Late Pleistocene human occupations in the southern puna, Chile (12,4e10,7 ka cal. BP): Primary results from the Salar de Infieles (25S, 3529 m. a.s.l.) Patricio Lopez Mendoza a, * , Carlos Carrasco b , Rodrigo Loyola c , Víctor Mendez d , Elvira Latorre Blanco a , Pablo Díaz-Jarufe a , Valentina Flores-Aqueveque e , Daniel Varas a , Francisca Santana-Sagredo f , Vanessa Orrego a , Angelica Soto e , Antonio Maldonado g , Anahí Maturana-Fernandez h a Museo de Historia Natural y Cultural del Desierto de Atacama (MUHNCAL), Santiago, Chile b Colegio de Arqueologos, Santiago, Chile c Instituto de Arqueología y Antropología, Universidad Catolica Del Norte, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile- UMR 7055 Pr ehistoire & Technologie, Universite Paris Nanterre, Nanterre, Cedex, France d Laboratorio de Antropología y Arqueología Visual, Escuela de Antropología, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Santiago, Chile e Departamento de Geología, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matematicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile f Escuela de Antropología, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Santiago, Chile g Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Aridas, La Serena, Chile- Centro de Estudios Avanzados and Departamento de Biología Marina, Universidad Catolica Del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile h Trent University, Canada article info Article history: Received 26 January 2023 Received in revised form 29 May 2023 Accepted 11 June 2023 Available online xxx Handling Editor: Danielle Schreve Keywords: Late pleistocene Andes highlands Southern puna CAPE II abstract This article presents the results of excavations at the Infieles-1 site, located at 3529 m. a.s.l. in the Salar de Infieles (25S), highlands of the Chile's southern Puna ecoregion. An initial human occupation was discovered next to an ignimbrite rock-shelter at a depth of 70e80 cm on top of a volcanic ash deposit, dated between 10,798 and 12,440 cal yr BP. The archaeological record consists of lithic wasted-flakes and knapping debris, an ultra-marginal andesite side-scraper, vicuna bone fragments and traces of red ~ mineral pigment. As far as now, this event is the first human occupation recorded in the southern Puna. It is a camp associated with more favourable environmental conditions during the late Central Andean Pluvial Event II (CAPE II). © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Archaeological sites at altitudes above 3500 m. a.s.l. that have been dated to the Late Pleistocene reflect complex processes of exploration and colonisation in the Andes highlands, and reveal different tempos, cultural traditions and types of occupation for each region (Núnez et al. 2001 ~ , 2002; Grosjean et al., 2005; Aldenderfer, 2006; Moreno et al., 2009; Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011; Osorio et al., 2011, 2017a, 2017b; Rademaker et al., 2012, 2014, 2016; Capriles and Albarracin-Jordan, 2013; Capriles et al., 2016a, 2016b, 2018; Ortiz and Lynch, 2016; Jodry and Santoro, 2017; Loyola et al., 2017, 2018; De Souza et al., 2021; Lopez et al., 2021a, 2021b, 2022, 2023 ; Pitblado and Rademaker, 2011b, 2017, 2017, 2017; Santoro et al., 2011a, 2011b, 2017). There are ecological obstacles to human settlement in the highlands, associated with their low primary productivity, large temperature fluctuations during day and night, hypoxia and an extremely cold winter. In some regions, human colonisation of the highlands was gradual and consolidated later (Aldenderfer, 1998, 2008), while in others it was a rapid process, with permanent settlements appearing earlier (Rademaker et al., 2014). * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (P.L. Mendoza). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Quaternary Science Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quascirev https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108189 0277-3791/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189
One of the areas that has been extensively studied is the highlands of Chile's Arid North. Paleoenvironmental studies show important fluctuations for this region in the past. After the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), a climate change event known as the Central Andean Pluvial Event (CAPE) was recorded. This climate change event triggered an increase in summer rainfall towards the end of the Pleistocene, causing the aquifers to refill on the western flank of the Andes (Placzek et al., 2009; Latorre et al., 2013). These events are chronologically consistent with the Tauca and Coipasa phases (Sylvestre et al., 1999; Placzek et al., 2006) described for much of the altiplano, characterized by high paleolake levels in most of the basins that currently correspond to salt flat, this last phase reached lower lake levels than the first and coincides with CAPE II event. This scenario favoured the formation of productive microenvironments, where a high diversity of biotic resources became concentrated during a discrete period between 9700 and 12,700 cal yr BP (Grosjean and Núnez, 1994 ~ ; Geyh et al., 1999; Grosjean et al., 2001; Haselton et al., 2002; Núnez et al., 2002 ~ ; Quade et al., 2008; Latorre et al., 2013; Borrero and Santoro, 2022). The research carried out in this area over the past two decades has allowed us to reconstruct a long-term occupational sequence for the highlands and its relationship with environmental change events (Núnez et al., 2002 ~ ). However, little is currently known about early human adaptations in other high-altitude ecoregions, such as the southern Andean Puna (25-28S). This leaves a fragmented and partial record of initial settlement phases, which considerably limits obtaining a fuller picture of highland colonisation on larger space and time scales. Aspects such as dispersal routes, types of occupation and migratory flows require that we contrast a greater diversity of environments and archaeological records in the Andean highlands. Research in the southern Puna has been limited to date in comparison to the coast and central valley, where dense human occupations have been recorded since early periods (Jackson et al., 2007, 2011a, 2011b; Mendez, 2013 ; Escudero et al., 2016). Following this, we have carried out a high-mountain research program in the recent years, whose goal has been to collect archaeological and paleoenvironmental data from the Salar de Infieles, Salar de Pedernales, Salar de Maricunga and Laguna Negro Francisco (25-27S). The main objective of our research is to identify early human occupations that would allow us to better understand dispersion and colonisation processes in the highlands. To this end, we carried out targeted prospection and surveying in areas containing potential human habitats, such as paleo lake beaches and salt flats, as well as the outflows of ravines (Lopez et al., 2021a, 2022, 2023). We recorded a dozen sites with superficial and stratigraphic evidence related to early cultural traditions dating between 9733 and 11,612 cal yr BP, above all in the Salar de Pedernales. This article addresses the results of the excavation carried out in Salar de Infieles, which provide evidence of a human occupational event dated to the Late Pleistocene. It is the earliest event discovered in the southern salt flats to date. Artefactual, ecofactual and chronological evidence from the Infieles-1 site and its relationship with neighbouring areas and paleoenvironmental data are discussed. 2. Archaeological background 2.1. General characteristics The Salar de Infieles (25580 S-69030 W) is located at an average altitude of 3520 m. a.s.l. It has a basin size of 293 km2 , which is small compared to neighbouring basins, and a salt flat of around 6,7 km2 (Fig. 1). The vegetation is typical of the high steppe region, and the climate is cold mountain desert. Rainfall is low at present (150e200 mm per year), with temperatures that fluctuate wildly between day and night. Despite its aridity and extreme conditions, the salt flat supports animal populations, such as Vicugna vicugna, Lama guanicoe, Lagidium viscacia, Puma concolor and Lycalopex culpaeus, and vegetation, such as Eleocharis pseudoalbibracteata, Oxychloe andina, Pappostipa chrysophylla, Deyeuxia cabrerae, Deyeuxia cabrerae, and Adesmia spinosissima. It is therefore not an area with limited biotic resources and, despite the high salinity of the water, there are sources of water suitable for human consumption in the nearby Salar de Pedernales, or from the snow that falls with varying intensity throughout the year. The first archaeological data for the Salar de Infieles is a report by Latcham (1938), who succinctly describes the rock paintings found on an extensive ignimbrite wall (Fig. 2); the same paintings were later described by Cervellino (1982). A recent study (Lopez et al., 2021a) recorded 42 archaeological sites throughout the basin, of which 18 were identified as Prehistoric, one as Historical or Prehistoric, four as Historical and 19 as Indeterminate (see Fig. 3a and b). The highest density of prehistoric archaeological sites is found in the vicinity of the ignimbrite outcrop, as this area is protected from rain, snow and wind. 2.2. The Infieles-1 site Infieles-1 site is an extensive area on the northwest border of Infieles salt flat, where archaeological remains are scattered next to an extensive ignimbrite outcrop. Excavations concentrated in the south-eastern section, where the ignimbrite outcrop provides natural protection against environmental conditions; this is also the spot where paintings can be seen on the rock wall (Fig. 4a and b). This area has been less disturbed by fossorial rodents, and shows a higher rate of sedimentation due to the colluvium deposited by the slope. Numerous prehistoric cultural remains were observed on the surface, mainly siliceous lithic and monochrome ceramic fragments. A series of stone structures were also recorded, which were possibly used as shelters during the Historical period. Surface materials, such as tin cans remain and etchings on the rock wall, are associated with these sites. There is a strip of salt flat beach at the base of the ignimbrite outcrop that is no more than 30 m at its widest part and 15 m at its narrowest. The rock paintings recorded on this outcrop include at least two styles painted with red pigment. The first is represented by anthropomorphic motifs with rectilinear bodies and quadrangular designs (with lower stepped-fret decoration), as well as other linear triangular designs related to a style that was widespread during the Late Intermediate and Late Period, between 1000 and 1536 AD. The second is composed of smaller-scale motifs arranged at a low height. This second style includes anthropomorphic designs of curvilinear bodies and camelids, together with areal, circular and quadrangular triangular designs with undulating interior decoration; these figures are similar to the Animas-La Puerta style dating from 660 to 1300 AD (Cabello, 2017). 3. Methodology 3.1. Excavation The excavation plans involved placing a 1 1 m unit adjacent to the ignimbrite outcrop in an area where sedimentary deposits from alluvial and wind cones were observed (Fig. 5a and b). Excavation was carried out across 5 cm levels, and all evidence at the site with a length greater than 3 cm was recorded in situ, in particular charcoal and bone, which were dated using radiocarbon dating. Dates were calibrated with the OxCal 4.4.4 software, Interface Build 132 (Bronk Ramsey, 2021), using the SHCal20 curve (Hogg et al., P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 2
Fig. 1. (a) Location of the Salar de Infieles, (b) location of the excavated area (Infieles-1), and (c) cross section of the study area, with the border with Argentina to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Fig. 2. View of the ignimbrite outcrop at the south-eastern end of the Salar de Infieles. P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 3
2020). Dates were processed in the DirectAMS Radiocarbon Dating Service Laboratory using the ABA protocol. 3.2. Laboratory analysis The osteofaunal remains were quantified from the NISP and MNI, due to the limited record. Additionally, analysis of lithic evidence was intended to evaluate the technological structure and the presence of taphonomic alterations, considering the small sample size. In the first stage, the materials were classified according to the type of rock and general technological categories: (a) bifacial pieces; (b) cores; (c) retouched instruments; and (d) knapping remains and debris. Each of these groups were then studied independently using metric, petrographic, technological and typological variables. In the third stage, taphonomic modifications such as thermal alterations, wind abrasion, patina, adhesions and fractures were documented. The lithic evidence was characterized petrographically, considering the three main types of rock: (a) igneous, (b) metamorphic, and (c) sedimentary. Macroscopic observation was used with a Fig. 3. (a) Distribution of archaeological sites located in the Salar de Infieles, and (b) rock painting located at the ignimbrite outcrop of the Infieles-1 site. Fig. 4. (a) Excavation area, and (b) cross-section of the excavated area. P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 4
magnifying glass and magnetism detection, differentiating the samples by granulometry (crystalline or microcrystalline), texture, colour and transparency of the rock. 4. Results 4.1. Archaeological, stratigraphic and chronological evidence The archaeological evidence recovered is detailed in Table 1. In terms of frequency, the record is concentrated in the upper levels 1, 2 and 3, and the lower levels 11, 12, 13 and 14. There is a peak of charcoal spicules and bone remains at level 13, and a greater abundance of lithic evidence at level 12. The nature of the archaeological record in the upper levels is consistent with historical events such as prehistoric pottery, while the lower levels represent occupational events dating to the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene. The majority of the evidence from Infieles-1 is lithic waste, which represents 65,4% of the total materials (n ¼ 435), followed by osteofaunal remains, which represent 22,6% (n ¼ 150). If we only consider this evidence, a first peak is observed for Stratigraphic Unit 1 (SU1); for the earliest event, lithic and bone evidence is concentrated at the base of Stratigraphic Unit 5 (SU5) and in the entire Stratigraphic Unit 6 (SU6). The main components of the stratigraphic units are sandy to muddy sediments with minor pebble presence. Grains are generally subangular to subrounded in shape. Compositionally, they mainly correspond to mineral grains (quartz), and volcanic (pumice and ignimbrite) and intrusive rock fragments. Millimetre-sized charcoal and eggshell fragments are also observed in some units, although in very low percentages (<1%). The colour of the sediment is generally brown, with variations from pale brown to pinkish white. Table 2 summarises the main features of each stratigraphic unit. Sedimentation rates at Infieles-1 are very low and similar to other Early Holocene sites located around Salar de Pedernales. From the latter, the Pedernales5 site has a basal date of 9933 ± 39 (D-AMS 047316, 11,201e11,612 cal yr BP), associated to a carbon sample recovered between 55 and 60 cm of excavation. On the other hand, from the Pedernales-38 site, located a few meters from Pedernales-5, a basal date of 8884 ± 32 (D-AMS 044473, 9733e10,158 cal yr BP) was obtained from a carbon sample recovered between 50 and 55 cm depth. Both contexts have a location similar to Infieles-1, close to an ignimbrite outcrop that received colluvial and wind-transported sediment inputs at similar low sedimentation rates during the entire Holocene sequence. These deposits decrease in thickness towards the margins of the fluvial basin in Pedernales-5 and Pedernales-38, and the salt flat edge in the case of Infieles. Evidences of low weathering in animal bones for these three sites -bones that have very good overall conservation-indicates high sedimentation rates for the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene, which probably changed during the Mid-Holocene due to the shift to arid climate conditions, leading an increase of wind erosion of soils with little or no vegetation cover. A total of five samples were dated using AMS. A charcoal sample recovered from Feature 2 (hearth) was dated between 921 and Fig. 5. (a) Main geo-forms in the excavation area, and (b) cross-section of the excavated area. Table 1 Distribution of archaeological evidence by excavation level. Category Excavation levels Total 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Animal bone 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 5 48 80 10 150 Pottery 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Lithic 3 19 5 2 1 1 4 2 1 50 218 126 5 437 Coal spicule 0 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 10 19 5 45 Burnt paper 1 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 Coprolite 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Vegetal fiber 8 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 11 Pigment 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 Total 13 53 10 2 1 1 4 4 1 57 278 226 20 670 P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 5
1041 cal yr BP (see Fig. 6), which places this event in the Late Intermediate Period (1000e1450 AD). Charcoal samples from earlier events were taken from a small concentration, as no clearly-defined hearths or structures for burning were observed. Non-charred bones were also selected due to radiocarbon dating based on their larger size, as they are less likely to have migrated vertically. Other criteria associated with good bone integrity allowed anatomical and taxonomic identification; there are also traces of processing, such as cuts or fractures produced by percussion. These criteria were met by three specimens of Vicugna vicugna from levels 12 (n ¼ 1) and 13 (n ¼ 2). The first was dated between 10,798 and 11,229 cal. BP and the second two between 11,889e12,440 cal yr BP and 11,846e12,440 cal yr BP. One of these bones presented traces of red pigment, an abundant mineral in small spicules at this early level. A fifth sample is a concentration of charcoal recovered from the base of SU6, in contact with SU7 from level 12 (60e65 cm), which provided a date of 11,633e11,968 cal yr BP (Table 3). The dates and distribution of the artifacts and ecofacts in a stratigraphic unit with a maximum thickness of 14 cm and a minimum of 6 cm conform to occupational events separated by about 1000 years between the earliest and latest dates (see Table 4). 4.2. Lithic evidence The lithic evidence is made up to 437 pieces. It corresponds mostly to knapping waste and debris (n ¼ 435), as well as a Table 2 Description of each stratigraphic unit identified at Infieles-1. Stratigraphic unit Thickness (m) Grain size Sorting Roundness Composition Munsell color code Special features 1 Very fine to coarse sand with very fine pebbles Very poorly sorted Subangular to subrounded Quartz and lithic fragments (ignimbrite) 7.5yr 4/4 e 2 Very fine to coarse sand Poorly sorted Subangular to subrounded Quartz and lithic fragments (ignimbrite, intrusive) 7.5yr 5/4 e 3 Very fine to coarse sand with very fine pebbles Very poorly sorted Subangular to subrounded Quartz and lithic fragments (ignimbrite) 7.5yr 5/3 e 4 Muddy fine-to-coarse sand with medium pebbles Poorly sorted Subangular to subrounded Quartz and lithic fragments (ignimbrite, intrusive) 7.5yr 5/4 e 5 Very fine to coarse sand with very fine pebbles Moderately sorted Subangular to subrounded Quartz and lithic fragments (ignimbrite) 7.5yr 4/3 e 6 Very fine to coarse sand with very fine pebbles Moderately sorted Subangular to subrounded Quartz and lithic fragments 7.5yr 6/4 Charcoal (<1%) fragments (~1 mm) 7 Very fine to coarse sand with very fine pebbles Poorly sorted Subangular to subrounded Quartz and lithic fragments (intrusive) 7.5 YR 4/4 e 8 Very fine to coarse sand Very well sorted Subrounded Volcanic ash? 7.5 YR 8/2 Coarse sand sized lithic fragments (~1%) CC Very fine to very coarse sand with very fine to fine pebbles Very poorly sorted Subangular to subrounded Quartz and lithic fragments (ignimbrite, intrusive) 10 YR 5/2 e Fig. 6. (a) Drawings of north and west stratigraphic profiles of the Infieles-1 site, (b) location of archaeological materials in the west profile and provenance of each 14C date, and (c) general view of the west stratigraphic profile. P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 6
retouched flake tool from an early event and a bifacial piece from the late component. 4.2.1. Petrographic characterisation Lithic assemblage is composed by both sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Siliceous rocks are common among the sedimentary rocks, particularly chert and chalcedony, both hard, compact rocks formed from microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline silica; they are homogeneous and often present millimetric lithic fragments. The chalcedonies found are mostly pure translucent, although there are a small number that have minor reddish tones or pyrolusite (manganese oxide dendrites), which makes them appear less pure. The flint is mostly white and opaque. It may present millimetre clasts and occasional small concentric manganese specks are observed (see Fig. 7). Andesites are common among the igneous rocks. They are calcalkaline volcanic rocks, black to green in colour, and formed mainly by plagioclase (felsic mineral) and amphibole (hornblende), together with olivine (mafic minerals). An important consideration is that magnetism was detected in two andesite samples, one moderate and the other light. Finally, another category is pyroclastic igneous rocks, particularly tuffs. The tuffs have a felsic or leucocratic sub-alkaline chemical composition; they are of a light to dark brown colour, so could be grouped as dacites. The characterisation of raw materials, extracted from a quarry near to the archaeological site, allowed us to verify that the archaeological waste corresponding to chert and chalcedony may have been extracted from the same type of rock (Table 5 and Fig. 8). The chalcedony in particular coincides with the type of material identified in most of the flakes analysed (Fig. 9); it is therefore possible that the quarry is the source of the archaeological materials collected. 4.2.2. Taphonomic alterations On the vertical axis, comparison of the different levels of the depositional sequence indicates that there are no major discontinuities in the distribution of raw materials, which are mainly concentrated between levels 11 and 13. These levels present the highest number of knapping remains that show an increased presence of wind abrasion, generally on one of the faces and, to a lesser extent, on both. This suggests that the pieces were exposed to subaerial conditions prior to their sedimentation, for a period of time sufficient enough for the sediment-laden wind to leave its mark on their surfaces. However, most of the pieces show a minimal degree of weathering, and pieces with no abrasion predominate. If the distribution of the particles based on morphology and weight (gr) is considered, it follows that there is no differential selection on the vertical axis (Fig. 10). Such distributions underestimate the incidence of vertical migration processes. 4.2.3. Technological study In this section, we will exclusively address evidence from the early component, considering levels 11, 12, 13 and 14 distributed in stratigraphic units 5 and 6. As a result, an assemblage of 399 pieces (91,10% of the total) formed mainly by knapping remains and debris where white chalcedony predominates (94,74%) (Table 6). In practically all the raw materials, the cortex remains absent. Among the diagnostic flakes, only 2 attributable to the retouching of unifacial tools were recorded. The bifacial knapping flakes are limited to 16 cases: 3 thinning flakes, 5 final edge regularization and 4 bifacial edge flakes made by pressure, in addition to 4 indeterminate bifacial knapping flakes. Of the total, 10 present abrasion of the platform as a preparation procedure and two cases show lipped accidents. In perspective these trends suggest that the bifacial knapping was dedicated to the final phases of the operative chains. Among the non-diagnostic flakes, cortical flakes (n ¼ 20) are scarce, which indicates that no activities related to the roughing of cores, blocks or cortical supports were carried out at the site. On the other hand, the flakes without cortex are more abundant (n ¼ 48), while Table 3 Radiocarbon dating from the Infieles-1 site. SU: Stratigraphic Unit. Laboratory code SU Feature Level Material C:N %N %C 14C years BP (1 sigma) 14C calibrated BP (95,4%) Mean14C calibrated BP (95,4%) D-AMS 047318 e 2 2 (5e10 cm) Charcoal ee e 1086 ± 22 921e1041 946 D-AMS 047324 5 e 12 (55 e60 cm) Vicugna vicugna bone 3.25 18.36 51.21 9733 ± 46 10,798e11,229 11,067 D-AMS 047325 6 e 13 (60 e65 cm) Vicugna vicugna bone 3.20 9.70 26.60 10,350 ± 38 11,889e12,440 12,109 D-AMS 047319 6 e7 e 13 (60 e65 cm) Charcoal ee e 10,209 ± 46 11,633e11,968 11,812 D-AMS 048105 6 e7 e 13 (60 e65 cm) Vicugna vicugna bone 3.25 13.78 38.31 10,327 ± 46 11,846e12,440 12,065 Table 4 Distribution of the lithic assemblage by level (each 5 cm). Category Excavation levels Total 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Lithic debris 2 19 5 2 1 1 4 2 1 50 218 125 5 435 Projectile point 1 0 0000000 0 0 0 0 1 Scraper 0 0 0000000 0 0 1 0 1 Total 3 19 5 2 1 1 4 2 1 50 218 126 5 437 Table 5 Types of rock and variety of raw materials. Category Excavation levels 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total Igneous rock Volcanic Andesite 0 0 0000000 0 0 1 1 2 Pyroclastic Toba 0 3 0110000 1 0 0 1 7 Sedimentary rock Silica Silex 2 4 0 0 0 0 4 2 0 3 6 7 1 29 Chalcedony 1 12 5 1 0 1 0 0 1 46 212 118 2 399 Total 3 19 5 2 1 1 4 2 1 50 218 126 5 437 P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 7
Fig. 7. (a) Detail of ultra-marginal scraper associated with scapula of a large mammal (dotted line), (b) detail of scapula of large mammal, and (c) plan drawing of the late Pleistocene component (levels 11, 12 and 13) at the Infieles-1 site. Fig. 8. (a) Workshop-quarry area in the Salar de Infieles, (b) detail of cores and flakes in situ, (c) detail of chalcedony (upper) and flint (lower) nodules. P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 8
the flakes without cortex obtained by pressure are in the minority (n ¼ 16). An examination of the non-diagnostic flakes with and without cortex together with the proximal flake fragments, indicates that 23,40% (n ¼ 11) are associated with soft percussion, 2,13% (n ¼ 1) with hard percussion and 10,64% (n ¼ 5) to pressure, so a large part of this subset could be attributed to bifacial knapping with a soft hammer. Also, in 7 cases was observed the platform abrasion and two cases presented lipped accidents, similar to bifacial knapping flakes. Finally, most of the assemblage corresponds to flake fragments and small debris (n ¼ 295). The retouched tool recovered from the level 13 correspond to a side-scraper made from a distal fragment of a large cortical-backed flake with axial termination in black hornblende andesite; it shows at least two previous extractions on the dorsal face (Fig. 11). The retouching has a short extension and irregular-subparallel morphology, forming a slightly convex edge with lateral localisation respect to the techno-morphological axis. The angle of the edge close to 38, with a plano-convex profile. Technical stigmata indicate that retouching was carried out with direct soft percussion. The retouched edge is placed opposite to the cortical back which possibly facilitated its handling. No wind abrasion is observed, while adhered residue was recorded -possibly saline sediments and sands from the paleo-wetland near to the salt flat- on the dorsal surface around the entire perimeter of the piece, a few millimetres from the edge. 4.3. Osteofaunal evidence Osteofaunal evidence is limited and highly fragmented. The record includes splinters and fragments of the diaphysis of indeterminate mammals and birds, along with Passeriformes and Phoenicopteridae, vicuna remains ( ~ Vicugna vicugna) and rodents (Table 7). In the case of early events, particularly from level 13 (60e65 cm), there is a fragment of the scapula blade of a large mammal that exceeds the size of the species that currently inhabit the area. Due to the high level of weathering that this bone presents, as well as the high humidity of the sediment, it was not Fig. 9. Chalcedony flakes from level 13 at Infieles-1. Fig. 10. Distribution of lithic artifactual particles along the vertical axis (levels every 5 cm) according to: (a) morphology (length/thickness); and (b) weight (g). P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 9
possible to fully extract the specimen; very small splinters were recovered that were assigned to Mammalia. The poor state of conservation of this scapula compared to the good state of the rest of the osteofaunal group suggests that this bone was previously exposed on the surface to different taphonomic processes. The distribution by level of each taxa shows a higher frequency at level 13, followed by levels 12 and 14 (Table 7). No archaeological evidence of any kind was observed below 70 cm of excavation; this reflects a complete lack of material migration from the earliest occupational event. For this event, bone remains represent parts of the appendicular skeleton, such as the axial skeleton in the case of the Vicugna vicugna, whose MNI estimate indicates at least two individuals of indeterminate ages (Table 8). The same number was calculated for Phoenicopteridae, taxa represented by a rib fragment. The few diaphysis of Vicugna vicugna long bones in a good state of conservation present indentations associated with intentional blows for bone marrow consumption (Fig. 12a). However, a large number of the bone splinters have a relatively homogeneous size, associated more with trampling than with processing for the consumption of the carcasses (Fig. 12b), considering that only 4,9% of the entire complex shows signs of exposure to fire. 4.4. Mineral pigment The early events present small concentrations of red mineral pigment, with small spicules no larger than 1 cm, together with bones impregnated with pigment. At Salar de Infieles, the use of red pigment in later examples of rock painting is expressive. It is partly due to the good surface provided by the Miocene ignimbrite outcrop, with smooth, wide walls with few cracks. It is also because of the high availability of red mineral pigment, due to the area's similar geological conformation. In the upper sector of the ignimbrite wall with rock paintings, an area was located in which red mineral pigment emerges almost superficially. In this sector, intentional excavations with a diameter of ca. 10 m and a depth of ca. 30 cm were observed (Fig. 13), which could be related to the extraction of the pigments used in later rock paintings and in the early levels of Infieles-1. The use of pigments from the early period of colonisation and throughout the Archaic and ceramic sequence was particularly relevant in the southern salt flats of the Atacama Region, according to evidence from Salar de Pedernales (Lopez et al. 2022, 2023). Other Phoenicopteridae and Vicugna vicugna bones from archaeological contexts that have traces of pigment have also been reported at the Pedernales-5 and Pedernales-38 sites (Lopez et al. 2023). However, it is uncertain if this is due to the intentional act of painting the bones, to their use as utensils to grind the mineral, or to the mixing of discarded post-consumption remains with the pulverised pigment spicules on occupational floors. 5. Discussion 5.1. Human occupation and paleoenvironmental framework The paleoclimatic records for south of study area indicate that there were conditions of higher winter rainfall than those found today at the end of the Pleistocene and the start of the Holocene (Lamy et al., 1999; Kim et al., 2002; Maldonado and Villagran, 2006 ; Tiner et al., 2018). Further north, in the area dominated by rainfall associated with the South American Monsoon (SASM, 22S), studies of rodent deposits show conditions much wetter than today during the Central Andean Pluvial Event (CAPE I and CAPE II) (de Porras et al., 2017; Maldonado et al., 2005; Gonzalez-Pinilla et al., 2021 . See Fig. 14). Various proxies, such as sediment deposits in high Andean lakes, elevated groundwater levels and paleoburrows, indicate that CAPE II was wetter than CAPE I (Grosjean et al., 2001; Rech et al., 2002; Latorre et al., 2002). In the southern part of the Salar de Atacama and Salar de Punta Negra, conditions of high humidity have been documented up to 10,600 cal yr BP (de Porras et al., 2017; Maldonado et al., 2005; Saez et al., 2016 ). A subsequent decrease in rainfall is observed to 9800 cal yr BP, although it remains higher than today. From this point on, climatic conditions became drier than today; there were, however, two considerable increases in humidity around 8200 and 8800 cal yr BP (de Porras et la 2017), with this last event recorded up to the Andean zone at Table 6 Technological classes and subclasses of lithic assemblages according to raw material (only levels 11 to 14). Category Andesite Chalcedony Siliceous rocks Tuff Total Retouched flake-tool 1 ee e 1 Flakes of edge retouch of unifacial tools e 1 1 e 2 Bifacial knapping flakes e 14 2 e 16 Bifacial thinning flake e 3 e e 3 Edge regularization flake e 3 2 e 5 Bifacial pressure flake e 4 e e 4 Indeterminate bifacial knapping flake e 4 e e 4 Pressure flake e 15 1 e 16 Flake without cortex e 44 3 1 48 Flake fragments and debris 1 284 9 1 295 Proximal fragment e 25 e e 25 Mesial fragment e 3 e e 3 Distal fragment 1 19 1 e 21 Lateral fragment e 4 e e 4 Indeterminate flake fragent e 214 8 e 222 Indeterminate fragment e 19 e 1 20 Cortical flake e 20 e e 20 Initial flake (100% cortex þ natural butt) e 2 e e 2 75e100% of cortex e 5 e e 5 50e75% of cortex e 2 e e 2 25e50% of cortex e 2 e e 2 >25% of cortex e 5 e e 5 Flake with cortical back e 4 e e 4 Indeterminate ee e 1 1 Total 2 378 16 3 399 P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 10
30S (Tiner et al., 2018). The dry periods largely coincide with a decrease in El Nino~ Southern Oscillation (ENSO) activity in the tropical Pacific (Rein et al., 2005). The records from neighbouring areas can be related to the paleoenvironmental and archaeological record for the Salar de Pedernales, south of the Salar de Infieles. On the eastern edge of the basin, organic sediment associated with the maximum increase of lake level in the salt flat was dated at 13,092e13,289 cal yr BP (sample LP2M3-D-AMS 037296, see Lopez et al., 2021a ). The location of the dated material coincides with modelling of the salt flat's maximum topographic level; this can also be related to the Salar de Infieles. According to sediment analyses from Infieles-1, Stratigraphic Unit 7 represents a lake bed and the maximum level reached by the salt flat basin. The beach was formed after the water level had receded and the water tables had decreased; it became the base of human occupation in the site from the Late Pleistocene. Fig. 11. Retouched instrument on thick flake-support. Arrows: direction of extractions on the support. Triangles: direction of extractions prior to extraction of the support. Dotted line: fracture of the support. Table 7 Taxonomic frequency detailed by excavation level. Taxa Excavation levels Total 1 2 9 11 12 13 14 Mammalia 0 4 0 4 36 63 9 116 Vicugna vicugna 1101 2 9 1 15 Rodentia 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Chinchillidae 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Ave 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 4 Phoenicopteridae 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Passeriforme 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Indeterminate taxa 0 0 1 0 7 3 0 11 Total 1 5 1 5 48 80 10 150 Table 8 Anatomical representation of Vicugna vicugna and Phoenicopteridae (black) from levels 11, 12, 13 and 14 at the Infieles-1 site. Bone element NISP MNE MNI Skull 1 1 1 Mandible 1 1 1 Molar 3 1 1 Inferior incisor 1 1 1 Humerus 3 2 2 Thoracic 1 1 1 Indeterminate vertebra 1 1 1 Lumbar 1 1 1 Ulna 1 1 1 Rib 1 1 1 P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 11
The rest of the stratigraphic deposits do not contain evidence of human occupation; this coincides with other sites excavated in the basin neighbouring the Salar de Infieles, where there is no archaeological signal between 7584 and 7744 to 2964e3206 cal yr BP. This can be related to the start and increase of arid conditions recorded north (de Porras et al., 2017; Grosjean, 2001; Maldonado et al., 2005; S aez et al., 2016) and south of Pedernales in Palo Colorado (32S) at 8600 cal yr BP and, most notably, between 5000 and 77,000 cal. BP, similar to other records south of the study area (Kim et al., 2002; Maldonado and Villagran, 2006 ; Cabre et al., 2019 ; Tiner et al., 2018). To the south of the study area, records of glacial retreats in the Valle del Encierro (29,1S-69,9W, 3750e4150 m. a.s.l.), complied by Aguilar et al. (2022), indicate that deglaciation had ended around Fig. 12. (a) Humerus diaphysis of Vicugna vicugna from level 12, dated to 10,798-11,229 cal. BP, (b) size of bone splinters from the early event at the Infieles-1 site. Fig. 13. (a) Area of mineral pigment outcrop, possibly excavated from the pre-Hispanic period, (b) Humerus diaphysis of Vicugna vicugna, dated to 11,889-12,443 cal. BP, with traces of red pigment, and (c) detail of pigment sample recovered from the outcrop. P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 12
17,000e18,000 cal yr BP without major advances, as had been proposed by Zech et al. (2017). Andean glaciations in the northern segment of the Atacama Desert were linked to humid CAPE events (Quade et al., 2008); these events did not affect the southern valleys of the Atacama Desert. Deglaciation around 17,000e18,000 cal yr BP relates to global warming at the onset of the Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1) event, through the high-latitude migration of south-westerly winds and CO2 venting from the Southern Ocean (Aguilar et al., 2022). This antecedent is relevant for an area such as Salar de Infieles, which is close to hills that serve as natural mountain passes reaching ca. 4800 m. a.s.l. in the Atacama Region, such as the San Francisco mountain pass (26S-68W). Fig. 14. (a) Paleo-climatic records of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene in the southern area of the Atacama Desert, and data discussed in this work compared with the radiocarbon data from Infieles-1: (1) Calibrated radiocarbon datings from Infieles-1, (2) ENSO activity in the tropical Pacific (Rein et al., 2005), (3) Rodent midden pollen records (de Porras et al., 2017), (4) Plant macrofossils midden record at 24S (Latorre et al., 2002), (5) Lake levels of Laguna Miscanti (23S; Grosjean, 2001), (6) Local water table levels of paleowetlands at Salar de Punta Negra (24.5S; Quade et al., 2008), (7) Groundwater discharge levels inferred from paleo-wetlands at (22-24S; Rech et al., 2002), (8) Occurrence of groundwater discharge deposits from Sierra de Varas (25S; Saez et al., 2016 ), and (9) Rodent midden pollen records from Quebrada del Chaco (25-30; Maldonado et al., 2005); (b) Reconstruction of the lake levels in the Pedernales basin: current level in black; level of western edge in light blue; and level where the paleocoast identified on the eastern edge of the salt flat is located in red (Source: Esri DigitalGlobe). The yellow rectangle marks the site where the LP2M3 sample was obtained; (c) area where the LP2M3 sample was obtained; and (d) cross-section of the same area. P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 13
5.2. Archaeological chronologies As indicated by Capriles et al. (2016a, b), archaeological sites in the high Andean area dating to the Late Pleistocene are limited; more limited still are those dating beyond 11,000 cal yr BP. This leads to two ways of thinking about the colonisation of the Andean highlands. The first points to a late colonisation of the area, due to restrictions such as hypoxia. In this scenario, human settlement would have been progressive as the lowlands became saturated, initially encouraging logistical movement due to the marked seasonality of resources (Aldenderfer, 1998, 1999, 2006). However, Rademaker et al. (2014) has suggested that human groups established permanent settlements in the highlands at the end of the Pleistocene, based on results obtained in Cuncaicha (4480 m. a.s.l., Pucuncho, Peru). This idea was also proposed by Haas et al. (2017) for the Early Holocene in the Andean highlands. In the latter case, more stable occupations are indicated during most of the annual cycle. If we consider all the archaeological sites excavated in the Andean area between 2300 and 4500 m. a.s.l., there is a greater concentration of dates from ca. 10,000 to 12,900 cal yr BP between 20S and 25S, and to a lesser extent to 18S (Fig. 15). However, after Fig. 15. Distribution of dates in the Andean area (2,300-4,500 masl) for the late Pleistocene-early Holocene, (a) pre 11,001 cal. BP, (b) 11,000-10,001 cal. BP, (c) 10,000-9,001 cal. BP, (d) 9,000-7,500 cal. BP. Maps processed using OxCal 4.4.4, Interface Build. Detailed data in Supplementary Material 1. P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 14
10,000 cal yr BP, and especially between 7500 and 9000 cal yr BP, the archaeological signal falls. This can be explained by the increase in regional aridity that started at the end of the Early Holocene and intensified during the Mid-Holocene. This last point, in part, also supports the explanation of Rademaker et al. (2014) as to why some high Andean occupations were more ephemeral than others; additional considerations include landscape learning during the colonisation process and differences in the primary productivity of different areas of Puna. We agree with Rademaker et al. (2014) that there is no empirical evidence to suggest that the first Andean hunter-gatherers were physiologically or reproductively impaired by hypoxia. In this regard, the pattern of vertically distributed complementary resources in this area of the Andes is relevant, as it may have fostered seasonal residential mobility (Lynch, 1971; Núnez et al., 2002 ~ ; Rademaker et al., 2014). In the case of the southern Puna, the distance from the coast is only 140 km in an east to west direction, and water courses such as the Salado River (26S) that rise in the high peaks and flow out into the sea would have functioned as rapid transit routes (Lopez et al., 2023 ). The distance to the upper Yungas area on the eastern Andean slope -key for its plant resources-is approximately 360 km through the Andean passes. As mentioned before, the coast-inland mobility circuits that moved in a north-south axis through the same mountain range, passing through stable water sources and gathering areas, such as the salt flats and ravines, favoured a rapid occupation of the territory. However, our results far from reflect a single pattern of mobility and occupation of the Puna, since the studies carried out in the upper course of the Jorquera River (27S), the Salar de Maricunga (27S), Pedernales (26S) and Infieles (25S) indicate early traditions such as Huentelaquen, Inca Cueva-Tuina and typologies similar to Punta Negra, using similar ecological niches, but with differences in the operational chains and use of raw materials (Lopez et al., 2022). The earliest date of human occupation in Infieles-1 does not allow us to link it to a particular cultural tradition. There is an abundance of white chalcedony, while the limited black andesite recovered from the site could be related to movements over greater distances, such as to the Salar de Punta Negra, where similar large retouched tools on black andesite has been documented (Loyola et al., 2018). This suggests prior knowledge of the Salar de Infieles, the seasonality of its biotic resources (mainly vicunas) and the ubiquity of abiotic resources (lithic raw materials ~ and pigment). Despite being the area with the second highest concentration of peaks above 6000 m. a.s.l. in the world, an absence of insurmountable barriers meant that the basins of the southern Puna were incorporated in the early peopling of the highlands through a rapid and not so gradual process of exploration. Evidence shows that the earliest dates from Infieles-1 are synchronous with the earliest dates obtained at archaeological sites located on the Pacific coast between 25 and 26S (see Lopez et al., 2023; Supplementary Material 1). Through systematic comparison of various sites in the Andean Puna dated to the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene, Rademaker and Moore (2018) conclude that differences in the intensity of occupation and mobility are not related to elevation, but to variations in primary productivity and the congruence of critical resources. Salar de Infieles is a small basin whose surface contains a gypsum crust with a few small pools, or water vertical-sided pools of water with very high salinity. In contrast, the water sources in a much larger salt flat such as Pedernales, 11 km south of Infieles, present different salinity levels; diluted water sources have been reported from groundwater to the south and west of the basin, as well as brackish water from the basin's eastern sector (Risacher et al., 1999). In addition, the Pedernales basin is connected or close to rivers such as La Ola and Leoncito; it thus offers a greater diversity of ecological niches and water sources suitable for human settlement. This may explain the absence of human occupation in Infieles-1 during the Mid-Holocene and, up to now, the absence of late Archaic occupations; this differs from what has been reported in Pedernales (Lopez et al., 2022 ). In this last salt flat, there is a certain continuity between the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene dates, above all in the Quebrada Pedernales (Pedernales Ravine), a water course that was channelled and dried up only in the last century. The latest date of these occupations is 7584e7744 cal yr BP, with an absence of events until 2964e3206 cal yr BP (see Table 1 in Lopez et al., 2023 ). Thus, Infieles presents characteristics that suggest it was an area of transit and supply of lithic resources, with a low intensity of human occupations. This is the same for later periods, in which the floor (dated to 921e1042 cal yr BP) provides limited evidence associated with lithic knapping, discarded projectile points and ceramic vessels. 6. Conclusions The first archaeological results from the Salar de Infieles reflect the earliest occupations dated in the southern Puna and one of the oldest records in the Andean highlands. The evidence is associated with a camp in the highlands where knapping activities related to bifacial shapping and retouching of stone tools were carried out, in addition to other subsistence activities such as vicuna processing ~ and the use of red mineral pigment. The volume of our excavations does not allow us to infer the character of these occupations or the predominant type of mobility. So far, the lithic record does not allow a high resolution of technological activities. The same is true for the zooarchaeological evidence, which is limited in number. This may be because the excavated area was a marginal sector of a higher-density occupation. Infieles-1, like other sites in the Puna ecoregion, relates to early incursions into the highlands, contemporaneous to and even older than the known sites in the coastal strip and central valley. This implies that we should rethink human dynamics and the real ecological complexity of the mountainous landscape of the southern Puna. The evidence presented allows us to gradually complete the fragmented record of human dispersion in the region, and highlights the diversity of hunter-gatherer adaptations. As previously stated, the extreme conditions of the highlands were not an impediment for human dispersion; they allowed the convergence of diverse adaptive responses, which are reflected in the multiple cultural traditions recognised in the southern Puna to date. The evidence indicates that these environments offered habitats with abundant water, biotic and mineral resources such as vicuna, ~ combustible material such as Azorella spp., and sources of highquality, easily-accessible lithic raw materials, in particular in summer when the snow cover disappeared. Credit author statement Patricio Lopez Mendoza: Conceptualization, Methodology, Preparation, Writing, Review & Editing. Carlos Carrasco: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation. Rodrigo Loyola: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation. Víctor Mendez: Investigation. Elvira Latorre Blanco: Investigation. Pablo Díaz-Jarufe: Investigation. Valentina Flores-Aqueveque: Investigation. Daniel Varas: Investigation. Francisca Santana-Sagredo: Investigation. Vanessa Orrego: Investigation. Angelica Soto: Investigation. Antonio Maldonado: Investigation. Anahí Maturana-Fernandez: Investigation. P. Lopez, C. Carrasco, R. Loyola et al. Quaternary Science Reviews 313 (2023) 108189 15
Funding Research financed through the Fondecyt Project 1190197, financed by Agencia Nacional de Investigacion y Desarrollo (ANID), Chile. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Data availability Data will be made available on request. Acknowledgement We thank an anonymous reviewers for helpful reviews that improved the paper. Our thanks to Osvaldo Latorre Astudillo, Jorge G. Martínez (Universidad Nacional de Tucuman), and Lucio Gonzalez Venanzi (Universidad Nacional de La Plata) for their support. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/jf92t9mxtb/1. References Aguilar, G., Riquelme, R., Lohse, P., Cabre, A., García, J.L., 2022. Chronology of glacial advances and deglaciation in the Encierro River Valley (29 Lat. 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