An Open Letter from Citizen
Hoang Minh Chinh’], Di˜ˆen Ða`n [Forum ], October 1993, no. 23, pp. 27–32.

21. Don Oberdorfer, Tet! New York: Doubleday, 1971, p. 66.

22. PRO, FCO 15/481, 1/1/68 Conf. Brit Congen, Hanoi, 30 March 1968 to

SEAD, FO, signed G.S. Hirst.
23. VU˜ Thư Hieˆn, Deˆm giửa ban nga`y [Darkness in the Daytime] (Cộng hoa` Lieˆn

Bang Đức: Thiện Ch´ı xuất bản, 1997), pp. 271 – 9 in particular.

24. Ibid., p. 297.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid.

27. ‘Ta` i-liˆeu phổ bie´ˆn d¯ˆ´en Ðảng Viˆen va` Ca´n Boˆ Ca´c Ðoa`n Thể ’, Theo Kế Hoach số 38/
KH-T˙U nga`y 7-4-1994 của thường vu Th˙ a`nh ủy Hanoi [Documents Cir˙culated to
Party Members and Cadres, Project˙ 38/KH-TU 7-4-1994 of the Hanoi City

Committee Standing Committee]; document provided by Judy Stowe.

28. David W.P. Elliott, The Vietnam War: Revolution and Social Change in the Mekong

Delta 1930– 1975, Vol. II. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2003, chapter 19,

pp. 1054 –71.

29. Robert McNamara et al., Argument without End: In Search of Answers to the

Vietnam Tragedy (New York: Public Affairs, 1999), p. 227.

30. PRO, FCO, 15/481, 1014/67, Confidential Report from Consul Brian Stewart

to D.F. Murray, FO, Hanoi, 9 November 1967.

31. Military History Institute of Vietnam, Victory in Vietnam: The Official History

of the People’e Army of Vietnam, 1954 –1975, trans. Merle Pribbenow (Lawrence,

Kansas: University of Kansas Press, 2002), p. 214.

32. Documents from the Hungarian archives confirm Gia´p’s presence in Hungary, e.g.,

Memorandum: The Visit of Vietnamese Ambassador Hoa`ng Lương to Dep. Foreign

Minister Erdelyi, Hungarian Foreign Affairs Archives, VTS 1967.93.doboz,

146,001025/19/1967. Thanks to Balazs Szolontai for his translation.

33. A 2001 Hanoi source confirms that both Gia´p and Leˆ Duẩn were absent from

the Politburo meeting of 20– 4 October 1967: this source claims that these

‘comrades were absent for health reasons, as both were receiving medical

treatment abroad’. CSeoˆengL_ivcah` Sử Kha´ng Chie´ˆn Cho´ˆng Mỹ Cứu Nước, 1954– 1975,
Taˆp V: Tổng Tiˆ´en Nổi Daˆy Na˘ m 1968 [History of the Resistance
W˙ ar against the Americans to Save˙ the Nation, 1954– 75, Vol. V: The 1968

General Offensive and Uprising]. Hanoi: NXB CTQG, 2001, p. 32. My thanks

to Merle Pribbenow for this reference.

34. Hội Đồng Chỉ Ðao Bieˆn Soan Lich Sử Nam Bộ Kha´ng Chiến, eGdi.a,,L2_i0ch13sử, Nam boˆ
35. kha´ng chie´ˆn, Taˆp 2˙. ˙Min˙h p. 575˙.
Ibid., p. 594˙. Hồ Chı´ City: NXB Ch´ınh Tri Quốc
˙

208 NOTES TO PAGES 118 –126

36. General Trần Va˘n Tra`, ‘Tết: The 1968 General Offensive and General Uprising’,

in The Vietnamese War: Vietnamese and American Perspectives, ed. Jayne S. Werner

and Lưu Ðoa`n Huynh. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1993, pp. 37 – 65.

37. Ibid., pp. 41 – 2.

38. Ibid., p. 45.

39. Han_odc Taˆp [Study ], July 1964. Cited in Douglas Pike, Viet Cong: The Organization
T˙echniques of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam. Cambridge, MA:

M.I.T. Press, 1966, p. 360. See also p. 107 for his discussion of the questioning

of the doctrine of ‘the General Uprising’.

40. On Mao’s view of negotiations, see James G. Hershberg, Marigold: The Lost Chance

for Peace in Vietnam. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Press, 2012, p. 158.

41. Hershberg, Marigold, p. 158. These comments by Zhou Enlai were made to

Albanian leader Enver Hoxha.

42. Đảng Cộng Sản Việt Nam, Va˘n Kieˆn Ðảng Toa`n Taˆp, 29 – 1968 [Documents of
Party History, 29 – 1968]. NXB˙Chı´nh Tri Quố˙c Gia, 2003, p. 32 (Leˆ Duẩn’s
speech to the 14h Plenum, January 1968). ˙

43. bL_eiclhowSửarNe atmo Boˆ Kha´ng Chieˆ´n, Vol. II, chapter 7. The page number references
th˙is text.

44. Va˘n Kieˆn Ðảng Toa`n Taˆp, 29 – 1968, Leˆ Duẩn’s speech, pp. 34 – 5.
45. Trương˙ Như Tảng, Vi˙etcong Memoir, p. 110.

46. Ibid., p. 138.

47. Ibid., p. 139.

48. Her name is always preceded by ‘Mrs’ or ‘Madame’ as she used her husband’s

name. He was an oceanographer who supported her political activities and

raised their four children when she went to prison.

49. For the trip of Father Nguyễn Ngoc Lan and Chaˆu Taˆm Luaˆn, see Paul Quinn-
Judge, ‘Inside Saigon: Eyewitness˙ Report’, Commonweal, 26 September 1975,

pp. 429–32.

50. Elliott, The Vietnam War, Vol. II, pp. 1104– 6.

51. Trần Tuyết Hoa, ‘Tiếng goi Tết Quang Trung’ [‘The Call of Tết Quang Trung’],
Tuổi Trẻ, 27 January 200˙8.

52. Trần Bach Đằng, ‘The Year of the Monkey: The General Strategic Rehearsal’,
1993, p˙. 325.

53. TkỷrầXnVHIồInđgˆ´enL1ieˆ9n7,5Ð)_a[oBPuhd˙aˆdthtirsomngwc˙oˆinthg idn¯ồtnhgenVgưieờitnVai˙meˆt eởsNe CamomB˙moˆ –unViti˙yˆet Nam (tu` thˆ´e
of Southern

Vietnam (from the Seventeenth Century to 1975]. Hanoi: NXB Khoa Hoc Xa˜
˙
Hội, 1995, p. 216.

54. Thı´ch Đồng Bồn, Tiểu Sử Danh Ta˘ng Viˆet Nam, Theˆ´ Kỷ XX [Biographies of
Famous Twentieth-Century Buddhist M˙onks], Vol. I. Hồ Ch´ı Minh City:

Tha`nh Hội Phật Gia´o Tha`nh Phố Hồ Ch´ı Minh, 1994, p. 888.

55. These figures were compiled by Don Luce for his article, ‘Where one day is

1,000 years’, National Catholic Reporter, 15 January 1969.

56. Don Luce letter to Al Hassler, 18 December 1968. Swarthmore College Peace

Collection, Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR) – USA, Section II, series G-3, Box 8.

NOTES TO PAGES 126 –135 209

57. Tom Wicker, ‘In the Nation: The Wrong Horse in Saigon’, New York Times,

19 June 1969.

58. Ibid.

59. CTroầmn mTuhn˙iitLyi:eˆHn,is‘tTohrye Challenge of Peace within South Vietnam’s Catholic
of Peace Activism’, in Peace and Change, October 2013,

p. 462.

60. Nguyễn Va˘n Trung, The Communists, My Brothers: Roman Catholicism and

Communism in Vietnam, translated by Don Luce and Pham Long Hoa. Saigon:
˙
Sống Ðao, 1968, p. 5.
61. Ibid., p.˙ 97.

62. David Taylor, ‘The Lyndon Johnson tapes: Richard Nixon’s “treason”’, BBC

News Magazine, 22 March 2013.

63. Ngoˆ V˜ınh Long, ‘The Tết Offensive and its Aftermath’, in The American War in

Vietnam, ed. Jayne Werner and David Hunt. Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia

Program, Cornell University, 1993, pp. 23 – 4.

64. Qiang Zhai, China and The Vietnam Wars, pp. 173– 4.

65. Leˆ Đức Tho, ‘Xaˆy dựng đảng kiểu mới ma´c-xı´t-leˆ-nin-ı´t vững manh, của giai cấp
coˆng nhaˆn˙’, Hoˆc Taˆp, 1968, 2, pp. 29 – 39. ˙

66. Ibid., p. 31. ˙ ˙

67. Ibid., p. 32.

68. Ibid., pp. 32 – 4.

69. LSNBKC, Vol. II, p. 592.

70. See the discussion of this issue in Ngoˆ Vı˜nh Long, ‘The Tet Offensive’, pp. 33–4.

71. Trương Như Tảng, Vietcong Memoir, pp. 234 –6.

72. Hồ Sơn Ða`i and Trần Phấn Chấn, eds, Lt_ihche Sử Sa`i go`n – Chợ lớn – Gia ÐC_ihnhợ
Kha´ng Chi´ˆen (1945 – 1975) [History of Resistance War in Saigon –

Lớn – Gia Ðinh (1945– 1975)]. Hồ Chı´ Minh City: Hồ Chı´ Minh City
Publishing Ho˙use, 1994, p. 574.

73. These excerpts come from a US analysis of the speech circulated by the French

Embassy in London. Ministe`re des Affaires Etrange`res (MAE), Se´rie Conflit

Vietnam, 11 (FNL), Extraits d’un rapport de Trường Chinh, diffuse´ par Radio

Hanoi du 16 au 20 sept. 1968.

74. Đặng Phong, eodf .t,hLe_iVchieStừnaKminehseTEe´ˆcVoin˙ˆeot mNya,m1,914954–52–020000, 0V,otlậ.pIII:I1: 9159555– – 1975
[The History 1975].

Hanoi: NXB Khoa Hoc Xa˜ Hội, 2005, p. 158.
75. Đặng Phong and Mela˙nie Beresford, Authority Relations and Economic Decision-

making in Vietnam. Copenhagen: NIAS, 1998, pp. 61 – 2.

Chapter 6 Vietnamization and Saigon’s
Political Opposition

1. George Herring, America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950–
1975 (4th edn). Boston: McGraw Hill, 2002, p. 259.

210 NOTES TO PAGES 136 –150

2. Fred Branfman, Voices from the Plain of Jars: Life under an Air War. New York:
Harper and Row, 1972, pp. 19, 20.

3. Marilyn Young, The Vietnam Wars, 1945– 1990. New York: Harper Perennial,
1991, p. 253.

4. Ibid., p. 238.
5. Norodom Sihanouk and Wilfred Burchett, My War with the CIA: The Memoirs of

Prince Norodom Sihanouk. New York: Pantheon Books, 1973.
6. Rennie Davis, Richard A. Falk and Robert Greenblatt, ‘The Statement of Ngoˆ

Coˆng Đức: The Way to End the War’, New York Review of Books, 5 November
1970.
7. Letter on ‘Torture in Saigon’, 24 April 1970 by Don Luce to the Fellowship of
Reconciliation, pp. 1 – 5. Swarthmore College Peace Collection, FOR – USA,
Section II, series G-3, Box 8.
8. Don Luce letter to FOR, ‘Statement on Visit to Con Son Prison, July 1970.
Swarthmore Peace Collection, FOR – USA, Section II, series G-3, Box 8.
9. Trần Ngoc Chaˆu, Vietnam Labyrinth. Chapters 24, 25 and 26 detail Chaˆu’s
actions in˙ the Lower House, the arrest of his brother and his experience in
prison. Pages 220 –1 describe the first visit by brother Hiền.
10. Ly´ Quı´ Chung, Hoˆ`i Ky´ khoˆng tˆen [Memoir without a Name]. Hồ Ch´ı Minh City:
Nha` Xuất Bản Trẻ, 2004, p. 86.
11. Jean-Claude Pomonti, La Rage d’Etre Vietnamien. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1974,
pp. 112 – 22.
12. Trần Ngoc Chaˆu, Vietnam Labyrinth, p. 320.
13. Ibid. ˙
14. Ly´ Qu´ı Chung, Memoir, pp. 88– 9.
15. Ibid., p. 208.
16. Hồ Ngoc Nhuận, Đời hay Chuyˆen veˆ` những người tu` của toˆi [Life or Tales
of Priso˙ners I Have Known]. H˙ o` Chı´ Minh City: self-published, 2003,
p. 118.
17. Ly´ Qu´ı Chung, Memoir, pp. 210– 11.
18. Ngoˆ Coˆng Đức, ‘Statement’, in Rennie Davis et al., New York Review of Books,
5 November 1970, reprint.
19. Ibid.
20. ‘South Vietnamese Students’ Declaration on the Five-Point Proposal of
President Nixon’, Saigon, 18 October 1970; signed ‘Students of the Joint
Universities of Saigon, Huế, Van Hanh and Cần Thơ, leaflet in my possession.
21. RGANI (Russian State Archive˙ of C˙ontemporary History), f. 89, op. 54, d. 8;
pp. 9 – 10.
22. See Lưu Ðoa`n Huynh, ‘The Seven-Point Proposal of the PRG (1 July 1971) and
the U.S. Reaction’, in The Vietnam War: Vietnamese and American Perspectives, ed.
Lưu Ðoa`n Huynh and Jayne S. Werner. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1993,
pp. 198 – 202.
23. Etienne M. Manac’h, Me´moires d’extreme Asie: La Chine, Vol. II. Paris: Fayard,
1980, p. 155.

NOTES TO PAGES 150 –159 211

24. MAE, Direction des Affaires Politiques, Asie-Oce´anie CLV n. 75, Compte Rendu

de l’Entretien accord´e par le Ministre a` Madame Nguye˜ˆn Th_i B`ınh, le 15 fe´vrier a`
17 h. 15, p. 12.

25. Ibid., p. 13.

26. Ibid., p. 10.

27. Ibid., p. 7.

28. MAE, CLV, n. 126, Note 22 mars 1971; Entretien avec Mme. Nguyễ Thi B`ınh,
p. 4. ˙

29. MAE, Direction des Affaires Politiques, Asie-Oce´anie, CLV n. 352. ‘Compte

rendu de l’entretien accorde´ par le Ministre a` Monsieur Leˆ Đức Tho le 27 juillet
˙
1971’, p. 2.

30. Ibid., pp. 3 – 4.

31. Author’s interview with Professor Ly´ Cha´nh Trung, 19 September 2002.

32. ‘The Trials of Ngo Cong Duc’, Time Magazine, 6 September 1971.

33. Interview with Professor Ly´ Cha´nh Trung, 19 September 2002.

34. Marilyn B. Young, The Vietnam Wars 1945– 1990. New York: Harper Perennial,

1991, p. 265.

35. Pomonti, La Rage d’Etre Vietnamien, p. 129.

36. George McT. Kahin, ‘The Fall of the Saigon Regime and Some of its

Implications’, unpublished manuscript, 1 August 1975, p. 2. My thanks to

David Marr for sharing this.

37. Arnold R. Isaacs, Without Honor: Defeat in Vietnam and Cambodia. New York:

Vintage Books, 1984, p. 18.

38. Ibid., p. 19.

39. Ibid.

40. Gareth Porter, A Peace Denied: The United States, Vietnam and the Paris Agreement.

Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1975, p. 144.

41. Isaacs, Without Honor, p. 39, mentions the capture of the DRV translation.

42. Porter, A Peace Denied, p. 161.

43. Ibid., pp. 259, 262.

44. Isaacs, Without Honor, p. 138.

45. Ibid.

46. ‘Tom Polgar Remembers’, Pushing On, 27 January 2013, p. 3, ,http://lde421.

blogspot.com.au/2013/01/tom-polgar-remembers.html. .

47. John Prados, The Secret Wars of CIA Director William Colby. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2003, p. 287.

48. Ly´ Qu´ı Chung, Memoir, p. 227.

49. ‘Thieu Forms Democracy Party’, New York Times, 29 March 1973.
50. HMồieˆ`nNNgoa˙cmNViheˆut ậNna, mTı`tnrưhớcB1_a9n7h5ay[FNriheữnndgshlai´pthoưr Htaˆemarttı`fnehltvLeˆ` ettı`tnehrshoı`nnhtchhe´ınPholtir_tiict_aali

Situation in˙ South Vietnam before 1975]. Hồ Ch´ı Minh City, 2003: self-

published collection of letters and tapes, many of them to Ngoˆ Coˆng Đức in

Paris. Letter of 21 March 1973, p. 4.

51. Hồ Ngoc Nhuận, Heartfelt Letters, p. 3.
˙

212 NOTES TO PAGES 159 –174

52. Ibid., p. 4.
53. Ibid., p. 26.
54. NARMIC, The Third Force in South Vietnam. Philadelphia: AFSC, 1975, p. 9.
55. Ly´ Qu´ı Chung, Memoir, pp. 236– 7.
56. In my two years in Saigon working for the American Friends Service

Committee, I often visited this compound to collect news bulletins from Father
Chaˆn T´ın.
57. Narmic, The Third Force. Philadelphia: American Friends Service Committee,
1975, p. 8.
58. Ly´ Qu´ı Chung, Memoir, pp. 302– 5.
59. Daniel Southerland, ‘Conservative Priests blast corruption in Thieu regime’,
Christian Science Monitor, 10 September 1974.
60. David K. Shipler, ‘Vietnam Outlook: Still a Tunnel, Still a Light’, New York
Times, 21 September 1974, p. 1.
61. James M. Markham, ‘Without Nixon, Mr. Thieu’s World is Not What it Was’,
New York Times, 6 October 1974.
62. ‘Tom Polgar Remembers’, 2013, p. 4.

Chapter 7 The End of the Republic of
Vietnam and Reunification

1. Ly´ Quı´ Chung, Ho`ˆi ky´ khoˆng tˆen [Memoir without a Name]. Hồ Ch´ı Minh City:

NXB Trẻ, 2004, p. 380.

2. Frank Snepp, Decent Interval: An Insider’s Account of Saigon’s Indecent End.

New York: Random House, 1977, p. 253.

3. Trương Như Tảng, A Vietcong Memoir: An Inside Account of the Vietnam War and its

Aftermath. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1985, pp. 224– 5.

4. Ibid., p. 225.

5. Snepp, Decent Interval, pp. 323–4.

6. General Hoa`ng Va˘n Tha´i, Những NDaộmi NThhaˆa´nngDQaˆnuy,e´ˆ2t 0Ð0_i1n,hp[pT.h1e8D0–ec1i.sive Years
and Months]. Hanoi: NXB Quaˆn

7. Leˆ Duẩn, Thư va`o Nam [Letters to the South]. Hanoi: NXB Sự Thật, 1985,

p. 385 (Gửi Anh Bảy Cường, Anh Sa´u, Anh Tuấn, 14 gio ngay 01 thang 4 nam

1975).

8. Snepp, Decent Interval, p. 326 (emphasis in original).

9. Trần Va˘n Ðoˆn, Our Endless War. San Rafael, CA: Presidio Press, 1978,

pp. 245– 9.

10. Isaacs, Without Honor, p. 434.

11. Ly´ Qu´ı Chung, Memoir, p. 381.

12. Ibid., p. 390.

13. Ibid., p. 403.

14. Conversation with Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, November 2004.

15. ‘Tom Polgar Remembers’, p. 23.

NOTES TO PAGES 175 –186 213

16. Trần Va˘n Tra`, Những Cha˘ng Đường LC_icihtyS: ửNcủXaBBV2 a˘TnhNa` nghhÐệ,o`ˆn1g9:8K2´ˆe,t thu´c cuoˆc chie´ˆn
tranh30 na˘m, taˆp 5. Hồ˙Ch´ı Minh p. 329˙.
17. Author’s conve˙rsation with Ni-Sư Huỳnh-Lieˆn, May 1975.

18. Nguyễn Va˘n Chin, ‘Coˆng Gia´o va` Daˆn toˆc những nga`y trước 30.4.1975’, Thư nha`,
no. 8 [‘Catholics and the Nation in th˙e days before 30.4.1975’, in Letter from

Home ], March 2002, p. 30. This is a Catholic newsletter from Australia, which

publishes articles by Catholic activists in Vietnam.

19. Trương Như Tảng, Vietcong Memoir, pp. 264 –5.

20. Nayan Chanda, Brother Enemy: The War After the War. New York: Macmillan,

1986, p. 29.

21. Paul and Sophie Quinn-Judge, ‘Saigon, “A Big Nut to Crack”’, in Indochina

Chronicle, October – November 1975, p. 15.

22. Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, My Vietnam Journey, chapter 13, ‘In the Socialist

Transformation Campaigns’.

23. Author’s conversation with Nguyễn Thi Ngoc Dung, 2003.
24. Nguyễn Hữu Tha´i, My Vietnam Journey, ˙chapt˙er 13, ‘In the Socialist Transition

Campaigns’.

25. Tiziano Terzani, Giai Phong! The Fall and Liberation of Saigon. New York:

St Martin’s Press, 1976, p. 208.

26. Trương Như Tảng, Vietcong Memoir, p. 256.

27. Chanda, Brother Enemy, p. 21.

28. Ben Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power and Genocide in Cambodia

under the Khmer Rouge, 1975– 79. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002,

p. 104.

29. Ibid., p. 105.

30. Ngoˆ V˜ınh Long, ‘The Socialization of South Vietnam’, in The Third Indochina

War: Conflict between China, Vietnam and Cambodia, 1972– 79, ed. O.A. Westad

and S. Quinn-Judge. New York: Routledge, 2006, pp. 128, 140.

31. Russian State Archive of Modern History (RGANI), collection 89, inventory

54, document 8, Report of CC Secretary Hoa`ng Anh to the twentieth plenum of

the VWP, December 1970– January 1971 (in Russian translation), p. 27.

(According to the Vietnamese count, this was the 19th Plenum. The Russians

appear to have been unaware that a plenum was skipped somewhere between

1967 and 1969.)

32. Chu Va˘n Laˆm, ‘Đổi Mới in Vietnamese Agriculture’, in Reinventing Vietnamese

Socialism, ed. William Turley and Mark Selden. Boulder, CO: Westview Press,

1993, pp. 152 – 3.

33. Trương Như Tảng, Vietcong Memoir, pp. 284 –5.

34. Sophie Quinn-Judge, ‘Chronology of Hoa Crisis in Vietnam’, in The Third

Indochina War: Conflict between China, Vietnam and Cambodia, 1972– 1979, ed.

Odd Arne Westad and Sophie Quinn-Judge. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006,

p. 237.

35. Chaˆn T´ın, Tham luaˆn vớaitH˙toˆhi eNg8h_tihlaˆ`nCtehnứtr8alỦyCboamn mTriuttnegeươCngonMfeTreTnQceVNof(2t5h–e
7/1/1983) [Remar˙ks

214 NOTES TO PAGES 186 –191

MTTQVN], in No´i Cho Con Người [Speaking for the People]. Broadway, NSW

Australia, 2000, pp. 28 – 9.

36. Ibid., p. 31.

37. Conversation with Dr Vo˜ To`ng Xuaˆn, December 2006.

38. Ly´ Qu´ı Chung, Memoir, pp. 420– 2.
39. Hồ Ngoc Nhuận, Dời, hay Chuyeˆn veˆ` những người u`u của toˆi [Life, or Stories of

My Frie˙nds in Prison]. Hồ Ch˙ı´ Minh City: self-published memoir, 2003,

pp. 167– 8 and 184– 6.

40. Hồ Ngoc Nhuận, Chuyeˆn Moˆt VC_uimA´ enx:cHoloˆ`-Msơ ivne`ˆhv_uHa´ani Cimexcol – Minh Hải [The
Verdict:˙ the Dossier ˙of th˙e Case]. HCM City: self-

published, 1997, pp. 398– 401; on the accusation against Nhuận: Life, p. 177.

41. Trần Va˘n Tra`, ‘The War That Should Not Have Been’, in The Vietnam War:

Vietnamese and American Perspectives, ed. Jayne S. Werner and Lưu Ðoa`n Huynh.

Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1993, p. 241.

42. Robert S. McNamara, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam.

New York: Times Books, Random House, 1995, p. xvi.

43. ‘Tom Polgar Remembers’, p. 23.

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218 THE THIRD FORCE IN THE VIETNAM WAR

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INDEX

Alliance of National B`ınh Xuyeˆn, 42, 121 Bu` i Quang Chieˆu, 25
Democratic and Peace bloodbath theory, 124, 167, Bu` i Quang Thaˆn, 173
Forces, 121, 122, 123 Bu` i T´ın, 174 ˙
172, 175 Bundy, McGeorge, 8
American Friends Service Blum, Robert, 2 Bundy, William, 75
Committee, 165 ‘boat people’, 185 Bunker, Ellsworth, 152, 153
Bowles, Chester, 48 Burchett, Wilfred, 75
A´ˆ n Quang pagoda, 54, 83, Brezhnev, Leonid, 133, 183 Bửu Hội, 54
98, 161 British Consul, Consulate in Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương, 26

Anderson, William, 139 Hanoi, 115, 118 Cambodia, 37, 39, 40, 41,
Anti-Party Affair, 114, 115, Bruce, David, 136 48, 59, 90, 114, 129,
Buddhists, Buddhism, 4, 135, 136, 137, 144,
117, 130, 133, 134 153, 175, 178, 179,
Anti-Tax Demonstrations 21–5, 33, 34, 47, 184, 185, 186, 190
50, 52 –4, 60, 79,
1908, 15 81–9, 91, 93, 95 –9, ‘campaign to eradicate
Armed Forces Council, 100, 102, 106–8, 119, commercial capital-
122, 124, 125, 140, ists’, 184
87, 89 144, 146, 158, 161,
Army of the Republic of 167, 173, 175 Ca`ˆn Lao Nhaˆn vị Ca´ch Mang
Institute (Society) for Ðảng (Personalist ˙
Vietnam (ARVN), 43, the Propagation of Labour Revolutionary
59, 76, 96, 97, 110, the Faith/Dharma Party), 43, 56, 81, 84,
136, 147, 148, 149, (Vieˆn Hoa´ Ðao), 86, 85
150, 157, 166, 170, 98,˙100 ˙
172, 173, 180, 187 engaged Buddhism, 28, Cao Ða`i (Ðai Ðao Tam Ky`
Asia Foundation, 99 106 Phổ Ð˙oˆ), 2˙, 25– 7, 29,
assimilation vs association, renewed Buddhism, 23, 35, 40,˙ 42, 43, 47, 50,
11 24, 51 58, 73
Aˆ u Trường Thanh, 102 Zen Buddhism, 21, 22,
Aubrac, Raymond, 115, 117 23, 83, 92 Cao Minh Chieˆ´m, 88, 107
Buddhist Studies Association, Cao Ngoc Phượng (now
Ba Tra`, 121 Institute, 51
Bandung Conference, 34, Bu` i Diễm, 89, 90 Sist˙er Chaˆn Khoˆng),
93, 98, 99, 106,
37, 44, 67 109, 110
Bảo Ðai, 2, 34, 35, 38, 125
Ba´o Q˙uo´ˆc Buddhist

Academy, 83, 92

224 THE THIRD FORCE IN THE VIETNAM WAR

Cao Thị Queˆ Hương, 137, Colby, William, 158 Democratic Republic of
Committee for Progress and Vietnam (DRV), 4,
138, 160 5,35, 40, 41, 47, 48,
Liberty, 46 49, 55, 59, 61– 4,
Catholics, Catholic Church, Committee to Defend the 66–9, 71, 72, 77, 83,
84, 89, 106, 109, 110,
Catholicism, 4, 25, Peace, 88 111, 112, 119, 122,
Committee to Reform the 123, 129, 130, 131,
32–4, 39, 47, 52, 79, 133, 134, 137, 144,
Prison System, 160, 154, 156, 163, 178,
82, 83, 85, 89, 91, 93, 186 181, 182, 190, 192
Communist International
94, 106, 107, 126, (Comintern), 18 Dieˆm see Ngoˆ Ðı`nh Dieˆm
Communists, My Brothers: Ðieˆ˙n Bieˆn Phủ (battle of˙), 31
127, 128, 159, 160, Roman Catholicism and Diˆe˙n T´ın, 146, 147, 172,
Communism in Vietnam,
161, 175, 186 The, 127 ˙ 188
Coˆn Ðảo prison (Poulo Ðinh Ba´ Thi, 175
Central Intelligence Agency Condore), 16, 126, District 8 Saigon, 93, 94,
139, 140
(CIA), 21, 98, 104, Confucianism, Confucius, 95, 100, 124, 145
21, 23, 25, 32, 34, Ðoa`n Kha˘´c Xuyeˆn, 160
105, 158, 178, 184, 51, 191 Ðoa`n Thanh Lieˆm, 93– 4
Constituent Assembly Documents of Party History,
187, 190, 207, 210 (RVN), 96, 98, 100,
101, 141 44, 66
Central Office for South Constitutionalist Party, Ðoˆ´i Diˆen, Ðứng Daˆy, 186
25, 29 Ðổi M˙ới, 189 ˙
Vietnam (COSVN), Cooper, Chester, 4 Domino Theory, 137
Cultural Revolution, Ðoˆng du (Eastern Travel
43, 58, 74, 119, 120, 112, 114, 117,
133, 177 movement), 13
122, 136, 157, 163, Cường Ðể, Prince, 26, 27 Ðoˆng Kinh Ngh˜ıa Thuc
Czechoslovakia, 142
168, 170 (Eastern Capital F˙ree
School), 15, 16
Cham, 23 Ðoˆng Pha´p Thời Ba´o, 20, 24
Ðức Laˆm pagoda, 124
Chaˆn Khoˆng see Cao Ngoc Duc Thanh school, 14
˙ Du˙ iker, William, 61
Phượng Dương Minh Ðức, 147
Dương Quynh Hoa, 122
Chaˆn T´ın, 138, 160, 186 Dương Tha˙nh Nhựt
(Mười Ty), 58, 59
Chaˆu Taˆm Luaˆn, 109, 110, Dương Thanh Sơn, 59
Dương Va˘n Ba, 172, 189
123 Dương Va˘n Giao, 25
Dương Va˘n Minh, 8, 56–9,
Chen Yi, 114 60, 62, 75, 80, 81, 85,
94, 101, 102, 126,
Chennault, Anna, 129 146, 147, 150, 152,
153, 159, 161, 168,
Ch´ı Hoa` prison, 120, 160 169, 171, 172, 173,
174, 175, 186, 189
Chiang Kaishek, 26 ‘dứt d¯iểm’, 131

China, Chinese, People’s

Republic of China 4,

6,12, 17, 27, 36, 37,

43, 49, 60–4, 67 –9,

70, 71, 73, 109, 111, ÐÐ_aaii Daˆ n Toˆc, 188
Vieˆt p˙arty, 47,
112, 114, 117–19, ˙ 87˙ , 89 81, 85,

130, 132, 133, 137,

149, 150, 151, 152, Daley, Richard J., 128

154, 155, 178, 179, Ðaˆng Va˘n Ky`, 88
Ða˙ˆ´t Nước, 107
184, 185, 189, 192

Chinese Communist Party Day, Dorothy, 32

(CCP), 26, 32, 71 de Gaulle, Charles, 29,

Christianity, Jesus Christ, 30, 38, 40, 54, 56,

25, 34, 39 60, 82

class struggle, 66, 106, 183 De Lattre de Tassigny,

Cloche Fˆele´e, La, 19 Jean, 38

coalition government, 48, Јem Giữa Ban Nga`y, 116

59, 75, 107, 109, 119, Demilitarized Zone (DMZ),

121, 123, 126, 133, 88, 95, 154

142, 151, 155, 171, Democracy Party (RVN),

190, 191 158

INDEX 225

Easter (Spring) Offensive Gia´c Laˆm pagoda, 22, 34, Hugo, Victor, 20, 25
1972, 130, 154 124 Humphrey, Hubert, 94, 128
Hungarian Uprising 1956,
Elliott, David, 75, 117, Gia´p see Vo˜ Nguyeˆn Gia´p
142 Gittinger, Ted, 4 65
Glassboro, New Jersey Huy`nh Ba´ Tha`nh (Ớt), 172
Ellsberg, Daniel, 142 Huy`nh-Lieˆn, Ni-sư, 141,
Esprit, 32, 39 summit, 114
Great Leap Forward, 61, 67 175
Fatherland Front (Ma˘t Tra˘n Greene, Graham, 2 Huy`nh Taˆ´n Maˆ˜m, 6
Tổ Quo´ˆc), 43, 4˙5, 4˙7, Grossheim, Martin, 62 Huy`nh Thu´ c Kha´ng, 13, 14
90, 186, 188, 189 Group of Vietnamese
Independence Palace, 120,
Fellowship of Reconciliation, Patriots, 17, 18 173, 174
99, 100 Gulf of Tonkin, Incident;
India, 35, 39, 40, 41, 54, 60
Fitzgerald, Frances, 8, 9 Resolution, 11, 101, Indochina People’s Confer-
Fontainebleau negotiations, 107
Guam, 154 ence, 90
38 Guomindang, 26 Indonesia, 34, 35, 114
Forces for National Institute of Marxism–
Ha` Va˘n Laˆu, 55
Reconciliation, 161 Halberstam, David, 9 Leninism, Hanoi
Freemasons, Masons, 18, 25 Ha`nh Tr`ınh [The Journey], 93 (Nguye˜ˆn A´ i Quoˆ´c
French–Vieˆt Minh or Harkins, Thomas, 139 school), 65, 68, 69
Harriman, Averill, 48, 49 Intercolonial Union, 18
French˙ –Indochina Hawkins, Augustus, 139 International Control
War, 31, 34, 38, 76 Herring, George, 135 Commission (ICC),
Froment-Meurice, Henri, Hershberg, James, 4 35, 39, 54, 55, 170
150, 151 High Palace, the, 25 International Voluntary
Fukuzawa, Yukichi, 15 Ho`ˆ Ch´ı Minh, 5, 10, 13, Service, 125
Isaacs, Arnold, 155, 157
Galbraith, John Kenneth, 48 16–19, 26, 29, 35, 38,
Gandhi, Mohandas; 41, 49, 51, 55, 62, Jacques, Father Emmanuel,
65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 94
Gandhism, 36, 51 73, 109, 115, 118, 134
Gardiner, Lloyd C., 4 Ho`ˆ Ch´ı Minh Trail, 136 Japan, Japanese, 12, 14–6,
General Association of Ho`ˆ Ch´ı Minh Youth, 174 18, 27, 30, 40, 58
Hoˆ` Ngoc Nhuaˆn, 93, 94,
Buddhists, 51, 82 10˙0, 141,˙142, 145, Johnson, Lyndon B., 1,
General Offensive and 146, 147, 158, 159, 9,59, 60, 96, 105, 106,
188, 189 114, 117, 126, 128,
General Uprising Hoˆ` Va˘n Minh, 93, 100, 145 129, 135, 154
(see also Te´ˆt Offensive), Hoˆ` Vieˆ´t Tha´˘ng, 65
110, 115, 117, Hoa` Hảo, 27, 29, 42, 47, Joint Chiefs of Staff, 58
119, 124 50, 58, 73, 102 Jones, Diane, 165
Geneva Agreement(s), Hoa-kie`ˆu, 185
Accords, 31, 33, 35, Hoa`ng Anh, 64 Kahin, George, 56, 58,
38, 41, 42, 47, 48, 70, Hoa´ng Manh Thu, 55 154
151, 153, 157, 176 Hoa`ng Mi˙nh Ch´ınh, 63, 68,
Geneva Conference 1954, 70, 71, 115, 116, 117 Keio Gijuku, 12, 15
31, 35, 38, 59, 60, 67, Hochstetter, Leo, 2 Kennedy, Edward, 107
73, 149, 150, 155 Hoˆc Taˆp, 76, 130 Kennedy, John F., 47, 48,
Geneva Conference on Laos H˙oˆ`ng˙ Sơn Ðoˆng, 188, 189
1962, 49, 50, 64, 54, 60, 63
65, 74 Kennedy, Robert, 128
German Democratic Khamidulin, Rashid, 117
Republic (GDR), Kha´nh Hoa`, 23, 24
62, 69, 70 Khe Muth, 179

226 THE THIRD FORCE IN THE VIETNAM WAR

Khmers Rouges, 136, 137, Liu Shaoqi, 63, 69 Minh Taˆn (New Light
179, 181, 191 Lodge, Henry Cabot, 53, 55, Society), 14

Khrushchev, Nikita, 49, 61, 58, 60, 96, 97, 142 ‘missed opportunities’, 4
62, 63, 66–8, 71, 72, Logevall, Fredrik, 1 Mounier, Emmanuel, 32, 39
111, 112 Lon Nol, 136 Movement to Exterminate
Louvain, University of, 32,
King, Martin Luther, 32, Corruption and
93, 107, 108, 128 39, 107 Reactionaries, 95
Luce, Don, 125, 126, 137, Movement for Self-
Kissinger, Henry, 117, 136, Determination, 88
137, 149, 150, 153, 139, 140 Movement to Restore South
154, 155, 156 Luo Ruiqing, 63 Vietnam, 144
Lưu Ðoa`n Huynh, 50, 118,
Korea, Koreans, 12, 17, Nam Phong, 20
18, 61 149 Nation Bloc (Khoˆ´i
Lưu Hoa`˘ng Tha´o, 138
Kosygin, Alexei, 72, 112, Ly´ Cha´nh Trung, 107, 152, Daˆn toˆc), 146
114, 134 National A˙ssembly, DRV,
153
Lalouette, Roger, 32, 47, Ly´ dynasty, 21 116
54, 55 Ly´ Qu´ı Chung, 141, 144, National Assembly, RVN,

Laˆm Va˘n Teˆ´t, 122 145, 146, 158, 161, 125, 141, 144–7,
Land Reform, 64, 65, 66, 172, 173, 187, 188 153, 172
Ly´ Qu´ı Pha´t, 187 National Council for
131 Ly´ Thuy Long, 22 Reconciliation and
Lansdale, Edward, 2, 142 Concord, 156, 157,
Lao Ðoˆng, 187 ˙ 159, 171
Lao T˙zu, 25 National Leadership
Laos, 4, 48, 49, 50, 129, Magsaysay, Ramon, 2 Committee, 91
Mai Ch´ı Tho, 188, 189 National Liberation Front
135, 136, 149, 150, Manac’h, Eti˙enne, 149 (NLF), 6, 46–9, 50,
189, 190 Maneli, Mieczyslaw, 54, 55 53, 55, 59, 60, 68,
Laˆp Trường, 8, 57 Mansfield, Mike, Senator, 59 74–6, 83, 88, 90, 91,
L˙eˆ Cơ, 14 Mao Zedong, 5, 61, 67, 119, 95, 97, 100, 103,
Leˆ Duẩn, 42, 43, 44, 50, 62, 106–9, 111, 112,
63, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 133, 130 120–7, 129, 131, 136,
74, 76, 110, 116, 117, Marcovitch, Herbert, 115, 142, 145, 147, 148,
118, 119, 120, 121, 166, 168, 170, 171,
131, 134, 169, 170, 117 172, 174, 176, 182,
176 Marr, David, 8, 9, 13, 15, 79 184
Leˆ Ðức Tho, 69, 70–2, 105, Marrane, Georges, 38 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 36,
116 –˙18, 130, 131, Martin, Graham, 158, 169 37, 39
133, 134, 150, 151, Matthias, Willard, 87 neutralism, neutrality,
188 Maurras, Charles, 20 neutral solution, 2, 3,
Leˆ Thanh Nghị, 118 McGovern, George, 155 31, 347, 39, 40, 41,
Leˆ Va˘n Lương, 64, 65, 66 McNamara, Robert, 4, 106, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 58,
Lebret, Father Jean, 94 59, 60, 74–6, 80, 82,
Liang Qichao, 12, 13 191 87, 90, 91, 98, 100,
Lịch Sử Nam Boˆ Kha´ng Chiˆ´en, Meiji restoration, 12 103, 109, 120, 121,
118 ˙ Mende`s-France, Pierre, 36 144, 148, 149, 150,
Lie`ˆn Thanh company, 14 Me´rillon, Jean-Marie, 169 151, 153, 155, 168,
‘Linebacker I’, 154 Military Management 172, 191
‘Linebacker II’ (Christmas
Bombing), 156 Committee (1975),
Linh Sơn temple, 24 175, 177
Military Revolutionary
Council (MRC), 69,
81, 85
Minh Chaˆu, 22

INDEX 227

New Economic Zone, 188 Nguyeˆ˜n Manh Ha`, 6, 38, 137, 148, 149, 150–5,
New Society Group (Nho´m 39, 41˙, 90 157, 158, 161
Nolting, Frederick, 53
Xa˜ Hoˆi Mới), 145 Nguyeˆ˜n Manh Tường, 67 Noˆng Cổ Minh Ða`m, 15
New York Ti˙mes, 84, 87, 126, Nguyeˆ˜n mo˙narchy, lords, Novotny, Antonin, 49,
68, 69
162 21, 22, 26, 50
Ngoˆ Ba´ Tha`nh, Mrs, 88, Nguye˜ˆn Ngoc Lan, 107, Office of Strategic Services
(OSS), 10, 29
123, 141, 143 109, 12˙3, 140, 160,
Ngoˆ Coˆng Ðức, 141, 145, Oka, Takashi, 83, 87
186 Operation Enhance Plus,
146–8, 153, 158, 160, Nguyeˆ˜n Ngoc Phương, 138
Nguyeˆ˜n Ngo˙c Thơ, 56, 156
186, 187 Operation Frequent Wind,
Ngoˆ Ðı`nh Cẩn, 33, 81 57, 58 ˙
Nguyeˆ˜n Phan Long, 25 172
Ngoˆ Ðı`nh Dieˆm, 2, 4, 8, Nguyeˆ˜n Phu´ c Chu, 22 Operation Menu, 136
27, 32, 3˙4, 35, 37–9, Nguyeˆ˜n Phu´ c Tra˘n, 22 Operation Rolling Thunder,
Nguye˜ˆn Taˆ´t Tha`nh
40–7, 49, 51–9, 62, 89
(Nguye˜ˆn A´ i Quoˆ´c, Oplan 34A, 59
73–5, 80–3, 88, 89, Ho`ˆ Chı´ Minh), 17 Overseas Buddhist
Nguyeˆ˜n Tha´i Sơn, 176
91, 93, 94, 95, 102, Nguye˜ˆn Thị Bı`nh, 136, Association, 34

122, 145, 161, 176 150, 151 Pacific Stars and Stripes, 167
Ngoˆ Ðı`nh Nhu, 32, 33, Nguyeˆ˜n Thieˆ`u, Hoa` Paracel Islands, 179
Paria, Le, 18
52–5, 57, 75, 81, 94, Thượng, 22 Paris Peace Agreement
Nguyeˆ˜n Thuy Nga, 110
145 Nguyeˆ˜n Tron˙g Loˆi, 14 (Paris Agreement on
Ngoˆ Ðı`nh Thuc, 52 Nguyeˆ˜n Va˘˙n B`ınh˙ , 161 Ending the War and
Ngoˆ Vı˜nh Lon˙g, 182 Nguyeˆ˜n Va˘n Hinh, 41 Restoring Peace in
Nguyeˆ˜n A´ i Quốc (see also Ho`ˆ Nguye˜ˆn Va˘n Huyeˆn, 161 Vietnam), 2, 134, 154,
Nguyeˆ˜n Va˘n Linh (Mười 155, 159, 160, 162,
Ch´ı Minh), 17, 19 165, 166, 169, 171,
Nguye˜ˆn A´ i Quoˆ´c School Cu´ c), 74 180, 190
Nguyeˆ˜n Va˘n Thieˆu Paris Peace Conference
see Institute of 1919, 17
(President), ˙89, 100– Paris Peace Negotiations,
Marxism – Leninism 123, 129, 133, 135–7,
Nguyeˆ˜n An Ninh, 19, 20 3, 106, 107, 109, 120, 147, 148, 149, 150–2,
Nguyeˆ˜n Anh (Gia Long), 23 155
Nguyeˆ˜n Cao Ky`, 80, 87, 89, 123–6, 128, 129, 135, Partial Nuclear Test Ban
Treaty, 69
91, 94 –6, 100– 3, 137, 144, 146–9, Pathet Lao, 136
Paul VI, Pope, 94, 127
106, 107, 150, 150–9, 161–3, 169, peaceful co-existence, 40,
49, 62, 67, 68, 71, 115
152, 170 170, 171, 174, 187–9, ‘Pennsylvania’ peace
Nguye˜ˆn Cha´nh Thi, 87, 91, initiative, 117
190 Pentagon, the, 49, 96,
95, 115 Nguyeˆ˜n Va˘n Traˆ´n, 72 136, 167
Nguyeˆ˜n Chı´ Thanh, 73, 76, Nguyeˆ˜n Va˘n Trung, 93, 95, Pentagon Papers, 43, 101

115, 138 127, 160
Nguye˜ˆn Duy Trinh, Nguyeˆ˜n Va˘n V˜ınh, 120

69, 118 Nhaˆn Daˆn, 49, 50, 64, 116
Nguyeˆ˜n Hữu Tha´i, 81, 92, Nha´ˆt Chi Mai, 106, 107
Nhị-Lang, 40
100, 125, 174, 176,
Ninth Plenum (1963)
177
Nguyeˆ˜n Hữu Tha`nh, Father, see Vietnamese

161 Communist Party
Nguyeˆ˜n Kha´˘c Bı`nh, 172
Nguye˜ˆn Kha´nh, 58, 60, 75, Nixon, Richard, 9, 126,

80, 81, 83–7, 89, 90, 128, 129, 135, 136,

94, 95, 115
Nguyeˆ˜n Lang, 28

228 THE THIRD FORCE IN THE VIETNAM WAR

People’s Anti-Corruption Progressive National Shanghai Communique´
Committee, 126 (1972), 137
Force, 161
Provisional Revolutionary Shaplen, Robert, 2
People’s Army of Vietnam Government (PRG), 6, Shcherbakov, Ilia, 117
123, 136, 146, 147, Sihanouk, Prince Norodom,
(PAVN), 118, 136, 149, 150 –2, 155 –7,
168, 171, 173, 175, 37, 39, 59, 90, 91,
154, 163 176, 178 136, 178
Snepp, Frank, 167, 169, 170
People’s Force to Defend the PRG Seven Point Pro- Socialist Republic of
gramme, 146, 147, Vietnam, 178
Revolution, 95 149, 151, 168 Society and Nation Bloc
(Khối Xa˜ Hội –
People’s Liberation Armed quo´ˆc ngữ (national script), Daˆn Tộc), 146, 158
11, 14, 19, 20, 23–4 Southeast Asia Treaty
Forces (PLAF), 118 Organization
rectification of organiz- (SEATO), 84
personalism, communitar- ations, 64, 66, 131 Souvanna Phouma see
Phouma
ian, 32, 33, 34, 53 re-education, 176, 188 Soviets, Soviet Union
Republic of Vietnam (USSR), 5, 43, 44, 49,
Peyrefitte, Alain, 90 61–9, 71, 72, 111,
Pham Coˆng Ta˘´c, 35, 40 (RVN), 2, 6,7, 27, 37, 112, 114 –17, 130,
Pha˙m Hu` ng, 68, 131 41, 43, 48, 49, 53, 58, 132, 133, 137, 150,
Pha˙m Quy`nh, 20 60, 84, 99, 100, 106, 155, 156, 168, 171,
Pha˙m Va˘n Ðo`ˆng, 35, 38, 121, 129, 136, 137, 178, 179, 183, 185,
144, 147, 154, 156–8, 189, 192
˙ 66, 70, 118, 179 161, 165, 171, 189 Special Operations
Pham Va˘n Huye`ˆn, 88 Republican Youth, 145 Executive (SOE), 29
Pha˙m Va˘n Nam, 39 ‘revisionism’, ‘revisionist’, Spencer, Herbert, 14
Pha˙n Boˆi Chaˆu, 12, 15, 49, 62, 63, 67– 9, 70, Stalin, Joseph, 64, 66, 67
71, 76, 77, 111, 114, Stowe, Judy, 3
16˙, 26 117, 119, 132 Strategic Hamlet pro-
Revolutionary Military gramme, 53, 55, 58,
Phan Chaˆu Trinh, 12 –17 Council, 57 59
Phan Huy Quaˆ´t, 89, 91 Rhee, Syngman, 46 Struggle Movement 1966,
Riverside Drive speech by 96, 97, 98, 100, 103,
Phan Quang Ða´n, Dr, MLK, 127 119, 140
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 10 Sukarno, President, 37
46, 82 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, Sự Thaˆt press, 70
14, 20 ˙
Phan Va˘n Trường, 17,
Sa`i Go`n Giải Pho´ng, 177 Tam Bảo pagoda, 28
19, 20 Sainteny, Jean, 40 Taˆn Hieˆp prison, 160
Sarraut, Albert, 17, 30 Taoism,˙ 21, 25, 51
Phan Xuaˆn Huy, 146 Schell, Jonathan, 9 Taˆp Ch´ı Lịch Sử Quaˆn
Pha´p –Viˆet Ðe`ˆ Hue`ˆ Schlesinger, James, 167 ˙ Sự, 118
School of Buddhist Youth Taˆy Soˆn brothers, 22
(Fre˙ nch – Vietnamese Taylor, Maxwell, 87, 89
for Social Service Te´ˆt Offensive 1968, 22, 72,
Fraternity), 17 (BYSS), 93, 94,
99, 100 100, 103, 105, 106,
Phaˆt Gia´o Viˆet Nam Schumann, Maurice, 150–2
˙ (Vietnam˙ ese Buddhism),

92

PPhh˙aoˆ tumH_oac, Kieˆm Tˆ´e, 28
Souvanna, 48

Phu´ Quoˆ´c, 179, 181

Pike, Douglas, 76

Pineau, Father Bernard, 94

Pol Pot, 136

Polgar, Thomas, 157,

163, 174

Popular Front in France,

27, 28

Porter, Gareth, 45

Prague Spring, 132

PRC see China

Progressio Populorum, 1967

Encyclical, 94

INDEX 229

109, 134, 142, 149, Topmiller, Robert, 85 Từ Ða`m pagoda, 51
Tra`ˆn Bach Ða˘`ng, 75, 103, Từ Hieˆ´u pagoda, 92
154, 167 Tuổi Trẻ, 187
Teˆ´t Quang Trung, 120, 124 11˙2, 122 –4, 131 –2 Twentieth Party Congress of
Tra`ˆn Cha´nh Chieˆ´u (Gilbert
Thailand, 154, 155, 157, Soviet Union, 66, 67
Chie´ˆu), 14
175 Traˆ`n dynasty, 21, 22 U Thant, 4, 90
Tra`ˆn Huy Lieˆu, 24 Ưng Va˘n Khieˆm, 49, 69
theosophy, 39 Tra`ˆn Leˆ Xuaˆn˙ (Mme Nhu), Unified Buddhist Associ-

Theses on the Path to 52 ation of Vietnam, 82,
Tra`ˆn Ngoc Chaˆu, 5, 101, 83, 85, 92, 98
Revolution in South US Congress, 157, 168
141˙, 142, 144–5 US Embassy, Saigon, 120,
Vietnam, 43, 44, 45 Tra`ˆn Ngoc Hie`ˆn, 142, 144 172, 173, 179
Tra`ˆn Ngo˙c Lieˆ˜ng, 126 US Information Service
Th´ıch Ðoˆn Hậu, 122, 124 Traˆ`n Phư˙ơng, 134 Library, 96
Traˆ`n Quo´ˆc Hoa`n, 72, 118 USAID, 126
Th´ıch Minh Chaˆu, 99 Traˆ`n Quy´ Ca´p, 14, 15 USSR see Soviets, Soviet
Tra`ˆn Quy`nh, 114 Union
Th´ıch10N0h, ấ1t0H5 a–˙n9h,,19225,, 99, Tra`ˆn Thị Lieˆn (Claire), 39,
131 Van Hanh University, 93,
127 ˙ 99˙ , 138, 174
Th´ıch Nữ Thanh Quang, 96 Tra`ˆn Thieˆn Khieˆm, 85, 135,
Va˘n Kiˆen Dảng see Documents
Th´ıch Quảng Ðức, 52, 54, 171˙ of˙ Party History, 59
Tra`ˆn Thoˆng, 39
70 Tra`ˆn Tuyeˆ´t Hoa, 124 Va˘n Tie´ˆn Du˜ ng, 118, 170
Tra`ˆn Va˘n Ðo, 46 Vann, John Paul, 142, 144
Th´ıch Taˆm Chaˆu, 86, 98 Tra`ˆn Va˘n Doˆn, 170 Vanuxem, Fran cois, 173
Tra`ˆn Va˘n Hương, 87, 135, Vatican, the, 127
Th´ıch Taˆm Gia´c, 82 Versailles Peace Treaty, 18
171 Vieˆn Hoa´ Ðao see Buddhists,
Th´ıch Thanh Vaˆn, 100 Traˆ`n Va˘n Hữu, 35, 38–9,
Th´ıch Thiện Chie´ˆu, 24, 28 ˙ Buddhi˙sm
40, 41, 47–9, 88, Vieˆt Coˆng, 40, 43, 52, 80,
Th´ıch Thiện Hoa, 98
Th´ıch Tinh Khie´ˆt, 83 90, 170 ˙ 86˙ , 95, 96, 97, 103,
Traˆ`n Va˘n Tra`, 110, 118, 173, 176
Th´ıch Trı´ Ðộ, 51, 83
119, 175, 190 Vieˆt Minh alliance, 29, 30,
Th´ıch Trı´ Quang, 51–4, 82, ˙ 34, 35, 38, 42, 56, 64,
Tribune, La, 38, 39 66, 67, 75, 95, 125,
83, 86, 92, 96–9, 106, Trịnh Ðı`nh Thảo, 122 142, 145

161, 173, 177 Trotskyists, 27, 29 Vietnamese Buddhist
Force, 95
Th´ıch Vieˆn Quang, 22 Tru´ c Laˆm sect, 22
Vietnamese Communist
Thieˆn Ðịa Hội, 26 Trung Laˆp Ba´o, 20 Party, Vietnam
Trường˙Chinh, 64–5, 68, Workers’ Party (Ðảng
Thiệu see Nguyễn Va˘n Lao Ðoˆng), 6, 27,
71, 72, 116, 118, 45–6,˙50, 62, 64, 67,
Thiệu 69, 70 –5, 80, 97 –8,
132–4, 178, 183, 101, 103, 109–11,
Third Force, 1, 5, 37, 95, 115, 130, 142, 149,
184, 192 154, 157, 158, 162,
103, 160, 161 Trường, David (Ð`ınh

Third Segment, 2–5, 48, Hung), 126
Trường Ðı`nh Dzu, 101,
59, 73, 170, 171 –2,
102, 106, 126
175–6, 191 Trường Như Tảng, 6, 88,

Third Solution, 11, 107, 103, 121, 123, 125,

108 168, 178, 184
Từ Cung, 125
Third Way, 1, 2, 32, 40, 100

Third World, 34, 37

Tiger Cages, 140, 141
Tieˆ´n Hoa´, 28

Tin Sa´ng, 7, 146, 147, 153,

187, 188, 189
To´ˆ Coˆng (Denounce the

C˙ ommunists)

campaign, 43
To´ˆ Hữu, 68, 69

Toˆn Thất Dương Ky, 88,
122, 124 ˙

230 THE THIRD FORCE IN THE VIETNAM WAR

169, 171, 173–4, Vietnamization, Vietnamize Watergate, 158, 161
176–7, 186, 192 war, 135, 147, 150 Werner, Jayne, 25
Control Commission, 71 Westmoreland, William,
Fifteenth Plenum (1959), V˜ınh Long Personalist
43, 61 Philosophy Centre, 33 90
Fourteenth Plenum Wilson, Harold, 4, 90
(1968), 119 Vo˜ Long Triều, 144, 188 Wilson, Woodrow, 10, 17
Ninth Plenum (1963), Vo˜ Nguyeˆn Gia´p, 38, 51, Wurfel, David, 102
Resolution 9, 62, 64, World Council of Churches,
66, 68, 70–2, 77, 112 64–6, 68, 69, 115,
Second Congress (1951), 116, 118 125
64 – 5 Vo˜ Va˘n Kiệt, 42
Tenth Plenum (1956), Vu˜ Ðı`nh Huynh, 115, 116 Xa´ Lợi pagoda, 53, 82
65 – 6 Vu˜ Thư Hieˆn, 116, 117 Xuaˆn Thuỷ, 69
Third Congress (1960), Vu˜ Va˘n Mẫu, 54, 161,
62, 66, 68 174 Yao Tengshan, 114

Wai Island, 181 Zhou Enlai, 37, 119
Walton, Frank E., 139

he most careful, thorough and persuasive analysis of the often
heartbreaking efforts of non-aligned Vietnamese to help bring

‘Tabout peace. The crushing of those efforts is a largely untold story

– until now. Quinn-Judge’s brilliant book transforms our understanding
of South Vietnamese politics and thus of the war itself.’
Marilyn B. Young, P r o f e s s o r o f M o d e r n H i s t o ry, N Y U

It was the conflict that shocked America and the world, but the struggle
for peace is central to the history of the Vietnam War. Rejecting the idea
that war between Hanoi and the US was inevitable, the author traces
a series of communist programmes for a peaceful reunification of their
nation from the 1954 Geneva negotiations up to the final collapse of the
Saigon government in 1975. She also examines the ways that groups and
personalities in South Vietnam responded by crafting their own peace
proposals, in the hope that the Vietnamese people could solve their
disagreements by engaging in talks without outside interference.

While most of the writing on peacemaking during the Vietnam War
concerns high-level international diplomacy, Sophie Quinn-Judge
reminds us of the courageous efforts of southern Vietnamese, including
Buddhists, Catholics, students and citizens, to escape the unprecedented
destruction that the US war brought to their people. The author contends
that US policymakers showed little regard for the attitudes of the South
Vietnamese population when they took over the war effort in 1964 and
sent in their own troops to fight it in 1965. A unique contribution of this
study is the interweaving of developments in South Vietnamese politics
with changes in the balance of power in Hanoi; both of the Vietnamese
combatants are shown to evolve towards greater rigidity as the war
progresses, while the US grows increasingly committed to President Thiê.u
in Saigon, after the election of Richard Nixon. Not even the signing of
the 1973 Paris Peace Agreement could blunt US support for Thiê.u and
his obstruction of the peace process. The result was a difficult peace in
1975, achieved by military might rather than reconciliation, and a new
realization of the limits of American foreign policy.

S o p h ie Q u i nn -J u dg e received her PhD from SOAS, University of London
and is the author of Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years. She first visited
Vietnam as a volunteer in 1973–5.

Cover design by Arianna Osti www.ibtauris.com