Human Interactions Textbook - Copy

How Do Networks Operate in a Globalized World? 475

different parts of the world to work together to reach a Networks and Information
consensus on how to achieve economic development and
to respond to crises. The power of these networks was The global diffusion of products and ideas associated
very much in evidence in the wake of the devastating 2010 with popular culture depends largely on globalized media
earthquake in Haiti, when NGOs from far-flung parts of and retail store networks, as well as the advertising prac-
the globe cooperated in an effort to respond to the crisis. tices in which both engage. Today’s media encompasses
much more than print, radio, and television; also part
Despite the goal of sharing power across a network, of the picture are spaces of entertainment, such as the
most development networks (like other networks) have New Amsterdam Theater in Times Square in New York
power differences within them. Indeed, Leroi Henry, (owned by Disney); songs produced under record labels
Giles Mohan, and Helen Yanacopulos find that power like RCA, Jive, and BMG (all owned by Bertelsmann);
relationships exist both within and between networks— games played on PlayStation (owned by Sony); movie
often privileging the views of NGOs in the core, as opposed information disseminated through MovieFone and online
to those in the periphery. directions to movie theaters that can be found through
MapQuest (both owned by Time-Warner, as is the New
A growing number of development entities are pro- Line Cinema movie you chose to see).
moting local solutions to development. Participatory
development—the idea that locals should be engaged in Through a series of mergers and consolidations
deciding what development means for them and how to occurring mostly in the post–Cold War era, global media
achieve it—is another response to top-down decision mak- are controlled largely by six globe-spanning corporations:
ing. Stuart Corbridge has studied how the global push for Time-Warner, Disney, Bertelsmann, Viacom, News
participatory development has encouraged the government Corporation, and Vivendi Universal. These six media
of India to enact participatory development programs. corporations (along with other media corporations) are
Corbridge and his colleague Sanjay Kumar describe the masters of vertical integration. A vertically integrated
goal of participatory development as giving the people corporation is one that has ownership in all or most of the
who are directly affected by policies and programs a voice points along the production and consumption of a com-
in making the policies and programs—that is, to use local modity chain.
networks to shape development for local goals. Kumar and
Corbridge found that “[t]here can be no doubting the sin- In a 2003 report, Miguel Mendes Pereira noted
cerity of” participatory development programs “to engage that media companies compete for three things: con-
the rural poor” in India. However, they also found that tent, delivery, and consumers. Through consolidation and
local politics factor into the distribution of poverty allevia- mergers, vertically integrated global media companies
tion schemes because richer farmers and elites in rural areas such as the Walt Disney Corporation (Fig. 14.7) con-
tend to be most involved with development program. trol content (through ownership of production compa-
nies, radio shows, television stations, film producers, and
This situation is a failure not of development, they publishers) and delivery (through ownership of radio,
maintain, but rather of the definition of success. The goal television stations, magazines, and movies). Delivery of
of the program they studied in India was to get seeds to content also refers to the infrastructure of technology—
farmers and to create irrigation schemes. The program the proprietary technologies used for creating and shar-
has succeeded in this respect for many farmers, though ing digital media. Vertical integration also helps media
not for the poorest farmers. Their lack of participation is giants attract and maintain customers through synergy,
not a reason to abandon the participatory program, how- or the cross promotion of vertically integrated goods.
ever. According to Kumar and Corbridge, the program For example, within the vertical integration of Disney,
(like other participatory development programs) has to you can visit Walt Disney World’s Animal Kingdom to
“operate in an environment that is dominated by bet- catch the Festival of the Lion King, based on the Disney
ter off farmers and particular community groups.” They Theatrical Production that was based on the Walt
argue that the definition of success must change because Disney Picture.
development organizations cannot expect the poorest to
“participate in groups that have little meaning for them.” Vertical integration of media changes the geog-
raphy of the flow of ideas around the globe by limiting
The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the ultimate number of gatekeepers, that is, people or
and even state governments are increasingly embrac- corporations with control over access to information. A
ing the ideal of participatory development, loosening gatekeeper can choose not to tell a story and the story will
demands for trade liberalization in the periphery and not be heard. Some are concerned, then, that the consoli-
semi-periphery. As Kumar and Corbridge explain, poli- dation of media is resulting in fewer ultimate gatekeepers.
tics will enter participatory development, just as it enters The big media conglomerates, in this view, have become
the development networks and the global development the ultimate gatekeepers. Or we can focus on the com-
organizations. The goal of participatory development is petition for customers and the proliferation of sources
worthwhile, even if the short-term results do not mesh of delivery for media (the vast number of cable television
with Western concepts of success.

476 Chapter 14 Globalization and the Geography of Networks

DISNEY VERTICAL INTEGRATION channels, radio stations, Internet sources, and magazines)
and argue that there are more gatekeepers in the world
THE WALT DISNEY CORPORATION today. The diversity of media outlets supports the latter
proposition, with television channels geared to specific
FILM segments (or markets) of the population. For example,
both the wide-reaching Al-Jazeera satellite television
Walt Disney Pictures station and the new cable channels in the United States
Touchstone Pictures that are targeted toward Muslim Americans are geared
Hollywood Pictures to specific segments of the global or U.S. population.
Miramax Films
Pixar Blogs

BROADCAST TELEVISION Historically, governments and journalists had the abil-
ABC Network ity to be strong gatekeepers by choosing what stories to
Owned & Operated Television Stations (10) release or tell. Today, with the extraordinary growth of
blogs (“web logs”) on the Internet (upwards of 8 million
CABLE TELEVISION in 2004 and over 133 million in 2010), tight gatekeeping
is much more difficult. A blog allows individuals, without
Owner cost, to post thoughts, photographs, and experiences, and
to create links to websites or other blogs. Blogs are local,
ABC Family regional, national or global networks that respond to and
Disney Channel stand separate from global media networks.
Toon Disney
SOAPnet Anyone with access to the Internet can read a blog-
Jetix Latin America ger’s postings and comment on them. Blogger, the origi-
nal blog site created by the small company Pyra Labs in
Major Owner 1999, was sold to Google. Media giants are finding their
way into the blogosphere (as the blog space of the Internet
ESPN (5 stations) is called) with sites such as MSN spaces and AOL journals.
The blog site hosts your blog for free and provides a for-
Partial Owner (8) mat for your blog, so that you need know next to nothing
about website publishing. Blogs influence elections, and
RADIO they help generate interest in particular stories and events.

ABC Radio Networks and Economic Exchange
Radio Stations
Unlike major media corporations that are vertically
50 cities integrated—with ownership of relevant suppliers and
ESPN Radio (syndicated) producers—major retail corporations are typically hori-
zontally integrated. A horizontally integrated corpora-
MUSIC tion is one that acquires ownership of other corporations
Walt Disney Records engaged in similar activities. The retail industry may appear
Hollywood Records to be dominated by a large number of different companies;
Lyric Street Records however, many retail companies bearing different names
are in fact owned by the same horizontally integrated
PUBLISHING parent corporation.
Book Publishing Imprints (20 companies)
Horizontal integration means that when you shop
MAGAZINES for similar products in different places or across a mall,
Magazines (16) your dollars often support the same parent corporation.
If you go to the mall to buy a pair of jeans, your choice to
PARKS & RESORTS shop at Banana Republic, the Gap, and Old Navy sends
Walt Disney Imagineering your dollars to the same parent company. And your choice
Disneyland Resort to take a break at the food court to drink a Gatorade, eat
Walt Disney World Resort a bag of Doritos, and buy a Quaker granola bar also sends
Tokyo Disney Resort your dollars to the same parent corporation (in this case,
Disneyland Resort Paris PepsiCo). You might wonder when Taco Bell started selling
Hong Kong Disneyland
Disney Vacation Club
Disney Cruise Line

OTHER
Disney Theatrical Productions
Disney Live Family Entertainment
Disney on Ice
The Disney Store
Club Penguins
ESPN Zone
Disney Toys
Disney Apparel
Disney Food, Health and Beauty
Disney Home Furnishings and Décor
Disney Stationery
The Baby Einstein Company
Muppets Holding Company
Disney Interactive Studios
Walt Disney Internet Group

Figure 14.7
The Walt Disney Corporation. Data from: Columbia Jour-
nalism Review, Who Owns What. http://www.cjrarchives.org/
tools/owners/disney.asp

How Do Networks Operate in a Globalized World? 477

Kentucky Fried Chicken and Pizza Hut pizza (all three the people in the cities by bringing their products to mar-
are part of YUM! corporation, which also owns A&W and kets in the cities. With the industrialization of agriculture
Long John Silvers. YUM! is a spin-off of PepsiCo). (chapter 11), the distance between farmers and consumers
has increased, figuratively and literally. Consumers often
Analyzing the global consolidation of media, the do not consider the source of their food, and some pro-
global networking of NGOs concerned with develop- cessed foods look so little like natural foods that it is all
ment, and the global presence of retail corporations helps too easy to forget farmers were involved in producing the
us see the diversity of global networks, with some increas- food. Container ships and refrigerated trucking and ship-
ingly centralized and others increasingly disaggregated. ping (chapter 12) now allow consumers in cold regions of
Aside from the spatial characteristics of the network itself, the world in winter months to purchase fresh fruits and
what is interesting for geographers is the impact of these vegetables grown thousands of miles away, in warmer cli-
networks on local places, for globalized networks do not mates. In 2007, when the United States conducted its last
affect individual places in the same way. People interact Census of Agriculture, it found the number of principal
with the global network, shaping it, resisting it, embracing operators of farms in the United States had grown by
it, and responding to globalization in unique ways. 4 percent, to 2.2 million people. According to geographer
Steven Schnell, one of the reasons the number of farm-
Community-Supported Agriculture ers in the United States has increased is the growth in the
number of community-supported agriculture groups,
In the von Thunen model (Chapter 11), farms surrounded known as CSAs (Fig. 14. 8). Schnell explains that CSAs
urban areas in a regular pattern and provided fresh food to

CSAS IN THE CONTIGUOUS
UNITED STATES, 2011

0 200 400 600 800 1000 Kilometers
0 200 400 600 Miles

Data from www.localharvest.com

Figure 14.8
CSAs in the contiguous United States, 2011. Schnell (2007) found that CSAs are more
likely to be found in urban or suburban areas where people have higher levels of education and
are actively involved in discussing politics. Courtesy of: Local Harvest.org

478 Chapter 14 Globalization and the Geography of Networks

Figure 14.9
Belforest, Alabama. Buford and
Stewart Foster count and bag corn to
be sold at a farmers market. © Jeff and

Meggan Haller/Keyhole Photo/Corbis.

began in Japan in the 1960s when a group of women “dis- season. Both Schnell and Local Harvest agree that CSA
satisfied with imported, processed, and pesticide-laden farmers typically use organic growing standards (chapter
food, made arrangements directly with farmers to provide 11) but do not take the time to certify their land and pro-
natural, organic, local food for their tables.” duce as organic.

From its hearth in Japan, CSAs diffused to Europe Think about the information you are exposed to through the
and then to the United States. The first CSA in the United Internet, television, and other media each day. Make a list of
States was in the Berkshire Mountains of Massachusetts. the companies that publish or produce these news sources
By 2011, the number of CSAs in the United States had you use. Go to Columbia Journalism Review’s website, Who
risen to over 4000 according to Local Harvest, an orga- Owns What (http://www.cjr.org/resources/). Determine
nization that maps CSAs to help consumers and farmers how many gatekeepers control the information you use to
connect (Fig. 14.9). make decisions and understand your world.

Through a CSA, a farmer and consumers create a
network whereby both assume risk. Consumers pay for a
share of the farmer’s harvest, typically fruits and vegeta-
bles, before the growing season begins. Farmers use the
cash to purchase seed and plant and then deliver goods to
consumers over a period of weeks during the growing

Summary

Globalization has been compared to a runaway train blowing through stations leaving
much of the world to stare at its caboose. Yet this description is not entirely accurate.
Globalization is a series of processes, not all of which are headed in the same direction.
Even those processes headed down the globalization track are often stopped, sent back
to the previous station, or derailed. The globalization track is not inevitable or irrevers-
ible (in the words of O’Loughlin, Staeheli, and Greenberg). Many of the most important
globalization processes take place within networks of global cities (see chapter 9), of
places linked by popular culture (see chapter 4), of governments (see chapter 8), of trade

Learn More Online 479

(see chapter 12), and of development (see chapter 10). People and places are found all
along these networks, and just as globalization influences people and places, those same
people and places influence globalization’s trajectory and future.

Geographic Concepts social networks gatekeepers
participatory horizontal integration
globalization community-supported
Washington development
vertical integration agriculture
Consensus synergy
networks
Digital Divide

Learn More Online

About media ownership

Columbia Journalism Review’s Who Owns What Website
www.cjr.org/tools/owners/

About the Network of World Cities
http://www.brook.edu/metro/pubs/20050222_worldcities.pdf

About the World Social Forum
www.forumsocialmundial.org.br/

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AAPPENDIX

Maps

The geographer’s greatest ally is the map. Maps can reality to promote political aims. We should be alert to
present enormous amounts of information very effectively, cartographic mistakes when we read maps. The proper
and can be used to establish theories and solve problems. use of scale, projection, and symbolization ensures that a
Furthermore, maps often are fascinating, revealing things map is as accurate as it can be made.
no other medium can. It has been said that if a picture is
worth a thousand words, then a map is worth a million. MAP SCALE

Maps can be fascinating, but they often do not get the The scale of a map reveals how much the real world
attention they deserve. You may spend 20 minutes care- has been reduced to fit on the page or screen on which it
fully reading a page of text, but how often have you spent appears. It is the ratio between an actual distance on the
20 minutes with a page-size map, studying what it reveals? ground and the length given to that distance on the map,
It is difficult to summarize every pattern a map shows in a using the same units of measurement. This ratio is often
caption or paragraph of text. Readers should actively read represented as a fraction (e.g., 1:10,000 or 1/10,000). This
maps by looking for patterns and themes. For example, in means that one unit on the map represents 10,000 such
chapter 2 on population we study several maps that depict units in the real world. If the unit is 1 inch, then an inch
the human condition by country, including birth and death on the map represents 10,000 inches on the ground, or
rates, infant mortality, hunger index, and life expectancy. slightly more than 833 feet. The metric system certainly
In the text, we can refer only to highlights (and low points) makes things easier. One centimeter on the map would
on those maps. But make a point of looking beyond the actually represent 10,000 cm or 100 meters. Such a scale
main issue to get a sense of the global distributions these would be useful when mapping a city’s downtown area, but
maps represent. It is part of an intangible but important it would be much too large for the map of an entire state.
process: to enhance your mental map of the world. As the real-world area we want to map gets larger, we
must make our map scale smaller. As small as the fraction
While on the topic of maps, we should remind our- 1/10,000 seems, it still is 10 times as large as 1/100,000,
selves that a map—any map—is an incomplete representa- and 100 times as large as 1/1,000,000. If the world maps in
tion of reality. In the first place, a map is smaller than the this book had fractional scales, they would be even smaller.
real world it represents. Second, it must depict the curved A large-scale map can contain much more detail and be far
surface of our world on a flat plane, for example, a page of more representative of the real world than a small-scale
this book. And third, it contains symbols to convey the in- map. Look at it this way: when we devote a half page of
formation that must be transmitted to the reader. These are this book to a map of a major city (Fig. A.1), we are able to
the three fundamental properties of all maps: scale, projec- represent the layout of that city in considerable detail. But
tion, and symbols. if the entire country in which that city is located must be
represented on a single page, the city becomes just a large
Understanding these basics helps us interpret maps dot on that small-scale map, and the detail is lost in favor
while avoiding their pitfalls. Some maps look so convinc- of larger-area coverage (Fig. A.2). So the selection of scale
ing that we may not question them as we would a para- depends on the objective of the map.
graph of text. Yet maps, as representatives of the world all,
to some extent, distort reality. Most of the time, such dis-
tortion is necessary and does not invalidate the map’s mes-
sage. But some maps are drawn deliberately to mislead.
Propaganda maps, for example, may exaggerate or distort

A-1

A-2 Maps

Chesham Bovingdon Kings Cuffley EppiLngONDON REGION
Langley
Chesham Northaw Cheshunt
Bois Flaunden
South Railroad Chipping
Garston Mimms Potters Fiddlers Hamlet Ongar
Watford Theydon BoRisoad
Radlet Bar Waltham Abbey
Botany
Urban area
Amersham Little Borehamwood Bay Epping
Chalfont
South Monken Cockfosters Forest Parks and forest
Oxhey Hadley Ponders End Loughton

Rickmansworth Bushey East Barnet 0 2.5 5 Kilometers
Totteridge
Southgate
Edgware Mill Hill Winchmore Hill Chingford Chigwell 0 2.5 5 Miles
Edmonton Noake Hill
Chalfont Friern Harold
St. Peter Northwood Barnet Woodford Collier Wood
Harefield Hendon Finchley Row
Gerrards Pinner Wealdstone Golders Wood Woodford Hainault Harold
Cross Ruislip Green Green Tottenham Bridge Hill
Ickenham Hampstead Barkingside
Stoke Greenhill Kingsbury Gidea Park
Poges
Eastcote Harrow Stoke Walthamstow Romford
on the Hill
Wembley Newington Leyton Seven Kings
Stadium

Uxbridge Wembley Ilford Hornchurch
Cowley Willesden
Northolt Harlesden Forest
Aerodrome
Perivale Bethnal Gate Dagenham
West End
Yeading British Green East Ham
LONDONHoProtSyotlneaSintCeahsnewreLtsliltHetYlyAeeiietarowtpWnhWsoerleroeystbHywtraiDHEdrrlaagianysheWyagetmttasoBoeHlnsetnaodnnfwoonHtrethsCItsoTlDTlaewnhiywtiaGtgcoomrkaBrneetetreehneTsHnhenafadtomfmdorHdirnSdogRuRotrokiocbAePnhihctMamoatroonmkornCntpldhatWoiksCniewmoPMNimcbueaklmtewlnddoeeCMLonAyanalnolwPErCnrsnaWldTughdebelianamdnnnlidiAtsnbHolbgSlaneelBttlrdoutrBceBPonkaeaManilnadtGtgcihtdTtaheeaaclailtenrmmhersgyaetmoaMWnPHuSNesaoCoesorultusiaurmTamewhmmtisnhePeosobOnWtefoetevDnraderAlguwsbletbweeNliylcoThBorwweSeWrormyooenBfdosDdLSentoeetcndWenpEdkspohtdeiencfCnaHneoykemahnirhtydtaGhafPmoePGrmaorrraredWvBkGreeknierwcesikcethlKenHOiydbWaCBMsEbm.rolotroohEomoatmlomlttwmihklnPeiaeogacymlnahhcCaeArmeWbebeOkelmCNlryipSCnrooWgaitrrnu.BaytoSgthMyeRholtialovdavdenreCreyTdrEheaGarrwimrCetefheroeCornocdklSdewbnalRhonaiwlllienyWhaemnFnaiaSnDrtung-aHtitnrtoootgnfnnohe-ardm
Slough s
Windsor
River T
Egham
Virginia

Water

Claremont Ewell Green Street Chelsfield Eynsford
Chessington Green
Wallington

Byfleet Epsom Purley Sanderstead New Addington Pratt's Badgers's Mount
Kenley Bottom
Cobham

Woking Ashtead Coulsdon West
Kingsdown

Figure A.1
The layout of London can be shown in considerable detail, including neighborhoods, city parks,
and forests at this large scale.

But when you examine the maps in this book, you there had to be a frame of reference on the globe itself, a
will note that most, if not all, of them have scales that are grid system that could be transferred to the flat page. Any
not given as ratios or fractions, but in graphic form. This modern globe shows that system: a set of horizontal lines,
method of representing map scale is convenient from sev- usually at 10-degree intervals north and south from the
eral viewpoints. Using the edge of a piece of paper and equator, called parallels, and another set of vertical lines,
marking the scale bar’s length, the map reader can quickly— converging on the poles, often shown at 15-degree inter-
without calculation—determine approximate distances. vals and called meridians (see box, “Numbering the Grid
And if a map is enlarged or reduced in reproduction, the Lines”). On the spherical globe, parallels and meridians
scale bar is enlarged or reduced with it and remains accu- intersect at right angles (Fig. A.3).
rate. That, of course, is not true of a ratio or fractional scale.
Graphic scales, therefore, are most common in this book. Numbering the Grid Lines

MAP PROJECTIONS When cartographers girdled the globe with their imagi-
nary grid lines, they had to identify each line by number,
For centuries cartographers have faced the challenge that is, by degree. For the (horizontal) latitude lines, that
of creating map projections, ways representing the spheri- was easy: the equator, which bisects the Earth midway
cal Earth, or part of it, on a flat surface. To get the job done,
between the poles, was designated as 0Њ (zero degree)

latitude, and all parallels north and south of the equator
were designated by their angular position (Fig. A.3). The

Maps A-3

12° 10° 8° 6° 4° 2° 0° 2° 4°
60°
60° UNITED KINGDOM Shetland
Islands 58°
Railroad
Road Orkney
National Park Islands
0 50 100 150 Kilometers
0 25 50 75 100 Miles

58° ides Outer Hebr
The Minch

AT L A N TI C SCOTTISH HIGHLANDS
OCEA N Cairngorms
National Park Aberdeen
North
SCOTLAND Sea
Inner Hebrides
H LOWLA NDS
56° Loch Lomond and 56°
the Trossachs
National Park

GlasgoSwCOTTIS Edinburgh

North Channel Northumberland
National Park

NORTHERN Newcastle
IRELAND
PENNINES
Belfast Solway Lake District North York Moors
Isle of Firth National Park National Park

54°

Man Yorkshire
Dales
National 54°

Irish Sea Park Kingston upon Hull
Leeds

IRELAND Liverpool Manchester
Snowdonia Sheffield
National Park
Peak District
National Park

ENGLAND Trent R.

Birmingham
annel Norwich Broads
CAMBRIAN MOUNTAINS National Park

52° .WALESSevern R.Coventry
over
Celtic George's Ch Brecon Ouse R. 52°
Sea Pembrokeshire Coast Beacons
St. National Park
50° National Park
10° Longitude West of Greenwich 8°
British Bristol London
Channel
Cardiff Thames R
BRITAIN
Exmoor LOWLAND South Downs

National Park Strait of D

Southampton National Park FRANCE

Exeter New Forest 50°
Dartmoor National Park Portsmouth 2°
National Park
Isle of
Plymouth Wight
English Channel

6° 4° 2° 0°

Figure A.2
At this smaller scale, national parks in the United Kingdom are shown, as the map allows the
display of a larger area. Notice this smaller scale map shows less local detail. City parks, rail lines,
and roads within London are not visible at this scale, but they were visible in Fig. A.1.

A-4 Maps

Figure A.3 Lat 90°N 180°
Numbering of grid lines.
Lat 20°N 20° 90° 90° North Pole
© H. J. de Blij, P. O. Muller, and Lat 0° Equator Plane
708°0°
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. LWOENSGIT60°Meridian of Greenwich
N T
ORTH 50° 60° UDE
40° 40° EAST
30° LONGITUDE
20° LATITUDE 20° 20° 40° 60°

10°
SOUTH210L00°A°°TEITqUuaDtoEr
0°

parallel midway between the equator and the pole, thus, in fact, many popular atlas maps (Mercator also intro-
duced the term atlas to describe a collection of maps) and
is 45Њ north latitude in the northern hemisphere and 45Њ wall maps still use a Mercator for such purposes. The
National Geographic Society published its world maps
south latitude in the southern hemisphere. on a Mercator projection until 1988, when it finally aban-
But the (vertical) longitude lines presented no such doned the practice in favor of a projection developed by
the American cartographer Arthur Robinson (Fig. A.5).
easy solution. Among the parallels, the equator is the only During the news conference at which the change was an-
one to divide Earth into equal halves, but all meridians do nounced, a questioner rose to pursue a point: Why had
this. During the second half of the nineteenth century, maps the Society waited so long to make this change? Was it
with conflicting numbers multiplied, and it was clear that because the distortion inherent in the Mercator projec-
a solution was needed. The most powerful country at the tion made American and European middle-latitude coun-
time was Britain, and in 1884, international agreement was tries large, compared to tropical countries in Africa and
reached whereby the meridian drawn through the Royal elsewhere? Although that was not the goal of the National
Observatory in Greenwich, England, would be the prime Geographic Society, the questioner clearly understood
the misleading subtleties inherent even in so apparently
meridian, 0Њ (zero degree) longitude. All meridians east neutral a device as a map projection.

and west of the prime meridian could now be designated by The Mercator projection is one of a group of pro-
jections called cylindrical projections. Imagine the globe’s
number, from 0Њ to 180Њ east and west longitude. lines of latitude and longitude represented by a wire grid,
at the center of which we place a bright light. Wrap a piece
But what happens when these lines of latitude (paral- of photographic paper around the wire grid, extending it
lels) and longitude (meridians) are drawn to intersect at well beyond the north and south poles, flash the bulb, and
right angles on a flat piece of paper? At the equator, the the photographic image will be that of a Mercator pro-
representation of the real world is relatively accurate. But jection (Fig. A.6). We could do the same after placing a
go toward the poles, and distortion grows with every de- cone-shaped of paper over each hemisphere, touching the
gree until, in the northern and southern higher latitudes, grid, say, at the 40th parallel north and south; the result
the continents appear not only stretched out but also would be a conic projection (Fig. A.7). If we wanted a map
misshaped (Fig. A.4). Because the meridians cannot be of North America or Europe, a form of conic projection
made to converge in the polar areas, this projection makes would be appropriate. Now the meridians do approach
Antarctica look like a giant, globe-girdling landmass. each other toward the poles (unlike the Mercator projec-
tion), and there is much less shape and size distortion. And
Looking at this representation of the world, you might if we needed a map of Arctic and Antarctic regions, we
believe that it could serve no useful purpose. But in fact, would place the photographic paper as a flat sheet against
the Mercator projection, invented in 1569 by Gerardus the North and South Poles. Now the photographic image
Mercator, a Flemish cartographer, had (and has) a very par- would show a set of diverging lines, as the meridians do
ticular function. Because parallels and meridians cross (as from each pole, and the parallels would appear as circles
they do on the spherical globe’s grid) at right angles, direc- (Fig. A.8). Such a planar projection is a good choice for a
tion is true everywhere on this map. Thus the Mercator pro- map of the Arctic Ocean or the Antarctic continent.
jection enabled navigators to maintain an accurate course at
sea simply by adhering to compass directions and plotting Projections are chosen for various purposes. Just as the
straight lines. It is used for that purpose to this day. Mercator is appropriate for navigation because direction is
true, other projections are designed to preserve areal size,
The spatial distortion of the Mercator projection keep distances real, or maintain the outlines (shapes) of land-
serves to remind us that scale and projection are intercon- masses and countries. Projections can be manipulated for
nected. What scale fraction or graphic scale bar could be many needs. In this book, we examine global distributions of
used here? A scale that would be accurate at the equator
on a Mercator map would be quite inaccurate at higher
latitudes. So the distortion that is an inevitable byproduct
of any map projection also affects map scales.

One might imagine that the spatial (areal) distor-
tion of the Mercator projection is so obvious that no
one would use it to represent the world’s countries. But

Maps A-5

160°W 140°W 120°W 100°W 80°W 60°W 40°W 20°W 0° 20°E 40°E 60°E 80°E 100°E 120°E 140°E 160°E

80°N

60°N

40°N
20°N
0°
20°S
40°S

60°S

Figure A.4
Mercator’s Projection greatly exaggerates the size and shape of higher-latitude landmasses,
but direction is true everywhere on this map. In this Mercator map of the world, Africa and
Greenland look to be about the same size, but in reality, Africa is 14 times larger than Greenland.

various phenomena. The world map that forms the base for distortion. And for a city map—even of a large city such
these displays is one that is designed to give prominence to as Chicago—the projection problem virtually disappears.
land areas at the expense of the oceans. This is achieved by
“interrupting” the projection where loss of territory (in this The old problem of how to represent the round Earth
case water area) is not problematic. on a flat surface has been attacked for centuries, and there is
no single best solution. What has been learned in the pro-
When a map is planned, therefore, the choice of cess, however, will be useful in fields of endeavor other than
projection is an important part of the process. An inap- Earthly geography. In the age of planetary exploration,
propriate selection may weaken the effectiveness of a map space probes send back images of the surfaces of the Moon,
and may lead to erroneous interpretations. Of course, the Mars, Jupiter, and other components of our solar system,
problem diminishes when the area to be mapped is smaller and we will have to agree once again on grids, equators,
and the scale larger. We may consider various alternatives and prime meridians to map these bodies. What has been
when it comes to a map of all of North America, but a map learned in our efforts to map and represent the Earth will
of a single State presents far fewer potential problems of be useful in depicting the universe beyond.

A-6 Maps

80°N 80°N
60°N

40°N 40°N

20°N 20°N

0° 160°W 140°W 120°W 100°W 20°W 0° 60°E 80°E 160°E 0°

20°S 20°S

40°S

60°S 60°S

Figure A.5
The Robinson projection substantially reduces the exaggerated size of polar landmasses
because the lines of longitude curve toward each other in the polar regions. The Robinson pro-
jection better approximates shape, but it lacks the directional utility of the Mercator projection.

SYMBOLS ON MAPS with a circle around it, or a star, for capitals; red lines for
roads, double lines for four-lane highways, black lines for
The third fundamental property of a map is its sym- railroads; and patterns or colors for areas of water, forest, or
bolization. Maps represent the real world, and this can be farmland. Notice that these symbols respectively represent
done only through the use of symbols. Anyone who has points, lines, and areas on the ground. For our purposes,
used an atlas map is familiar with some of these symbols: we need not go further into map symbolization, which
prominent dots (perhaps black or red) for cities; a large dot can become a very complex topic when it comes to highly

Arctic Circle

60°N

40°N

Tropic of Cancer
20°N

0° Equator

20°S
Tropic of Capricorn

40°S

60°S 40°W 20°W 0° 20°E 40°E 60°E 80°E 100°E 120°E 140°E 160°E
160°W 140°W 120°W 100°W 80°W

Figure A.6
A Cylindrical projection is created by projecting the grid lines of a globe onto paper that is
wrapped around the globe.

Maps A-7

ASIA

Laptev Barents EUROPE
Sea Sea

East Siberian Norwegian
Sea Sea

Greenland
Sea
ARCTIC North Pole 80°N
OCEAN
Bering Chukchi Denmark Strait 70°N
Sea Sea Arctic Circle

Limits of Beaufort
projection Sea

Gulf of Baffin
Alaska Bay

NORTH AMERICA Davis
Strait

ATLANTIC OCEAN

120°W OCEAN 90°W 60°W

THERN Bellingshausen 60°N

Amundsen Sea Larsen
Ice
ection band Sea Shelf Antarctic

SOU150°W 70°N 30°W
180°W
Radius = side of cone Filchner Weddel Circle
Ice Sea
Ross Ross Ice Shelf
Shelf
Arc = circumference of base of c Sea South Pole 0°

ANTARCTICA

one Upper limit of proj 150°E Amery OCEAN 30°E
Lower limit of band 120°E
SSIhceeOlf UTHERN

90°E 60°E

Figure A.8
A Planar projection is created when a light at the center of the
globe projects diverging longitude lines onto a flat sheet of paper
placed over the North Pole (top) and the South Pole (bottom).

© H. J. de Blij, P. O. Muller, and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Figure A.7 specialized cartography in such fields as geology and me-
Construction of a conic projection. teorology. Nevertheless, it is useful to know why symbols
such as those used on the maps in this book were chosen.

Point symbols, as we noted, are used to show individ-
ual features or places. On a large-scale map of a city, dots
can represent individual houses or locations of businesses. A
dot map shows a spatial distribution, such as the distribution
of Starbucks coffee shops in Washington, D.C. (Fig. A.9).

A-8 Maps

STARBUCKS LOCATIONS
IN WASHINGTON, D.C.

Starbucks

MARYLAND

Rockville

Silver
Spring

Bowie

Reston

WASHINGTON, D.C.

Arlington

Poto

mac

Fairfax Alexandria

VIRGINIA

0 5 10 15 Kilometers
0 5 10 Miles

Figure A.9
Starbucks Locations in Washington, D.C. This map uses dot symbols to indicate the loca-
tions of Starbucks stores in the Washington, D.C. area. Data from: Map Muse, Inc, 2011.

© E.H. Fouberg, A.B. Murphy, H.J. de Blij, and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

A July 2005 story in the Washington Post reported a corre- and other linear features. Again scale plays a crucial role:
lation between income and Starbucks locations in the city. on a large-scale map, it is possible to represent the fenced
Starbucks are clustered around federal and corporate build- boundaries of a single farm, but on a small-scale map, such
ings downtown and in northwest neighborhoods, where detail cannot be shown.
incomes are higher (see Fig. 1.17). Lower income neighbor-
hoods in southeast D.C. have few Starbucks retail outlets. Some lines on maps do not actually exist on the
ground. When physical geographers do their field work
Line symbols include not only roads and railroads, they use contour maps, lines that represent a certain con-
but also political and administrative boundaries, rivers, sistent height above mean sea level (Fig. A.10). All points

Maps A-9

Figure A.10
Contour lines reflecting low relief (left) and high relief (right). The map at left is part of the
U.S.G.S. North Olmstead Quadrangle, Ohio; the map at right is part of the U.S.G.S. Matterhorn
Peak Quadrangle, California.

on such a contour line thus are at the same elevation. The show the world, or parts of it, divided into areas shaded or
spacing between contour lines immediately reveals the colored in contrasting hues. But be careful: those sharp
nature of the local topography (the natural land surface). dividing lines are likely to be transition zones in the real
When the contour lines at a given interval (e.g., 100 feet) world, and a dominant language or religion does not
are spaced closely together, the slope of the ground is imply the exclusion of all others. So distribution maps,
steep. When they are widely separated, the land surface and there are many in this book, tend to be small-scale
slopes gently. Of course contour lines cannot be found generalizations of much more complex patterns than
in the real world, and neither can the lines drawn on the they can reveal. Maps showing magnitudes also must be
weather maps in our daily newspaper. These lines connect read with care. Here the objective is to reveal how much
points of equal pressure (isobars) and temperature (iso- of a phenomenon prevails in one unit (e.g., country) on
therms) and show the development of weather systems. the map, compared to others. The maps on population
Note that the letters iso (meaning “the same”) appear in in chapter 2 are examples of such maps. The important
these terms. Invisible lines of this kind are collectively cartographic decision has to do with color. Darker should
known as isolines, lines of equal or constant value. These mean more, and lighter implies less. That is relatively
are abstract constructions, but they can be of great value easily done when the dominant color is the same. But on
in geographic research and representation. a multicolored map, the use of reds, greens, and yellows
can be confusing, and first impressions may have to be
Area symbols take many forms, and we will see some revised upon examination of the key.
of them on the maps in this book. Area symbols are used
in various ways to represent distributions and magni- Some students who are first drawn to the discipline
tudes. Maps showing distributions (of such phenomena of geography go on to become professional cartographers,
as regionally dominant languages or religions in human and their work is seen in atlases, newspapers, magazines,
geography, and climates or soils in physical geography) books, websites, and many other venues.

BAPPENDIX

Area and Demographic Data
for the World’s States

A-10

APPENDIX B: Area and Demographic Data for the World’s States (Categories explained on page A-11)

Land Area Population Population Density Natural Infant Child Life Expectancy Percent Literacy Big Mac Per
Sq. km. Sq. mi. Arithmetic Physiologic Urban Price Capita
2010 2025 Birth Death Increase Mortality Mortality Male Female Pop. Male Female Corruption ($US)
(Millions) (Millions) Rate Rate (years) (years) %% Index GNI
% per 1,000 per 1,000 ($US)
$10,030
WORLD 134,134,451 51,789,601 6879.9 8104.4 51 443 20 8 1.2 33 45 67 71 51 84.0 70.8
$25,580
REALM 204 11 EUROPE 6 72 80 71 $7,950
Albania 451 10 15 72 79 49 $37,680
Austria 5,930,511 2,289,783 594.9 607.1 26 556 9 11 0.0 5 4 78 83 67 99.4 98.4 $12,150
Belarus 28,749 11,100 3.2 3.3 113 150 12 12 65 76 74 95.5 88.0 $34,760
Belgium 83,859 32,378 8.4 8.9 100 1408 11 5 0.5 14 5 77 82 99 100.0 100.0 3.3 $8,620
Bosnia 207,598 80,154 9.6 9.1 46 572 9 14 72 77 46 99.7 99.2 7.9 $11,950
Bulgaria 30,528 11,787 10.7 11.8 352 165 11 9 0.0 3 10 70 77 71 100.0 100.0 2.5 $18,420
Croatia 51,129 19,741 3.8 3.7 74 298 10 5 72 79 56 96.5 76.6 7.1 $24,040
Cyprus 110,908 42,822 7.5 6.9 68 751 13 14 Ϫ0.3 11 4 77 80 62 99.1 98.0 3.2 $22,790
Czech Republic 56,539 21,830 4.4 4.3 77 307 11 4 74 80 74 99.4 97.3 3.6 $37,280
Denmark 9,249 3,571 1.1 1.1 120 229 11 9 0.2 4 4 76 81 72 98..7 95.0 4.1 $19,280
Estonia 78,860 30,448 10.4 10.9 132 107 12 6 69 79 69 100.0 100.0 6.3 $35,660
Finland 43,090 16,637 5.5 5.8 128 225 11 9 0.0 13 3 77 83 65 100.0 100.0 4.6 3.43 $34,400
France 45,099 17,413 1.3 1.3 29 324 13 4 78 85 77 99.9 99.6 9.3 4.90 $35,940
Germany 338,149 130,560 5.3 5.8 16 655 8 14 Ϫ0.4 8 4 77 82 73 100.0 100.0 6.5 2.62 $28,470
Greece 551,497 212,934 62.6 66.1 114 283 11 3 77 82 73 98.9 98.7 9.2 $17,790
Hungary 356,978 137,830 81.9 79.7 229 194 10 12 Ϫ0.2 5 6 70 78 67 100.0 100.0 6.8 $25,220
Iceland 131,960 50,950 11.2 11.7 85 297 15 3 80 83 93 98.6 96.0 7.9 $37,350
Ireland 93,030 35,919 9.9 9.8 107 327 17 7 0.6 3 4 77 82 60 99.5 99.3 3.5 $30,250
Italy 102,999 39,768 0.3 0.4 536 10 4 79 84 68 100.0 100.0 4.7 3.33
Kosovo 70,279 27,135 4.6 5.7 3 10 0.1 3 71 — 100.0 100.0 8.5 —
Latvia 301,267 116,320 59.8 61.9 65 21 67 78 68 98.9 98.1 8.0 $16,740
Liechtenstein 10,887 4,203 2.3 2.7 198 122 10 10 0.1 3 8 67 82 15 96.6 87.5 3.9
Lithuania 64,599 24,942 2.3 2.1 208 3495 10 2 79 78 67 99.8 99.6 2.8 —
Luxembourg 161 62 0.1 0.1 35 112 11 12 0.0 4 6 66 83 83 100.0 100.0 4.3 2.80 $18,210
Macedonia 65,200 25,174 3.4 3.1 874 778 11 3 78 76 65 99.7 99.4 $64,320
Malta 2,587 999 0.5 0.6 52 300 12 9 0.2 3 11 71 82 94 100.0 100.0 5.0 2.71 $9,950
Moldova 25,711 9,927 2.0 2.0 194 3678 10 7 77 73 41 94.2 83.8 8.5 $22,460
Montenegro 321 124 0.4 0.4 78 184 11 9 0.4 3 17 66 76 64 91.4 92.8 4.1 $3,210
Netherlands 33,701 13,012 4.1 4.0 1250 156 13 9 71 82 90 99.6 98.3 5.6 $13,920
Norway 13,812 5,333 0.6 0.6 121 1496 11 10 Ϫ0.2 4 4 78 83 80 100.0 100.0 2.9 $41,670
Poland 40,839 15,768 16.5 17.2 44 497 13 3 79 80 61 100.0 100.0 3.7 $58,500
Portugal 323,878 125,050 4.8 5.6 404 251 11 10 0.1 3 7 71 82 55 100.0 100.0 8.8 $17,310
Romania 323,249 124,807 38.1 37.4 15 397 9 4 75 76 55 99.8 99.8 8.6 7.20 $22,080
Serbia 91,981 35,514 10.6 10.9 118 204 10 13 Ϫ0.3 5 12 69 76 58 94.8 90.0 5.3 2.60 $13,500
Slovakia 238,388 92,042 21.4 20.6 115 219 9 7 71 79 55 99.1 97.3 6.0 $11,150
88,357 34,115 7.3 6.8 90 324 11 6 0.9 2 7 71 100.0 100.0 3.7 $21,300
49,010 18,923 5.4 5.4 83 100.0 100.0 3.5
110 6 1.0 4 4.3

10 0.0 3

7 1.4 5

13 Ϫ0.4 7

6 0.4 2

12 Ϫ0.1 5

7 0.4 2

9 0.2 10

8 0.2 6

12 0.0 15

9 0.4 8

8 0.3 4

9 0.4 3

10 0.1 6

A-11 10 Ϫ0.1 3

12 Ϫ0.2 10

14 Ϫ0.5 6

10 0.2 6

A-12 Continued Land Area Population Population Density Birth Death Natural Infant Child Life Expectancy Percent Literacy Corruption Big Mac Per
Sq. km. Sq. mi. Arithmetic Physiologic Rate Rate Increase Mortality Mortality Urban Index Price Capita
Slovenia 2010 2025 Male Female Pop. Male Female ($US)
Spain (Millions) (Millions) 11 % per 1,000 per 1,000 (years) (years) %% GNI
Sweden 11 50 ($US)
Switzerland 20,251 7,819 2.0 2.0 99 707 12 9 0.2 2 3 76 82 77 98.6 96.8 6.4 $26,910
Ukraine 505,988 195,363 46.7 48.4 92 237 10 84 100.0 100.0 6.1 $31,130
United Kingdom 449,959 173,730 9.2 10.2 21 293 11 8 0.3 4 4 78 84 73 100.0 100.0 9.2 6.56 $38,180
41,290 15,942 7.6 8.3 185 1540 13 69 99.5 97.4 8.7 6.19 $46,460
603,698 233,089 45.6 41.9 76 128 10 0.2 2 3 79 83 80 100.0 100.0 2.4 1.84 $7,210
244,878 94,548 61.8 68.6 252 971 97.6 89.2 7.6 3.48 $36,130
8 0.2 4 4 80 84 73
73 $15,531
15 Ϫ0.4 13 15 63 74 64 $15,630
54 $6,310
9 0.4 5 6 77 82 53 $7,770
$4,850
RUSSIAN REALM 79
80 $45,890
REALM 17,261,421 6,664,672 157.7 158.7 9 123 12 14 ؊0.2 13 14 62 74 79 99.7 99.1 $36,220
Russia 17,075,323 6,592,819 141.0 140.8 8 138 12 99.8 99.2 $46,970
Armenia 105 526 15 14 Ϫ0.2 11 12 62 74 71 99.4 98.1 2.1 2.33
Azerbaijan 29,800 11,506 3.1 3.3 103 468 17 31 98.9 95.9 2.6 $11,910
Georgia 86,599 33,436 8.9 10.3 66 441 13 10 0.6 20 22 68 75 83 99.7 99.4 2.4 $20,570
69,699 26,911 4.6 4.3 38 3.8
6 1.1 30 34 70 75 51 —
59 —
10 0.3 26 29 69 79 75 $6,040
73 $10,950
NORTH AMERICA 67 —
63 $8,300
REALM 19,941,634 7,699,508 341.9 391.1 17 139 13 8 0.6 7 8 76 81 31 97.6 97.4 $7,890
Canada 9,970,600 3,849,670 33.6 39.7 3 67 11 100 95.7 95.3 $6,670
United States 9,629,047 3,717,796 308.2 351.4 32 160 14 7 0.4 5 6 78 83 47 99.0 99.0 8.9 4.00 $8,060
48 7.1 3.73 —
8 0.6 7 8 75 80 50 $4,690
52 $1,180
MIDDLE AMERICA 89 $3,870
77 $7,360
REALM 2,714,579 1,048,105 196.3 223.3 72 447 21 5 1.6 19 23 72 78 92 90.3 87.1 —
Antigua and Barbuda 440 170 0.1 0.1 232 1287 14 56 $14,270
Bahamas 0.3 0.4 22 2209 15 6 0.9 11 12 73 77 64 —
Barbados 13,880 5,359 0.3 0.3 706 1811 13 $2,620
Belize 430 166 0.3 0.4 14 342 27 6 0.9 9 12 71 77 95.4 96.8 $11,650
Costa Rica 4.6 5.3 90 1002 17 98.0 96.8
Cuba 22,960 8,865 11.3 11.1 102 248 11 8 0.5 10 11 71 76 7.8
Dominica 51,100 19,730 0.1 0.1 135 675 15
Dominican Republic 110,859 42,803 10.3 11.6 211 679 23 4 2.3 16 18 71 74
El Salvador 7.5 6.9 355 909 20
Grenada 751 290 0.1 0.1 302 943 17 4 1.3 10 11 77 82 95.5 95.7 5.3 3.83
Guadeloupe 48,731 18,815 0.4 0.5 238 1585 14 99.8 99.8 3.7
Guatemala 21,041 8,124 14.5 20.0 133 739 34 8 0.3 4 6 76 80 5.2
Haiti 9.4 12.2 340 1030 28 84.0 83.7 3.0
Honduras 339 131 7.6 9.8 68 378 28 8 0.7 8 10 72 78 81.6 76.1 3.6
Jamaica 1,709 660 2.8 2.9 251 1005 20
Martinique 108,888 42,042 0.4 0.4 368 1839 13 6 1.7 27 32 69 75
Mexico 27,749 10,714 57 405 19
Netherlands Antilles 112,090 43,278 111.0 123.4 253 2534 14 7 1.4 15 17 67 76
Nicaragua 10,989 4,243 0.2 0.2 46 208 23
Panama 1,101 425 5.9 7.5 46 516 20 9 0.8 13 15 68 72
1,958,192 756,062 3.5 4.3
309 7 0.7 7 76 83 89.7 90.5
800 50,193 76.2 61.1
129,999 29,158 6 2.8 33 40 66 73 51.0 46.5 3.2
75,519 72.5 72.0 2.2
9 1.8 64 87 59 62 82.5 90.7 2.4
96.0 97.1 3.3
5 2.3 25 30 70 75 93.1 89.1
96.6 96.6 3.1 2.50
7 1.2 26 31 68 75 64.2 64.4
92.6 91.3 2.5
7 0.6 8 77 83 3.6

5 1.4 15 17 74 79

7 0.7 11 73 80

4 1.8 22 26 69 73

5 1.6 16 23 73 78

Continued Land Area Population Population Density Natural Infant Child Life Expectancy Percent Literacy Big Mac Per
Sq. km. Sq. mi. Arithmetic Physiologic Urban Price Capita
Puerto Rico 2010 2025 Birth Death Increase Mortality Mortality Male Female Pop. Male Female Corruption ($US)
Saint Lucia (Millions) (Millions) Rate Rate (years) (years) %% Index GNI
St. Vincent & the % per 1,000 per 1,000 94 ($US)
12 7 28
Grenadines 8,951 3,456 4.0 4.1 450 5005 14 7 0.4 9 75 82 40 93.7 94.0 5.8 —
Trinidad and Tobago 619 239 0.2 0.2 328 1172 17 8
391 151 0.1 0.1 260 930 0.7 19 20 71 76 $9,190
14
0.9 18 12 70 74 96.0 96.0 $8,770

5,131 1,981 1.3 1.4 256 1068 8 0.6 31 35 66 73 12 99.0 97.5 3.6 $23,950

SOUTH AMERICA

REALM 17,867,238 6,898,579 397.5 444.0 22 356 18 6 1.2 17 20 70 77 82 90.1 89.0 $10,150
Argentina 2,780,388 1,073,514 40.6 46.2 15 146 18
Bolivia 1,098,575 10.4 13.3 9 474 27 8 1.0 13 14 72 79 91 96.9 96.9 2.9 1.78 $14,020
Brazil 8,547,360 424,162 200.6 212.4 23 335 17
Chile 3,300,154 17.1 19.1 23 754 15 7 2.0 40 51 64 68 65 92.1 79.4 2.8 $4,140
Colombia 756,626 45.7 53.5 40 1002 20
Ecuador 1,138,906 292,135 14.4 16.6 51 460 21 6 1.0 17 21 69 77 84 85.5 85.4 3.7 4.91 $10,070
French Guiana 439,734 0.2 0.3 2 235 28
Guyana 283,560 109,483 0.8 0.8 4 191 23 6 0.9 7 9 76 82 87 95.9 95.5 7.2 3.34 $13,270
Paraguay 89,999 34,749 6.5 8.1 16 265 25
Peru 214,969 83,000 28.7 34.5 22 745 21 6 1.4 16 19 71 78 75 91.8 91.8 3.5 4.39 $8,510
Suriname 406,747 157,046 0.5 0.6 3 312 19
Uruguay 1,285,214 496,224 3.3 3.5 19 268 14 5 1.6 20 24 72 78 65 93.6 90.2 2.5 $7,760
Venezuela 163,270 63,039 29.1 35.1 32 797 21
177,409 68,498 3 2.4 14 75 81 81 83.6 82.3 —
912,046 352,143
7 1.6 29 35 62 70 28 99.0 98.1 2.7 $2,510

6 1.9 19 23 70 74 58 94.4 92.2 2.2 $4,820

6 1.6 19 21 71 76 76 94.7 85.4 3.5 3.54 $7,980

7 1.3 24 26 65 73 67 95.9 92.6 $7,130

9 0.5 11 13 72 80 94 97.4 98.2 6.9 3.74 $12,540

5 1.6 15 18 71 77 88 93.3 92.7 2.0 $12,830

SUBSAHARAN AFRICA

REALM 24,292,983 9,379,573 769.5 1150.7 32 421 40 14 2.6 79 127 51 53 34 73.1 59.9 $1,974
Angola 1,246,693 481,351 17.7 27.4 14 473 42
Benin 43,483 9.9 13.6 88 548 40 17 2.5 98 161 45 49 57 55.6 28.5 1.9 $5,020
Botswana 112,620 224,606 1.8 2.2 3 316 30
Burkina Faso 581,727 105,792 16.1 25.4 59 490 46 10 3.0 75 118 57 60 41 47.8 23.6 2.8 $1,460
Burundi 274,000 10,745 9.4 11.6 339 789 36
Cameroon 27,829 183,568 19.4 26.5 41 255 37 11 1.9 43 57 55 55 60 74.4 79.8 5.8 $13,100
Cape Verde 475,439 1,556 0.5 0.7 130 1185 25
Central African Rep. 240,533 4.6 6.6 7 244 38 12 3.4 91 166 51 54 23 31.2 13.1 3.1 $1,160
Chad 4,030 495,753 10.7 16.9 8 277 46
Comoros 622,978 861 0.7 0.9 332 626 33 15 2.1 101 166 49 52 10 56.3 40.5 1.8 $380
Congo 1,283,994 132,046 4.0 5.5 12 1165 38
Congo, The 905,351 70.7 101.4 30 754 47 14 2.3 95 154 50 52 53 81.8 69.2 2.2 $2,180
Djibouti 2,230 8,958 0.8 1.1 36 3573 29
Equatorial Guinea 341,998 10,830 0.6 1.0 23 252 39 6 2.0 23 28 69 76 61 84.3 65.3 5.1 $3,450
Eritrea 2,344,848 45,405 5.3 7.4 45 1128 37
Ethiopia 23,201 426,371 83.1 119.8 75 684 39 16 2.2 112 171 47 50 38 59.6 34.5 2.1 $730
28,050
117,598 17 2.9 124 209 47 50 27 66.9 40.8 1.7 $1,160
1,104,296
7 2.6 75 104 62 66 28 63.5 49.1 2.1 $1,170

13 2.5 81 128 52 54 60 87.5 74.4 2.1 $3,090

A-13 17 2.9 126 199 46 49 33 86.6 67.7 2.0 $290

11 1.8 75 94 54 57 76 65.0 38.4 3.2 $2,330

16 2.3 88 145 48 51 39 92.5 74.5 1.9 $21,700

9 2.9 39 55 57 62 21 43.9 33.4 2.6 $630

12 2.7 67 104 54 57 16 83.7 70.0 2.7 $870

Continued

A-14 Population Natural Infant Child Life Expectancy Percent Literacy Big Mac Per
Urban Price Capita
Land Area 2010 2025 Population Density Birth Death Increase Mortality Mortality Male Female Pop. Male Female Corruption ($US)
Sq. km. Sq. mi. (Millions) (Millions) Arithmetic Physiologic %% Index GNI
Rate Rate % per 1,000 per 1,000 (years) (years) 84 ($US)
54 $12,270
Gabon 267,668 103,347 14 2.0 5 269 29 10 1.9 52 69 58 61 48 79.8 62.2 2.8 $1,280
Gambia 11,300 4,363 17 2.5 149 711 28 43.8 29.6 3.2 $1,430
Ghana 238,538 92,100 25.0 31.8 105 455 38 12 2.7 78 103 54 57 30 79.5 61.2 4.1 $1,190
Guinea 245,860 94,927 10.9 15.9 44 738 50 55.1 27.0 2.0
Guinea–Bissau 36,120 13,946 1.8 2.3 50 385 31 9 2.2 47 69 58 61 18 53.0 21.4 2.1 $530
Ivory Coast 322,459 21.7 30.8 67 293 23 54.6 38.5 2.2 $1,580
Kenya 580,367 124,502 40.2 51.3 69 865 41 11 3.0 88 142 55 58 58 89.0 76.0 2.1 $1,580
Lesotho 30,349 224,081 1.8 2.0 60 541 31 73.6 93.6 3.5 $2,000
Liberia 111,369 11,718 4.2 6.1 37 932 43 18 2.4 115 193 45 48 14 69.9 36.8 3.3
Madagascar 587,036 43,000 20.0 28.6 34 680 33 87.7 72.9 2.6 $300
Malawi 118,479 226,656 14.5 22.9 122 582 37 14 2.4 83 119 51 54 40 74.5 46.7 3.4 $1,040
Mali 1,240,185 45,745 13.6 22.3 11 273 42 47.9 33.2 2.7
Mauritania 1,025,516 478,838 3.4 4.4 328 37 10 2.7 55 84 56 57 31 50.6 29.5 2.3 $830
Mauritius 2,041 395,954 1.3 1.4 3 1242 35 87.7 81.0 5.4 $1,090
Moçambique 801,586 21.3 31.2 646 663 28 19 0.9 61 84 40 43 20 59.9 28.4 2.7 $2,000
Namibia 824,287 788 2.1 2.8 27 260 47 82.9 81.2 4.4 $12,480
Niger 1,266,994 309,494 15.6 27.4 308 43 11 3.3 80 112 54 57 92 23.5 8.3 2.6
Nigeria 923,766 318,259 155.6 217.4 3 495 17 72.3 56.2 2.4 $770
Réunion 2,510 489,189 0.8 1.0 12 2185 37 9 2.7 41 58 59 62 58 84.8 89.2 $6,270
Rwanda 26,340 356,668 10.1 15.8 168 915 41 73.7 60.6 4.0
São Tomé and Principe 0.2 0.2 328 511 44 15 2.9 69 110 48 50 53 70.2 39.1 3.0 $680
Senegal 961 969 13.4 17.4 384 570 36 47.2 27.6 2.9 $1,940
Seychelles 196,720 10,170 0.1 0.1 220 1512 46 15 3.1 101 191 50 53 34 82.9 85.7 4.8
Sierra Leone 5.8 8.1 68 1007 52 50.7 22.6 2.4 —
Somalia 451 371 9.5 13.9 227 744 34 11 2.3 74 117 55 59 12 85.5 84.5 1.1 $1,010
South Africa 71,740 75,954 49.1 54.4 81 309 22 68.3 46.0 4.5 2.45 $1,780
South Sudan 637,658 8.5 15 12 7 0.5 15 17 69 76 25 21.0 11.0 $1,760
Swaziland 1,221,034 174 1.1 1.5 40 576 40 80.9 78.7 3.2 $19,770
Tanzania 628,755 27,699 42.1 67.4 13.5 890 40 16 2.3 96 142 47 49 17 84.1 66.6 2.7
Togo 17,361 246,201 7.2 9.3 63 294 37 72.2 42.6 2.4 $750
Uganda 945,087 471,444 31.1 53.4 45 379 28 9 1.9 34 48 60 62 37 77.7 57.1 2.5 —
Zambia 56,791 242,763 12.7 20.3 127 241 85.2 71.2 3.0
Zimbabwe 241,040 6,703 13.8 16.8 129 392 52 17 3.5 76 160 48 49 57 95.5 89.9 2.4 $9,780
752,607 364,900 17 22 $490
390,759 21,927 35 42 17 2.4 86 138 47 48 63
93,066 100 $5,010
290,583 18 5 1.3 75 82 $1,230
150,873
42 14 2.9 70 111 50 53 $820
$1,140
37 7 2.9 52 78 64 69 $1,230

39 11 2.8 51 93 54 57 —

18 7 1.0 11 12 68 78

40 16 2.4 123 192 46 49

46 16 3.0 109 180 48 51

21 12 0.9 43 62 54 57

45 20 2.5 43 46

31 16 1.5 52 73 46 45

42 12 3.0 68 108 55 56

33 8 2.5 64 98 60 63

47 13 3.4 79 128 52 53

45 20 2.5 86 141 41 42

30 17 1.3 56 90 41 44

NORTH AFRICA/SOUTHWEST ASIA

REALM 19,318,887 7,459,064 592.4 739.2 63 687 25 7 1.9 33 43 67 71 83.1 64.5 $8,387
Afghanistan 652,086 251,772 34.4 39.4 53 440 51.0 20.8 —
Algeria 919,591 36.0 43.6 15 503 39 18 2.1 134 199 44 44 75.1 51.3 1.4
Bahrain 2,381,730 266 0.8 1.6 1201 13,345 91.0 82.7 2.9 $7,940
689 23 5 1.8 29 32 71 74 4.9 —

15 2 1.3 10 12 73 77

Continued Land Area Population Population Density Natural Infant Child Life Expectancy Percent Literacy Big Mac Per
Sq. km. Sq. mi. Arithmetic Physiologic Urban Price Capita
Egypt 2010 2025 Birth Death Increase Mortality Mortality Male Female Pop. Male Female Corruption ($US)
Iran (Millions) (Millions) Rate Rate (years) (years) %% Index GNI
Iraq % per 1,000 per 1,000 43 ($US)
Israel 27 69 $5,460
Jordan 1,001,445 386,660 78.1 103.6 78 2599 19 6 2.1 18 21 69 75 67 66.6 43.7 3.1 2.28 $10,840
Kazakhstan 1,633,182 630,575 74.4 87.1 46 414 32 92 2.2
Kuwait 169,236 30.9 44.7 71 543 22 6 1.3 26 31 70 73 83 70.7 45.0 1.5 —
Kyrgyzstan 438,319 7.7 9.4 368 1751 31 54 97.9 94.3 6.1 3.86 $27,450
Lebanon 21,059 8,131 6.1 8.5 68 1363 23 6 2.6 35 44 64 72 98 94.9 84.4 4.7 $5,530
Libya 89,210 34,444 16.0 18.4 6 49 22 35 99.1 96.1 2.9 $9,690
Morocco 2,717,289 1,049,151 2.8 4.1 157 15,734 24 5 1.6 3 4 79 83 87 84.3 79.9 4.5 $52,610
Oman 17,819 6,880 5.4 6.5 27 387 20 77 98.6 95.5 2.0 $2,130
Palestinian Territories 198,499 76,641 4.1 4.7 396 1276 23 4 2.6 22 25 72 74 57 92.3 80.4 2.5 $10,880
Qatar 10,399 4,015 6.6 8.1 4 373 21 72 90.9 67.6 2.2 $15,630
Saudi Arabia 1,759,532 679,359 32.1 36.6 72 327 20 9 1.4 26 29 63 74 83 61.9 36.0 3.4 $4,330
Sudan (North) 446,548 172,413 2.8 4.2 13 1325 33 100 80.4 61.7 5.3 $20,650
Syria 212,459 82,031 4.5 6.0 716 35,797 9 2 2.0 8 10 76 80 81 96.3 87.4
Tajikistan 6,260 2,417 0.9 2.1 84 8429 28 46 80.5 83.2 7.7 —
Tunisia 11,000 4,247 29.6 35.7 14 688 31 7 1.6 32 37 64 72 54 84.1 67.2 4.7 2.67 —
Turkey 2,149,680 829,996 41.1 16 234 28 26 44.0 18.0 $22,950
Turkmenistan 1,877,063 724,735 20.9 28.6 113 376 28 5 1.5 11 12 70 74 66 88.3 60.4 2.5 $2,145
United Arab Emirates 185,179 71,498 7.6 9.8 53 761 18 76 99.6 98.9 2.1 $4,350
Uzbekistan 143,099 55,251 10.5 12.1 64 201 18 4 1.9 17 19 72 77 47 81.4 60.1 4.3 $1,860
Western Sahara 163,610 63,170 76.8 85.0 99 261 22 83 93.6 76.7 4.4 3.89 $7,070
Yemen 774,816 299,158 5.4 6.1 11 276 15 6 1.5 33 38 69 73 36 98.8 96.6 1.6 $13,770
488,099 188,456 4.6 7.0 55 5524 23 81 75.5 79.5 6.3 2.99 $6,210
83,600 32,278 28.1 34.4 63 524 34 3 1.8 9 12 70 74 29 98.5 96.0 1.6 —
447,397 172,741 0.5 0.7 2 38 $2,660
252,120 97,344 23.6 34.5 45 5 4 2.8 25 30 70 73 29 —
527,966 203,849 1493 25 $2,210
1 0.8 10 11 75 77 32
29 $2,882
2 2.6 18 21 74 78 35 $1,440
17 $4,880
10 2.1 69 115 57 60 35 $2,960
15 $5,280
3 2.5 14 16 72 76 $1,120
52 $2,700
4 2.4 52 61 64 69 47 $4,480
86
6 1.2 18 21 72 76 $9,447
$6,020
6 1.2 19 20 69 74 $35,220

8 1.4 42 45 61 69

2 1.4 7 7 77 79

5 1.8 32 36 65 71

9 2.5 58 62

8 3.0 51 66 62 64 67.4 25.0 2.2

SOUTH ASIA

REALM 4,487,762 1,732,734 1569.5 1946.0 146 291 24 7 1.7 51 66 64 66 66.1 39.9
Bangladesh 143,998 55,598 152.4 195.0 1058 1679 22 51.7 29.5
Bhutan 47,001 18,147 520 25 7 1.5 41 52 65 67 61.1 33.6 2.4
India 0.7 0.9 16 633 23 68.6 42.1 5.7
Maldives 3,287,576 1,269,340 1186.4 1444.5 361 10,287 22 8 1.7 52 79 67 68 96.3 96.4 3.3
Nepal 300 116 1029 909 28 59.1 21.8 2.3
Pakistan 0.3 0.4 191 783 30 7 1.5 50 66 63 65 57.6 27.8 2.2
Sri Lanka 147,179 56,826 28.1 35.7 227 1093 19 94.5 88.9 2.3 2.46
796,098 307,375 180.8 246.3 317 3 1.9 11 13 72 74 3.2 1.86
65,610 25,332 20.8 23.2
8 1.9 39 48 64 65

7 2.3 71 87 66 67

A-15 7 1.2 13 15 72 76

EAST ASIA

REALM 11,774,215 4,546,050 1573.4 1703.9 134 1083 12 7 0.5 16 17 73 77 94.9 84.7
China 9,572,855 3,696,100 1338.0 1484.7 140 998 12 92.3 77.4
Japan 127.7 119.3 338 2600 9 7 0.5 17 19 72 76 100.0 100.0 3.5 1.95
377,799 145,869 7.8 3.67
9 0.0 2 3 79 86

A-16 Continued Population Life Expectancy Literacy Per
Capita
Korea, North Land Area 2010 2025 Population Density Natural Infant Child Male Female Percent Male Female Big Mac
Korea, South Sq. km. Sq. mi. (Millions) (Millions) Arithmetic Physiologic (years) (years) Urban %% Price GNI
Mongolia Birth Death Increase Mortality Mortality Pop. Corruption ($US) ($US)
Taiwan Rate Rate Index
% per 1,000 per 1,000 60 —
15 82 $28,120
120,541 46,541 23.9 23.6 198 1240 9 10 0.5 26 33 61 66 61 99.0 99.0 $3,480
99,259 38,324 49.1 49.1 495 2603 25 78 99.2 96.4
1,566,492 604,826 2.8 3.3 2 178 8 5 0.4 5 5 77 83 99.2 99.3 5.4 2.82 —
36,180 13,969 23.1 23.9 640 2558 42 97.6 90.2 2.7
6 1.9 24 29 63 70 72 5.8 2.34 $4,510
20 $50,200
6 0.2 75 82 22 $1,820
43 $4,690
SOUTHEAST ASIA 27 $3,830
63 $2,060
REALM 4,494,790 1,735,448 601.8 698.6 134 642 20 7 1.3 28 35 68 72 31 93.0 86.1 $13,740
Brunei 5,770 2,228 0.4 0.5 72 3578 16 63 94.7 88.2 $1,290
Cambodia 69,900 15.2 19.0 84 382 25 3 1.3 5 7 75 80 100 79.7 53.4 5.5 $3,900
East Timor 181,040 5,741 1.2 1.9 79 655 41 31 2.1 $47,940
Indonesia 14,869 130 763 20 8 1.6 68 88 59 63 28 91.9 82.1 2.5 $5,990
Laos 1,904,561 735,355 247.2 273.2 26 871 28 73.6 50.5 2.8 2.51 $2,700
Malaysia 236,800 91,429 6.2 8.3 87 361 21 10 3.1 48 56 60 62 83 91.5 83.6 2.1
Myanmar (Burma) 329,750 127,317 28.6 34.9 74 463 20 82 89.0 80.6 4.4 2.19 $32,850
Philippines 676,577 261,228 50.1 61.7 314 953 26 6 1.4 30 39 69 73 86 95.5 95.2 1.4 $34,040
Singapore 299,998 115,830 94.3 7,848 392,384 10 96.4 88.5 2.4 2.19 $25,090
Thailand 4.9 117.6 130 325 15 7 2.1 46 59 63 66 22 97.2 94.0 9.3 3.08
Vietnam 619 239 66.8 5.7 266 1210 17 22 95.7 91.0 3.5 2.17 $2,114
513,118 198,116 88.3 72.6 5 1.6 6 6 72 77 2.7 $3,000
331,689 128,066
103.2 11 0.9 54 71 56 60

5 2.1 26 33 70 74

4 0.6 2 3 79 84

9 0.6 12 14 66 72

5 1.2 20 24 72 76

AUSTRAL REALM

REALM 8,012,942 3,093,814 26.0 31.9 3 45 14 6 0.8 4 5 79 84 100.0 100.0
Australia 40 14 100.0 100.0
New Zealand 7,741,184 2,988,888 21.6 26.9 3 135 14 6 0.7 4 5 79 84 100.0 100.0 8.7 3.84
9.3 3.59
270,529 104,452 4.4 5.0 16 7 0.8 5 6 78 82

PACIFIC REALM

REALM 975,341 376,804 9.6 13.1 17 806 29 9 2.0 42 55 60 65 65.9 52.1
Federated States of 699 270 0.1 0.1 149 286 25 67.0 87.2
Micronesia 6 1.9 32 39 67 68
Fiji 0.9 0.9 51 317 24
French Polynesia 18,270 7,054 0.3 0.3 77 964 18 7 1.7 15 18 66 71 51 95.0 90.9 $4,270
Guam 3,999 1,544 0.2 0.2 375 1706 19 —
Marshall Islands 0.1 0.1 596 3506 34 5 1.3 72 77 53 94.9 95.0 —
New Caledonia 549 212 0.2 0.3 11 1105 16 —
Papua New Guinea 179 69 6.8 9.1 15 1464 31 4 1.5 76 82 93 99.0 99.0 —
Samoa 18,581 7,174 0.2 0.2 74 171 26
Solomon Islands 462,839 178,703 0.5 0.8 18 607 33 6 2.8 29 35 64 67 68 92.4 90.0 $2,000
Vanuatu 2,841 1,097 0.2 0.3 17 172 31 $4,340
28,899 11,158 5 1.2 72 80 58 57.4 58.3 $2,580
12,191 4,707 $3,940
10 2.2 52 68 57 62 13 63.4 50.9 2.1

5 2.0 21 25 72 74 22 100.0 100.0 4.1

8 2.5 30 36 62 63 17 62.4 44.9 2.8

6 2.5 14 16 66 69 24 57.3 47.8 3.6

This Data Table is a valuable resource, and should be the GNI, that is, the Gross National Income per person
consulted throughout your reading. Like all else in this and what this would buy in each country. In the language
book, this table is subject to continuous revision and of economic geographers, this is called the GNI-PPP,
modification. Compared to previous editions, we have the per-capita Gross National Income in terms of its
deleted some indices, elaborated others, and introduced Purchasing Power Parity.
new ones. For example, in a world with ever-slower pop-
ulation growth, the so-called Doubling Time index—the Indexes that may not be immediately obvious to you
number of years it will take for a population to double in include Arithmetic Population Density, the number of
size based on its current rate of natural increase—has people per square kilometer in each country; Physiologic
lost most of its utility. On the other hand, when it comes Population Density, the number of people per square
to Life Expectancy and Literacy, general averages con- kilometer of agriculturally productive land; Birth and
ceal significant differences between male and female Death Rates per thousand in the population, resulting in
rates, which in turn reflect conditions in individual coun- the national population’s rate of Natural Increase; a pop-
tries, so we report these by gender. Also in this edition, ulation’s Infant Mortality, the number of deaths per
we continue to use the Corruption Index, not available thousand in the first year of life, thus largely reflecting the
for all countries but an important reflection of a global number of deaths at birth; Child Mortality, the deaths
problem. The Big Mac Price index, a measure intro- per thousand of children in their first five years; the Cor-
duced by the journal The Economist, tells you much ruption Index, based on Transparency International data
more than what a hamburger with all the trimmings in which 10.0 is perfect and 0.1 is the worst; the Big Mac
would cost in real dollars in various countries of the Price index, which tells you why Argentina in 2011 was
world—it also reflects whether those countries’ curren- the best place to buy a hamburger in U.S. dollars; and the
cies are overvalued or undervalued. And the final col- Per Capita GNI ($U.S.), the GNI-PPP index referred
umn, in which we formerly used to reported the to above, which tells you how spendable income varies
per-capita GNP (Gross National Product), now reveals around the globe. For additional details on sources and
data, please consult the Data Sources section of the Preface.

A-17

Glossary CAPPENDIX

Ability In the context of political power, the capacity of a state to influ- fight off infection so that weight loss and weakness set in and other af-
ence other states or achieve its goals through diplomatic, economic, and flictions such as cancer or pneumonia may hasten an infected person’s
militaristic means. demise.

Absolute location The position or place of a certain item on the Animal domestication Genetic modification of an animal such that it
surface of the Earth as expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds of is rendered more amenable to human control.
latitude, 0° to 90° north or south of the equator, and longitude, 0° to
180° east or west of the Prime Meridian passing through Greenwich, Animistic religion The belief that inanimate objects, such as hills,
England (a suburb of London). trees, rocks, rivers, and other elements of the natural landscape, possess
souls and can help or hinder human efforts on Earth.
Accessibility The degree of ease with which it is possible to reach a
certain location from other locations. Accessibility varies from place to Anthropocene geological epoch defined by atmospheric chemist Paul
place and can be measured. Crutzen to acknowledge the central role humans play in shaping the
Earth’s environment.
Acid rain A growing environmental peril whereby acidified rainwater
severely damages plant and animal life; caused by the oxides of sulfur and Aquifers Subterranean, porous, water-holding rocks that provide mil-
nitrogen that are released into the atmosphere when coal, oil, and natu- lions of wells with steady flows of water.
ral gas are burned, especially in major manufacturing zones.
Arable Literally, cultivable; land fit for cultivation by one farming
Acropolis Literally “high point of the city.” The upper fortified part of method or another.
an ancient Greek city, usually devoted to religious purposes.
Area A term that refers to a part of the Earth’s surface with less speci-
Activity (action) space The space within which daily activity occurs. ficity than region. For example, “urban area” alludes very generally to a
place where urban development has taken place, whereas “urban region”
Agglomeration A process involving the clustering or concentrating of requires certain specific criteria on which a delimitation is based (e.g.,
people or activities. The term often refers to manufacturing plants and the spatial extent of commuting or the built townscape).
businesses that benefit from close proximity because they share skilled-
labor pools and technological and financial amenities. Arithmetic population density The population of a country or re-
gion expressed as an average per unit area. The figure is derived by divid-
Aging index the number of people aged 65 years and older per 100 ing the population of the areal unit by the number of square kilometers
children aged zero to 14 years in a given population. or miles that make up the unit.

Agora In ancient Greece, public spaces where citizens debated, lectured, Assimilation The process through which people lose originally dif-
judged each other, planned military campaigns, socialized, and traded. ferentiating traits, such as dress, speech particularities or mannerisms,
when they come into contact with another society or culture. Often used
Agribusiness General term for the businesses that provide the vast to describe immigrant adaptation to new places of residence.
array of goods and services that support the agriculture industry.
Asylum Shelter and protection in one state for refugees from another
Agricultural surplus One of two components, together with social state.
stratification, that enable the formation of cities; agricultural produc-
tion in excess of that which the producer needs for his or her own suste- Atmosphere Blanket of gases surrounding the Earth and located
nance and that of his or her family and which is then sold for consumption some 350 miles above the Earth’s surface.
by others.
Authenticity In the context of local cultures or customs, the accuracy
Agricultural village A relatively small, egalitarian village, where most with which a single stereotypical or typecast image or experience con-
of the population was involved in agriculture. Starting over 10,000 years veys an otherwise dynamic and complex local culture or its customs.
ago, people began to cluster in agricultural villages as they stayed in one
place to tend their crops. Backward reconstruction The tracking of sound shifts and harden-
ing of consonants “backward” toward the original language.
Agriculture The purposeful tending of crops and livestock in order to
produce food and fiber. Barrioization Defined by geographer James Curtis as the dramatic
increase in Hispanic population in a given neighborhood; referring to
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) Immune system barrio, the Spanish word for neighborhood.
disease caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which
over a period of years weakens the capacity of the immune system to Biodiversity The total variety of plant and animal species in a particu-
lar place; biological diversity.

A-18

Glossary A-19

Blockbusting Rapid change in the racial composition of residential Chronic (or degenerative) diseases Generally long-lasting afflic-
blocks in American cities that occurs when real estate agents and others tions now more common because of higher life expectancies.
stir up fears of neighborhood decline after encouraging people of color
to move to previously white neighborhoods. In the resulting outmigra- City Conglomeration of people and buildings clustered together to
tion, real estate agents profit through the turnover of properties. serve as a center of politics, culture, and economics.

Boundary Vertical plane between states that cuts through the rocks Climatic regions Areas of the world with similar climatic characteristics.
below, and the airspace above the surface.
Colonialism Rule by an autonomous power over a subordinate and
Break-of-bulk point A location along a transport route where goods alien people and place. Although often established and maintained
must be transferred from one carrier to another. In a port, the cargoes through political structures, colonialism also creates unequal cultural
of oceangoing ships are unloaded and put on trains, trucks, or perhaps and economic relations. Because of the magnitude and impact of the
smaller riverboats for inland distribution. European colonial project of the last few centuries, the term is generally
understood to refer to that particular colonial endeavor.
Buddhism Religion founded in the sixth century BCE and charac-
terized by the belief that enlightenment would come through knowl- Colonization Physical process whereby the colonizer takes over an-
edge, especially self-knowledge; elimination of greed, craving, and other place, putting its own government in charge and either moving
desire; complete honesty; and never hurting another person or animal. its own people into the place or bringing in indentured outsiders to gain
Buddhism splintered from Hinduism as a reaction to the strict social control of the people and the land.
hierarchy maintained by Hinduism.
Commercial agriculture Term used to describe large-scale farming
Cadastral map A large-scale map, usually created at the scale of 1:2500, and ranching operations that employ vast land bases, large mechanized
depicting the value, extent, and ownership of land for purposes of taxation. equipment, factory-type labor forces, and the latest technology.

Capitalism Economic model wherein people, corporations, and Commercialization The transformation of an area of a city into an
states produce goods and exchange them on the world market, with the area attractive to residents and tourists alike in terms of economic activity.
goal of achieving profit.
Commodification The process through which something is given
Cartography The art and science of making maps, including data monetary value. Commodification occurs when a good or idea that pre-
compilation, layout, and design. Also concerned with the interpretation viously was not regarded as an object to be bought and sold is turned into
of mapped patterns. something that has a particular price and that can be traded in a market
economy.
Caste system The strict social segregation of people—specifically in
India’s Hindu society—on the basis of ancestry and occupation. Commodity chain Series of links connecting the many places of pro-
duction and distribution and resulting in a commodity that is then ex-
Census A periodic and official count of a country’s population. changed on the world market.

Central Business District (CBD) The downtown heart of a central Complementarity A condition that exists when two regions, through
city, the CBD is marked by high land values, a concentration of business an exchange of raw materials and/or finished products, can specifically
and commerce, and the clustering of the tallest buildings. satisfy each other’s demands.

Central city The urban area that is not suburban; generally, the older Community supported agriculture (CSA) network between agri-
or original city that is surrounded by newer suburbs. cultural producers and consumers whereby consumers pledge support
to a farming operation in order to receive a share of the output from the
Central place Any point or place in the urban hierarchy, such as a farming operation.
town or city, having a certain economic reach or hinterland.
Concentric zone model A structural model of the American central
Central Place Theory Theory proposed by Walter Christaller that city that suggests the existence of five concentric land-use rings arranged
explains how and where central places in the urban hierarchy should around a common center.
be functionally and spatially distributed with respect to one another.
Confucianism A philosophy of ethics, education, and public service
Centrality The strength of an urban center in its capacity to attract based on the writings of Confucius and traditionally thought of as one of
producers and consumers to its facilities; a city’s “reach” into the sur- the core elements of Chinese culture.
rounding region.
Connectivity The degree of direct linkage between one particular lo-
Centrifugal Forces that tend to divide a country—such as internal re- cation and other locations in a transport network.
ligious, linguistic, ethnic, or ideological differences.
Conquest theory One major theory of how Proto-Indo-European
Centripetal Forces that tend to unify a country—such as widespread diffused into Europe which holds that the early speakers of Proto-Indo-
commitment to a national culture, shared ideological objectives, and a European spread westward on horseback, overpowering earlier inhabit-
common faith. ants and beginning the diffusion and differentiation of Indo-European
tongues.
Chain migration Pattern of migration that develops when migrants
move along and through kinship links (i.e. one migrant settles in a place Contagious diffusion The distance-controlled spreading of an idea,
and then writes, calls, or communicates through others to describe this innovation, or some other item through a local population by contact
place to family and friends who in turn then migrate there). from person to person—analogous to the communication of a conta-
gious illness.
Child mortality rate A figure that describes the number of chil-
dren that die between the first and fifth years of their lives in a given Context The geographical situation in which something occurs; the
population. combination of what is happening at a variety of scales concurrently.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Synthetic organic compounds first Core Processes that incorporate higher levels of education, higher
created in the 1950s and used primarily as refrigerants and as propel- salaries, and more technology; generate more wealth than periphery
lants. The role of CFCs in the destruction of the ozone layer led to the processes in the world-economy.
signing of an international agreement (the Montreal Protocol).
Core area In geography, a term with several connotations. Core refers
Christianity Religion based on the teachings of Jesus. According to to the center, heart, or focus. The core area of a nation-state is consti-
Christian teaching, Jesus is the son of God, placed on Earth to teach tuted by the national heartland—the largest population cluster, the most
people how to live according to God’s plan.

A-20 Glossary

productive region, the area with greatest centrality and accessibility, Demographic transition Multistage model, based on Western
probably containing the capital city as well. Europe’s experience, of changes in population growth exhibited by
countries undergoing industrialization. High birth rates and death rates
Creole language A language that began as a pidgin language but was are followed by plunging death rates, producing a huge net population
later adopted as the mother tongue by a people in place of the mother gain; this is followed by the convergence of birth rates and death rates at
tongue. a low overall level.

Critical geopolitics Process by which geopoliticians deconstruct and Dependency theory A structuralist theory that offers a critique of the
focus on explaining the underlying spatial assumptions and territorial modernization model of development. Based on the idea that certain
perspectives of politicians. types of political and economic relations (especially colonialism) be-
tween countries and regions of the world have created arrangements that
Crude Birth Rate (CBR) The number of live births yearly per thou- both control and limit the extent to which regions can develop.
sand people in a population.
Deportation The act of a government sending a migrant out of its
Crude Death Rate (CDR) The number of deaths yearly per thou- country and back to the migrant’s home country.
sand people in a population.
Desertification The encroachment of desert conditions on moister
Cultural appropriation The process by which cultures adopt customs zones along the desert margins, where plant cover and soils are threat-
and knowledge from other cultures and use them for their own benefit. ened by desiccation—through overuse, in part by humans and their do-
mestic animals, and, possibly, in part because of inexorable shifts in the
Cultural barrier Prevailing cultural attitude rendering certain inno- Earth’s environmental zones.
vations, ideas or practices unacceptable or unadoptable in that particular
culture. Deterritorialization the movement of economic, social and cultural
processes out of the hands of states.
Cultural complex A related set of cultural traits, such as prevailing
dress codes and cooking and eating utensils. Developing With respect to a country, making progress in technol-
ogy, production, and socioeconomic welfare.
Cultural diffusion The expansion and adoption of a cultural element,
from its place of origin to a wider area. Devolution The process whereby regions within a state demand and
gain political strength and growing autonomy at the expense of the cen-
Cultural ecology The multiple interactions and relationships be- tral government.
tween a culture and the natural environment.
Dialect Local or regional characteristics of a language. While accent
Cultural hearth Heartland, source area, innovation center; place of refers to the pronunciation differences of a standard language, a dialect,
origin of a major culture. in addition to pronunciation variation, has distinctive grammar and vo-
cabulary.
Cultural landscape The visible imprint of of human activity and culture
on the landscape. The layers of buildings, forms, and artifacts sequentially Dialect chains A set of contiguous dialects in which the dialects near-
imprinted on the landscape by the activities of various human occupants. est to each other at any place in the chain are most closely related.

Cultural trait A single element of normal practice in a culture, such Diaspora From the Greek “to disperse,” a term describing forceful
as the wearing of a turban. or voluntary dispersal of a people from their homeland to a new place.
Originally denoting the dispersal of Jews, it is increasingly applied to
Culture The sum total of the knowledge, attitudes, and habitual be- other population dispersals, such as the involuntary relocation of Black
havior patterns shared and transmitted by the members of a society. This peoples during the slave trade or Chinese peoples outside of Mainland
is anthropologist Ralph Linton’s definition; hundreds of others exist. China, Taiwan and Hong Kong.

Custom Practice routinely followed by a group of people. Diffusion The spatial spreading or dissemination of a culture element
(such as a technological innovation) or some other phenomenon (e.g., a
Cyclic movement Movement—for example, nomadic migration— disease outbreak). See also contagious, expansion, hierarchical, relo-
that has a closed route and is repeated annually or seasonally. cation, and stimulus diffusion.

Deep reconstruction Technique using the vocabulary of an extinct Diffusion routes The spatial trajectory through which cultural traits
language to re-create the language that proceeded the extinct language. or other phenomena spread.

Definition In political geography, the written legal description (in a Digital divide the gap in access to telecommunications between de-
treatylike document) of a boundary between two countries or territories. veloped and developing regions.
See also delimitation.
Disamenity sector The very poorest parts of cities that in extreme
Deforestation The clearing and destruction of forests to harvest cases are not even connected to regular city services and are controlled
wood for consumption, clear land for agricultural uses, and make way for by gangs or drug lords.
expanding settlement frontiers.
Dispersal hypothesis Hypothesis which holds that the Indo-
Deglomeration The process of industrial deconcentration in re- European languages that arose from Proto-Indo-European were first
sponse to technological advances and/or increasing costs due to conges- carried eastward into Southwest Asia, next around the Caspian Sea, and
tion and competition. then across the Russian-Ukrainian plains and on into the Balkans.

Deindustrialization Process by which companies move industrial Distance Measurement of the physical space between two places.
jobs to other regions with cheaper labor, leaving the newly deindustrial-
ized region to switch to a service economy and to work through a period Distance decay The effects of distance on interaction, generally the
of high unemployment. greater the distance the less interaction.

Delimitation In political geography, the translation of the written Dollarization When a poorer country ties the value of its currency to
terms of a boundary treaty (the definition) into an official cartographic that of a wealthier country, or when it abandons its currency and adopts
representation. the wealthier country’s currency as its own.

Demarcation In political geography, the actual placing of a political Dot map Maps where one dot represents a certain number of a phe-
boundary on the landscape by means of barriers, fences, walls, or other nomenon, such as a population.
markers.

Democracy Government based on the principle that the people are the
ultimate sovereign and have the final say over what happens within the state.

Glossary A-21

Doubling time The time required for a population to double in size. Feng Shui Literally “wind-water.” The Chinese art and science of
placement and orientation of tombs, dwellings, buildings, and cities.
Dowry death In the context of arranged marriages in India, disputes Structures and objects are positioned in an effort to channel flows of
over the price to be paid by the family of the bride to the father of the sheng-chi (“life-breath”) in favorable ways.
groom (the dowry) have, in some extreme cases, led to the death of the
bride. Fertile Crescent Crescent-shaped zone of productive lands extend-
ing from near the southeastern Mediterranean coast through Lebanon
Eastern Orthodox Church One of three major branches of and Syria to the alluvial lowlands of Mesopotamia (in Iraq). Once more
Christianity, the Eastern Orthodox Church, together with the Roman fertile than today, this is one of the world’s great source areas of agricul-
Catholic Church, a second of the three major branches of Christianity, tural and other innovations.
arose out of the division of the Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian
into four governmental regions: two western regions centered in Rome, Fieldwork The study of geographic phenomena by visiting places and
and two eastern regions centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul, observing how people interact with and thereby change those places.
Turkey). In 1054 CE, Christianity was divided along that same line when
the Eastern Orthodox Church, centered in Constantinople; and the First Agricultural Revolution Dating back 10,000 years, the First
Roman Catholic Church, centered in Rome, split. Agricultural Revolution achieved plant domestication and animal
domestication.
Edge cities A term introduced by American journalist Joel Garreau in
order to describe the shifting focus of urbanization in the United States First Urban Revolution The innovation of the city, which occurred
away from the Central Business District (CBD) toward new loci of independently in five separate hearths.
economic activity at the urban fringe. These cities are characterized by
extensive amounts of office and retail space, few residential areas, and Five themes (of geography) Developed by the Geography Educational
modern buildings (less than 30 years old). National Implementation Project (GENIP), the five themes of geogra-
phy are location, human-environment, region, place, and movement.
Emigrant A person migrating away from a country or area; an out-
migrant. Flexible production system a system of industrial production char-
acterized by a set of processes in which the components of goods are
Endemic A disease that is particular to a locality or region. See also made in different places around the globe and then brought together as
pandemic. needed to meet consumer demand.

Environmental determinism The view that the natural environment Folk culture Cultural traits such as dress modes, dwellings, tradi-
has a controlling influence over various aspects of human life, including tions, and institutions of usually small, traditional communities.
cultural development. Also referred to as environmentalism.
Folk-housing region A region in which the housing stock predomi-
Environmental stress The threat to environmental security by nantly reflects styles of building that are particular to the culture of the
human activity such as atmospheric and groundwater pollution, defores- people who have long inhabited the area.
tation, oil spills, and ocean dumping.
Food desert an area characterized by a lack of affordable, fresh and
Epidemic Regional outbreak of a disease. nutritious food.

Ethnic cleansing The systematic killing or extermination of an entire Forced migration Human migration flows in which the movers have
people or nation. no choice but to relocate.

Ethnic religion A religion that is particular to one, culturally distinct, Fordist A highly organized and specialized system for organizing in-
group of people. Unlike universalizing religions, adherents of ethnic dustrial production and labor. Named after automobile producer Henry
religions do not actively seek converts through evangelism or missionary Ford, Fordist production features assembly-line production of standard-
work. ized components for mass consumption.

Ethnic neighborhood Neighborhood, typically situated in a larger Formal economy The legal economy that is taxed and monitored by a
metropolitan city and constructed by or comprised of a local culture, in government and is included in a government’s Gross National Product
which a local culture can practice its customs. (GNP); as opposed to an informal economy.

Ethnicity Affiliation or identity within a group of people bound by Formal region A type of region marked by a certain degree of ho-
common ancestry and culture. mogeneity in one or more phenomena; also called uniform region or
homogeneous region.
Eugenic population policies Government policies designed to favor
one racial sector over others. Forum The focal point of ancient Roman life combining the functions
of the ancient Greek acropolis and agora.
Expansion diffusion The spread of an innovation or an idea through a
population in an area in such a way that the number of those influenced Friction of distance The increase in time and cost that usually comes
grows continuously larger, resulting in an expanding area of dissemination. with increasing distance.

Expansive population policies Government policies that encourage Functional region A region defined by the particular set of activities
large families and raise the rate of population growth. or interactions that occur within it.

Explorer A person examining a region that is unknown to them. Functional zonation The division of a city into different regions or
zones (e.g. residential or industrial) for certain purposes or functions
Export Processing Zones (EPZs) Zones established by many coun- (e.g. housing or manufacturing).
tries in the periphery and semi-periphery where they offer favorable
tax, regulatory, and trade arrangements to attract foreign trade and in- Gated communities Restricted neighborhoods or subdivisions, often
vestment. literally fenced in, where entry is limited to residents and their guests.
Although predominantly high-income based, in North America gated
Extinct language Language without any native speakers. communities are increasingly a middle-class phenomenon.

Federal (state) A political-territorial system wherein a central gov- Gatekeepers People or corporations who control access to information.
ernment represents the various entities within a nation-state where
they have common interests—defense, foreign affairs, and the like—yet Gender Social differences between men and women, rather than the
allows these various entities to retain their own identities and to have anatomical, biological differences between the sexes. Notions of gender
their own laws, policies, and customs in certain spheres. differences—that is, what is considered “feminine” or “masculine”—
vary greatly over time and space.

A-22 Glossary

Gendered In terms of a place, whether the place is designed for or caused by ever-increasing amounts of carbon dioxide produced by vari-
claimed by men or women. ous human activities.

Genetic or inherited diseases Diseases caused by variation or muta- Globalization The expansion of economic, political, and cultural
tion of a gene or group of genes in a human. processes to the point that they become global in scale and impact. The
processes of globalization transcend state boundaries and have outcomes
Genetically Modified Oganisms (GMOs) Crops that carry new that vary across places and scales.
traits that have been inserted through advanced genetic engineering
methods. Glocalization The process by which people in a local place mediate
and alter regional, national, and global processes.
Gentrification The rehabilitation of deteriorated, often abandoned,
housing of low-income inner-city residents. Gondwana The southern portion of the primeval supercontinent,
Pangaea.
Geocaching A hunt for a cache, the Global Positioning System
(GPS) coordinates which are placed on the Internet by other geocachers. Gravity model A mathematical prediction of the interaction of places,
the interaction being a function of population size of the respective
Geographic concept Ways of seeing the world spatially that are used places and the distance between them.
by geographers in answering research questions.
Green Revolution The recently successful development of higher-
Geographic Information System (GIS) A collection of computer yield, fast-growing varieties of rice and other cereals in certain developing
hardware and software that permits spatial data to be collected, recorded, countries, which led to increased production per unit area and a dramatic
stored, retrieved, manipulated, analyzed, and displayed to the user. narrowing of the gap between population growth and food needs.

Geography From the Greek meaning “to write about the Earth.” As Greenhouse effect The widely used analogy describing the blan-
a modern academic discipline, geography is concerned with the analysis ket-like effect of the atmosphere in the heating of the Earth’s surface;
of the physical and human characteristics of the Earth’s surface from a shortwave insolation passes through the “glass” of the atmospheric
spatial perspective. “Why are things located where they are?” and “What “greenhouse,” heats the surface, is converted to long-wave radiation that
does it mean for things to be located in particular places?” are central cannot penetrate the “glass,” and thereby results in trapping heat, which
questions that geographical scholarship seeks to answer. raises the temperature inside the “greenhouse.”

Geography Educational National Implementation Project Griffin-Ford model Developed by geographers Ernst Griffin and
(GENIP) Joint effort undertaken in the 1980s by the American Larry Ford, a model of the Latin American city showing a blend of tra-
Geographical Society, the Association of American Geographers, the ditional elements of Latin American culture with the forces of globaliza-
National Council for Geographic Education and the National Geographic tion that are reshaping the urban scene.
Society designed to bring together the many subfields of human geography
and to explain to nongeographers the discipline of geography; developed Gross Domestic Product (GDP) The total value of all goods and
the five themes of geography: location, human-environment, region, services produced within a country during a given year.
place, and movement.
Gross National Product (GNP) The total value of all goods and ser-
Geometric boundary Political boundary defined and delimited (and vices produced by a country’s economy in a given year. It includes all
occasionally demarcated) as a straight line or an arc. goods and services produced by corporations and individuals of a coun-
try, whether or not they are located within the country.
Germanic languages Languages (English, German, Danish,
Norwegian, and Swedish) that reflect the expansion of peoples out of Guest worker Legal immigrant who has a work visa, usually short term.
Northern Europe to the west and south.
Hajj The Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of Muhammad.
Gerrymandering Redistricting for advantage, or the practice of di-
viding areas into electoral districts to give one political party an electoral Hearth The area where an idea or cultural trait originates.
majority in a large number of districts while concentrating the voting
strength of the opposition in as few districts as possible. Heartland theory A geopolitical hypothesis, proposed by British geog-
rapher Halford Mackinder during the first two decades of the twentieth
Glaciation A period of global cooling during which continental ice century, that any political power based in the heart of Eurasia could gain
sheets and mountain glaciers expand. sufficient strength to eventually dominate the world. Mackinder further
proposed that since Eastern Europe controlled access to the Eurasian inte-
Global division of labor Phenomenon whereby corporations and rior, its ruler would command the vast “heartland” to the east.
others can draw from labor markets around the world, made possible by
the compression of time and space through innovation in communica- Hierarchical diffusion A form of diffusion in which an idea or in-
tion and transportation systems. novation spreads by passing first among the most connected places or
peoples. An urban hierarchy is usually involved, encouraging the leap-
Global language The language used most commonly around the frogging of innovations over wide areas, with geographic distance a less
world; defined on the basis of either the number of speakers of the lan- important influence.
guage, or prevalence of use in commerce and trade.
High-technology corridors Areas along or near major transporta-
Global-local continuum The notion that what happens at the global tion arteries that are devoted to the research, development, and sale of
scale has a direct effect on what happens at the local scale, and vice versa. high-technology products. These areas develop because of the network-
This idea posits that the world is comprised of an interconnected series ing and synergistic advantages of concentrating high-technology en-
of relationships that extend across space. terprises in close proximity to one another. “Silicon Valley” is a prime
example of a high-technology corridor in the United States.
Global Positioning System (GPS) Satellite-based system for deter-
mining the absolute location of places or geographic features. Hinduism One of the oldest religions in the modern world, dating
back over 4000 years, and originating in the Indus River Valley of what is
Global scale Interactions occurring at the scale of the world, in a today part of Pakistan. Hinduism is unique among the world’s religions
global setting. in that it does not have a single founder, a single theology, or agreement
on its origins.
Global-scale migration migration that takes place across interna-
tional boundaries and between world regions. Hinterland Literally, “country behind,” a term that applies to a sur-
rounding area served by an urban center. That center is the focus of
Global warming Theory that the Earth is gradually warming as a goods and services produced for its hinterland and is its dominant urban
result of an enhanced greenhouse effect in the Earth’s atmosphere

Glossary A-23

influence as well. In the case of a port city, the hinterland also includes Interfaith boundaries Boundaries between the world’s major faiths.
the inland area whose trade flows through that port.
Interglacials warm periods during an ice age.
Holocene The current interglaciation period, extending from
10,000 years ago to the present on the geologic time scale. Interglaciation Sustained warming phase between glaciations during
an ice age.
Homo sapiens The only living species of the genus Homo; modern
humans. Intermodal (connections) Places where two or more modes of trans-
portation meet (including air, road, rail, barge, and ship).
Horizontal integration Ownership by the same firm of a number of
companies that exist at the same point on a commodity chain. Internal migration Human movement within a nation-state, such
as ongoingly westward and southward movements in the United States.
Huang He (Yellow) and Wei (Yangtzi) River Valleys Rivers in
present-day China; it was at the confluence of the Huang He and Wei Internal displaced person People who have been displaced within
Rivers where chronologically the fourth urban hearth was established their own countries and do not cross international borders as they flee.
around 1500 BCE.
International migration Human movement involving movement
Human-environment The second theme of geography as defined by across international boundaries.
the Geography Educational National Implementation Project; re-
ciprocal relationship between humans and environment. Intervening opportunity The presence of a nearer opportunity that
greatly diminishes the attractiveness of sites farther away.
Human geography One of the two major divisions of geography; the
spatial analysis of human population, its cultures, activities, and land- Intrafaith boundaries Boundaries within a single major faith.
scapes.
Islam The youngest of the major world religions, Islam is based on
Human territoriality A term associated with the work of Robert Sack the teachings of Muhammad, born in Mecca in 571 CE. According to
that describes the efforts of human societies to influence events and Islamic teaching, Muhammad received the truth directly from Allah in
achieve social goals by exerting, and attempting to enforce, control over a series of revelations during which Muhammad spoke the verses of the
specific geographical areas. Qu’ran (Koran), the Islamic holy book.

Hydrologic cycle The system of exchange involving water in its vari- Island of development Place built up by a government or corpora-
ous forms as it continually circulates among the atmosphere, the oceans, tion to attract foreign investment and which has relatively high concen-
and above and below the land surface. trations of paying jobs and infrastructure.

Identifying against Constructing an identity by first defining the Isogloss A geographic boundary within which a particular linguistic
“other” and then defining ourselves as “not the other.” feature occurs.

Identity Defined by geographer Gillian Rose as “how we make sense Isotherm Line on a map connecting points of equal temperature values.
of ourselves;” how people see themselves at different scales.
Jihad A doctrine within Islam. Commonly translated as “Holy War,”
Imam The political head of the Muslim community or the person who Jihad represents either a personal or collective struggle on the part of
leads prayer services. In Shiite Islam the Imam is immune from sin or Muslims to live up to the religious standards set by the Qu’ran.
error.
Judaism Religion with its roots in the teachings of Abraham (from
Immigrant A person migrating into a particular country or area; an Ur), who is credited with uniting his people to worship only one god.
in-migrant. According to Jewish teaching, Abraham and God have a covenant in
which the Jews agree to worship only one God, and God agrees to pro-
Immigration The act of a person migrating into a new country or area. tect his chosen people, the Jews.

Immigration laws Laws and regulations of a state designed specifi- Just-in-time delivery Method of inventory management made pos-
cally to control immigration into that state. sible by efficient transportation and communication systems, whereby
companies keep on hand just what they need for near-term production,
Immigration wave Phenomenon whereby different patterns of chain planning that what they need for longer-term production will arrive
migration build upon one another to create a swell in migration from when needed.
one origin to the same destination.
Kinship links Types of push factors or pull factors that influence a mi-
Independent invention The term for a trait with many cultural grant’s decision to go where family or friends have already found success.
hearths that developed independent of each other.
Köppen climate classification system Developed by Wladimir
Indigenous religions Belief systems and philosophies practiced Köppen, a system for classifying the world’s climates on the basis of tem-
and traditionally passed from generation to generation among peoples perature and precipitation.
within an indigenous tribe or group.
Landscape The overall appearance of an area. Most landscapes are
Indus River Valley Chronologically, the third urban hearth, dating comprised of a combination of natural and human-induced influences.
to 2200 BCE.
Language A set of sounds, combination of sounds, and symbols that
Industrial Revolution The term applied to the social and economic are used for communication.
changes in agriculture, commerce and manufacturing that resulted from
technological innovations and specialization in late-eighteenth-century Language convergence The collapsing of two languages into one
Europe. resulting from the consistent spatial interaction of peoples with differ-
ent languages; the opposite of language divergence.
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) A figure that describes the number of
babies that die within the first year of their lives in a given population. Language divergence The opposite of language convergence; a
process suggested by German linguist August Schleicher whereby new
Infectious diseases Diseases that are spread by bacteria, viruses, or languages are formed when a language breaks into dialects due to a lack
parasites. Infectious diseases diffuse directly or indirectly from human of spatial interaction among speakers of the language and continued
to human. isolation eventually causes the division of the language into discrete new
languages.
Informal economy Economic activity that is neither taxed nor moni-
tored by a government; and is not included in that government’s Gross Language family Group of languages with a shared but fairly distant
National Product (GNP); as opposed to a formal economy. origin.

A-24 Glossary

Latitude An imaginary line running parallel to the equator that is used foreign manufacturing operations. The goods manufactured in these
to measure distance in degrees north or south from the equator. export zones are primarily destined for the global market.

Laws of migration Developed by British demographer Ernst Maquiladora The term given to zones in northern Mexico with fac-
Ravenstein, five laws that predict the flow of migrants. tories supplying manufactured goods to the U.S. market. The low-wage
workers in the primarily foreign-owned factories assemble imported
Leadership class Group of decision-makers and organizers in early components and/or raw materials and then export finished goods.
cities who controlled the resources, and often the lives, of others.
Mass depletions Loss of diversity through a failure to produce new
Least Cost Theory Model developed by Alfred Weber according to species.
which the location of manufacturing establishments is determined by
the minimization of three critical expenses: labor, transportation, and Mass extinctions Mass destruction of most species.
agglomeration.
Material culture The art, housing, clothing, sports, dances, foods,
Life expectancy A figure indicating how long, on average, a person and other similar items constructed or created by a group of people.
may be expected to live. Normally expressed in the context of a particu-
lar state. McGee model Developed by geographer T.G. McGee, a model
showing similar land-use patterns among the medium-sized cities of
Lingua franca A term deriving from “Frankish language” and apply- Southeast Asia.
ing to a tongue spoken in ancient Mediterranean ports that consisted of a
mixture of Italian, French, Greek, Spanish, and even some Arabic. Today McMansions Homes referred to as such because of their “super size”
it refers to a “common language,” a language used among speakers of and similarity in appearance to other such homes; homes often built in
different languages for the purposes of trade and commerce. place of tear-downs in American suburbs.

Little Ice Age Temporary but significant cooling period between the Medical geography The study of health and disease within a geo-
fourteenth and the nineteenth centuries; accompanied by wide tempera- graphic context and from a geographical perspective. Among other
ture fluctuations, droughts, and storms, causing famines and dislocation. things, medical geography looks at sources, diffusion routes, and distri-
butions of diseases.
Livestock ranching The raising of domesticated animals for the pro-
duction of meat and other byproducts such as leather and wool. Mediterranean agriculture Specialized farming that occurs only in
areas where the dry-summer Mediterranean climate prevails.
Local culture Group of people in a particular place who see them-
selves as a collective or a community, who share experiences, customs, Megacities cities with 10 million or more residents.
and traits, and who work to preserve those traits and customs in order to
claim uniqueness and to distinguish themselves from others. Megalopolis Term used to designate large coalescing supercities that
are forming in diverse parts of the world; formerly used specifically with
Local Exchange Trading System (LETS) A barter system whereby a an uppercase “M” to refer to the Boston—Washington multimetropoli-
local currency is created through which members trade services or goods tan corridor on the northeastern seaboard of the United States, but now
in a local network separated from the formal economy. used generically with a lower-case “m” as a synonym for conurbation.

Location The first theme of geography as defined by the Geography Mental map Image or picture of the way space is organized as determined
Educational National Implementation Project; the geographical by an individual’s perception, impression, and knowledge of that space.
situation of people and things.
Mercantilism In a general sense, associated with the promotion of
Location theory A logical attempt to explain the locational pattern commercialism and trade. More specifically, a protectionist policy of
of an economic activity and the manner in which its producing areas European states during the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries that
are interrelated. The agricultural location theory contained in the von promoted a state’s economic position in the contest with other countries.
Thünen model is a leading example. The acquisition of gold and silver and the maintenance of a favorable
trade balance (more exports than imports) were central to the policy.
Locational interdependence Theory developed by economist
Harold Hotelling that suggests competitors, in trying to maximize sales, Mesoamerica Chronologically the fifth urban hearth, dating to 200
will seek to constrain each other’s territory as much as possible which BCE.
will therefore lead them to locate adjacent to one another in the middle
of their collective customer base. Mesopotamia Region of great cities (e.g. Ur and Babylon) located be-
tween the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers; chronologically the first urban
Longitude An imaginary line circling the Earth and running through hearth, dating to 3500 BCE, and which was founded in the Fertile
the poles. Used to determine the location of things by measurement of Crescent.
the angular distance, in degrees east or west, from the Prime Meridian.
Metes and bounds system A system of land surveying east of the
Long-lot survey system Distinct regional approach to land surveying Appalachian Mountains. It is a system that relies on descriptions of land
found in the Canadian Maritimes, parts of Quebec, Louisiana, and Texas ownership and natural features such as streams or trees. Because of the im-
whereby land is divided into narrow parcels stretching back from rivers, precise nature of metes and bounds surveying, the U.S. Land Office Survey
roads, or canals. abandoned the technique in favor of the rectangular survey system.

Luxury crops Non-subsistence crops such as tea, cacao, coffee, and Microcredit program Program that provides small loans to poor peo-
tobacco. ple, especially women, to encourage development of small businesses.

Majority-minority districts In the context of determining represen- Migrant labor A common type of periodic movement involving
tative districts, the process by which a majority of the population is from millions of workers in the United States and tens of millions of workers
the minority. worldwide who cross international borders in search of employment and
become immigrants, in many instances.
Malaria Vectored disease spread by mosquitoes that carry the ma-
laria parasite in their saliva and which kills approximately 150,000 chil- Migration A change in residence intended to be permanent. See also
dren in the global periphery each month. chain, forced, internal, international, step, and voluntary migration.

Manufacturing export zones A feature of economic development Military service Another common form of periodic movement
in peripheral countries whereby the host country establishes areas with involving as many as 10 million United States citizens in a given year,
favorable tax, regulatory, and trade arrangements in order to attract including military personnel and their families, who are moved to new
locations where they will spend tours of duty lasting up to several years.

Glossary A-25

Minaret Tower attached to a Muslim mosque, having one or more Nomadism Movement among a definite set of places—often cyclic
projecting balconies from which a crier calls Muslims to prayer. movement.

Modernization model A model of economic development most Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) International organiza-
closely associated with the work of economist Walter Rostow. The mod- tions that operate outside of the formal political arena but that are nev-
ernization model (sometimes referred to as modernization theory) main- ertheless influential in spearheading international initiatives on social,
tains that all countries go through five interrelated stages of development, economic, and environmental issues.
which culminate in an economic state of self-sustained economic growth
and high levels of mass consumption. Non-material culture The beliefs, practices, aesthics, and values of a
group of people.
Monoculture Dependence on a single agricultural commodity.
Nonrenewable resources resources that are present in finite quanti-
Monolingual states Countries in which only one language is spoken. ties because they are not self-replenishing or take an extraordinarily long
time to replenish.
Monotheistic religion Belief system in which one supreme being is
revered as creator and arbiter of all that exists in the universe. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Agreement en-
tered into by Canada, Mexico, and the United States in December, 1992
Montreal Protocol An international agreement signed in 1987 by and which took effect on January 1, 1994, to eliminate the barriers to
105 countries and the European Community (now European Union). trade in, and facilitate the cross-border movement of goods and services
The protocol called for a reduction in the production and consump- between the countries.
tion of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) of 50 percent by 2000. Subsequent
meetings in London (1990) and Copenhagen (1992) accelerated the tim- Nostratic (language) Language believed to be the ancestral language
ing of CFC phaseout, and a worldwide complete ban has been in effect not only of Proto-Indo-European, but also of the Kartvelian languages
since 1996. of the of the southern Caucasus region, the Uralic-Altaic languages (in-
cluding Hungarian, Finnish, Turkish, and Mongolian), the Dravadian
Movement The fifth theme of geography as defined by the languages of India, and the Afro-Asiatic language family.
Geography Educational National Implementation Project; the mo-
bility of people, goods and ideas across the surface of the planet Official language In multilingual countries the language selected,
often by the educated and politically powerful elite, to promote internal
Multilingual states Countries in which more than one language is cohesion; usually the language of the courts and government.
spoken.
Offshore With reference to production, to outsource to a third party
Multinational state State with more than one nation within its borders. located outside of the country.

Multistate nation Nation that stretches across borders and across One-child policy A program established by the Chinese government
states. in 1979 to slow population growth in China.

Mutual intelligibility The ability of two people to understand each Organic agriculture Approach to farming and ranching that avoids
other when speaking. the use of herbicides, pesticides, growth hormones, and other similar
synthetic inputs.
Nation Legally, a term encompassing all the citizens of a state. Most
definitions now tend to refer to a tightly knit group of people possessing Outsource With reference to production, to turn over in part or in
bonds of language, ethnicity, religion, and other shared cultural attri- total to a third party.
butes. Such homogeneity actually prevails within very few states.
Oxygen cycle Cycle whereby natural processes and human activ-
Nation-state Theoretically, a recognized member of the modern state ity consume atmoshperic oxygen and produce carbon dioxide and the
system possessing formal sovereignty and occupied by a people who see Earth’s forests and other flora, through photosynthesis, consume car-
themselves as a single, united nation. Most nations and states aspire to bon dioxide and produce oxygen.
this form, but it is realized almost nowhere. Nonetheless, in common
parlance, nation-state is used as a synonym for country or state. Ozone layer The layer in the upper atmosphere located between 30
and 45 kilometers above the Earth’s surface where stratospheric ozone is
Natural increase Population growth measured as the excess of live most densely concentrated. The ozone layer acts as a filter for the Sun’s
births over deaths. Natural increase of a population does not reflect ei- harmful ultraviolet rays.
ther emigrant or immigrant movements.
Pacific Ring of Fire Ocean-girdling zone of crustal instability, vol-
Natural resource Any valued element of (or means to an end using) canism, and earthquakes resulting from the tectonic activity along plate
the environment; includes minerals, water, vegetation, and soil. boundaries in the region.

Neocolonialism The entrenchment of the colonial order, such as Pandemic An outbreak of a disease that spreads worldwide. See also
trade and investment, under a new guise. See also postcolonialism. endemic.

Neolocalism The seeking out of the regional culture and reinvigora- Pangaea The primeval supercontinent, hypothesized by Alfred Wegener,
tion of it in response to the uncertainty of the modern world. that broke apart and formed the continents and oceans as we know them
today; consisted of two parts—a northern Laurasia and a southern
Networks Defined by Manuel Castells as a set of interconnected Gondwana.
nodes without a center.
Participatory development The notion that locals should be en-
Newborn mortality rate The number of infants who die within the gaged in deciding what development means for them and how it should
first month of life per 1,000 live births. be achieved.

New urbanism Outlined by a group of architects, urban planners, and Pastoralist Person involved in a form of agricultural activity that
developers from over 20 countries, an urban design that calls for devel- involves the raising of livestock. Many peoples described as herders
opment, urban revitalization, and suburban reforms that create walkable actually pursue mixed agriculture, in that they may also fish, hunt, or
neighborhoods with a diversity of housing and jobs. even grow a few crops. But pastoral peoples’ lives revolve around their
animals.
Newly industrializing countries states that underwent industrializa-
tion after World War II and whose economies have grown at a rapid pace. Pattern The design of a spatial distribution (e.g. scattered or con-
centrated).
Nile River Valley Chronologically the second urban hearth, dating
to 3200 BCE.

A-26 Glossary

Peace of Westphalia Peace negotiated in 1648 to end the Thirty Polytheistic religion Belief system in which multiple deities are re-
Years’ War, Europe’s most destructive internal struggle over religion. vered as creators and arbiters of all that exists in the universe.
The treaties contained new language recognizing statehood and nation-
hood, clearly defined borders, and guarantees of security. Popular culture Cultural traits such as dress, diet, and music that
identify and are part of today’s changeable, urban-based, media-influenced
Per capita GNP The Gross National Product (GNP) of a given western societies.
country divided by its population.
Population composition Structure of a population in terms of age,
Perception of place Belief or “understanding” about a place devel- sex and other properties such as marital status and education.
oped through books, movies, stories or pictures.
Population density A measurement of the number of people per
Perceptual region A region that only exists as a conceptualization or given unit of land.
an idea and not as a physically demarcated entity. For example, in the
United States, “the South” and “the Mid-Atlantic region” are perceptual Population distribution Description of locations on the Earth’s sur-
regions. face where populations live.

Periphery Processes that incorporate lower levels of education, lower Population explosion The rapid growth of the world’s human popu-
salaries, and less technology; and generate less wealth than core pro- lation during the past century, attended by ever-shorter doubling times
cesses in the world-economy. and accelerating rates of increase.

Periodic Movement Movement—for example, college attendence or Population pyramids Visual representations of the age and sex com-
military service—that involves temporary, recurrent relocation. position of a population whereby the percentage of each age group (gen-
erally five-year increments) is represented by a horizontal bar the length
Photosynthesis The formation of carbohydrates in living plants from of which represents its relationship to the total population. The males
water and carbon dioxide, through the action of sunlight on chlorophyll in each age group are represented to the left of the center line of each
in those plants, including algae. horizontal bar; the females in each age group are represented to the right
of the center line.
Physical geography One of the two major divisions of systematic ge-
ography; the spatial analysis of the structure, processes, and location of Possibilism Geographic viewpoint—a response to determinism—
the Earth’s natural phenomena such as climate, soil, plants, animals, and that holds that human decision making, not the environment, is the
topography. crucial factor in cultural development. Nonetheless, possibilists view the
environment as providing a set of broad constraints that limits the pos-
Physical-political (natural-political) boundary Political boundary sibilities of human choice.
defined and delimited (and occasionally demarcated) by a prominent
physical feature in the natural landscape—such as a river or the crest Post-Fordist World economic system characterized by a more flex-
ridges of a mountain range. ible set of production practices in which goods are not mass-produced;
instead, production has been accelerated and dispersed around the globe
Physiologic population density The number of people per unit area by multinational companies that shift production, outsourcing it around
of arable land. the world and bringing places closer together in time and space than
would have been imaginable at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Pidgin language When parts of two or more languages are combined
in a simplified structure and vocabulary. Postcolonialism A recent intellectual movement concerned with ex-
amining the enduring impacts of colonialism, not just in economic and
Pilgrimage Voluntary travel by an adherent to a sacred site to pay political relations (the focus of neocolonialism), but especially in cul-
respects or participate in a ritual at the site. tural terms. Postcolonial studies examine the ways in which basic con-
cepts of culture and forms of cultural interaction continue to be shaped
Place The fourth theme of geography as defined by the Geography by the hegemonic ideas and practices of colonialism.
Educational National Implementation Project; uniqueness of a
location. Primary economic activity Economic activity concerned with the
direct extraction of natural resources from the environment—such as
Placelessness Defined by geographer Edward Relph as the loss of mining, fishing, lumbering, and especially agriculture.
uniqueness of place in the cultural landscape so that one place looks
like the next. Primary industrial regions Western and Central Europe; Eastern
North America; Russia and Ukraine; and Eastern Asia, each of which
Plant domestication Genetic modification of a plant such that its re- consists of one or more core areas of industrial development with sub-
productive success depends on human intervention. sidiary clusters.

Plantation agriculture Production system based on a large estate Primate city A country’s largest city—ranking atop the urban
owned by an individual, family, or corporation and organized to produce hierarchy—most expressive of the national culture and usually (but not
a cash crop. Almost all plantations were established within the tropics; in always) the capital city as well.
recent decades, many have been divided into smaller holdings or reorga-
nized as cooperatives. Prime Meridian An imaginary north-south line of longitude on the
Earth grid, passing through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich in
Pleistocene The most recent epoch of the Late Cenozoic Ice Age, London, defined as having a longitude of 0°.
beginning about 1.8 million years ago and marked by as many as 20
glaciations and interglaciations of which the current warm phase, the Primogeniture System which the eldest son in a family—or, in excep-
Holocene epoch, has witnessed the rise of human civilization. tional cases, daughter—inherits all of a dying parent’s land.

Political ecology An approach to studying nature—society relations Product life cycle the introduction, growth, maturation and decline
that is concerned with the ways in which environmental issues both re- of a product.
flect, and are the result of, the political and socioeconomic contexts in
which they are situated. Protestant One of three major branches of Christianity (together
with the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic
Political geography A subdivision of human geography focused on Church). Following the widespread societal changes in Europe start-
the nature and implications of the evolving spatial organization of politi- ing in the 1300s ce, many adherents to the Roman Catholic Church
cal governance and formal political practice on the Earth’s surface. It is began to question the role of religion in their lives and opened the door
concerned with why political spaces emerge in the places that they do to the Protestant Reformation wherein John Huss, Martin Luther, John
and with how the character of those spaces affects social, political, eco-
nomic, and environmental understandings and practices.

Glossary A-27

Calvin, and others challenged many of the fundamental teachings of the Refugees People who have fled their country because of political per-
Roman Catholic Church. secution and seek asylum in another country.

Proto-Indo-European (language) Linguistic hypothesis proposing Region The third theme of geography as defined by the Geography
the existence of an ancestral Indo-European language that is the hearth Educational National Implementation Project; an area on the
of the ancient Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit languages which hearth would Earth’s surface marked by a degree of formal, functional, or perceptual
link modern languages from Scandinavia to North Africa and from homogeneity of some phenomenon.
North America through parts of Asia to Australia.
Regional scale Interactions occurring within a region, in a regional
Pull factor Positive conditions and perceptions that effectively attract setting.
people to new locales from other areas.
Relative location The regional position or situation of a place rela-
Push factor Negative conditions and perceptions that induce people tive to the position of other places. Distance, accessibility, and connec-
to leave their abode and migrate to a new locale. tivity affect relative location.

Quaternary economic activity Service sector industries concerned Religion Defined by geographers Robert Stoddard and Carolyn
with the collection, processing, and manipulation of information and Prorak in the book Geography in America as “a system of beliefs and prac-
capital. Examples include finance, administration, insurance, and legal tices that attempts to order life in terms of culturally perceived ultimate
services. priorities.”

Queer theory Theory defined by geographers Glen Elder, Lawrence Religious extremism Religious fundamentalism carried to the
Knopp, and Heidi Nast that highlights the contextual nature of opposi- point of violence.
tion to the heteronormative and focuses on the political engagement of
“queers” with the heteronormative. Religious fundamentalism Religious movement whose objectives
are to return to the foundations of the faith and to influence state policy.
Quinary economic activity Service sector industries that require a
high level of specialized knowledge or technical skill. Examples include Relocation diffusion Sequential diffusion process in which the items
scientific research and high-level management. being diffused are transmitted by their carrier agents as they evacuate
the old areas and relocate to new ones. The most common form of re-
Quotas Established limits by governments on the number of immi- location diffusion involves the spreading of innovations by a migrating
grants who can enter a country each year. population.

Race A categorization of humans based on skin color and other physi- Remittances Money migrants send back to family and friends in their
cal characteristics. Racial categories are social and political construc- home countries, often in cash, forming an important part of the econ-
tions because they are based on ideas that some biological differences omy in many poorer countries.
(especially skin color) are more important than others (e.g., height, etc.),
even though the latter might have more significance in terms of human Remote sensing A method of collecting data or information through
activity. With its roots in sixteenth-century England, the term is closely the use of instruments (e.g., satellites) that are physically distant from the
associated with European colonialism because of the impact of that de- area or object of study.
velopment on global understandings of racial differences.
Renewable resources Resources that can regenerate as they are
Racism Frequently referred to as a system or attitude toward visible exploited.
differences in individuals, racism is an ideology of difference that as-
cribes (predominantly negative) significance and meaning to culturally, Renfrew hypothesis Hypothesis developed by British scholar Colin
socially, and politically constructed ideas based on phenotypical features. Renfrew wherein he proposed that three areas in and near the first agri-
cultural hearth, the Fertile Crescent, gave rise to three language families:
Radioactive waste Hazardous-waste-emitting radiation from nuclear Europe’s Indo-European languages (from Anatolia [present-day Turkey]);
power plants, nuclear weapons factories, and nuclear equipment in hos- North African and Arabian languages (from the western arc of the Fertile
pitals and industry. Crescent); and the languages in present-day Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
and India (from the eastern arc of the Fertile Crescent).
Rank-size rule In a model urban hierarchy, the idea that the popula-
tion of a city or town will be inversely proportional to its rank in the Repatriation A refugee or group of refugees returning to their home
hierarchy. country, usually with the assistance of government or a non-governmental
organization.
Rare earth elements seventeen chemical elements that commonly
occur together but are difficult to separate. They are commonly used to Rescale Involvement of players at other scales to generate support for
make high tech electronics and weapons systems. a position or an initiative (e.g., use of the Internet to generate interest on
a national or global scale for a local position or initiative).
Reapportionment Process by which representative districts are
switched according to population shifts, so that each district encom- Residential segregation Defined by geographers Douglas Massey
passes approximately the same number of people. and Nancy Denton as the degree to which two or more groups live sepa-
rately from one another, in different parts of an urban environment.
Rectangular survey system Also called the Public Land Survey, the
system was used by the U.S. Land Office Survey to parcel land west of Restrictive population policies Government policies designed to re-
the Appalachian Mountains. The system divides land into a series of duce the rate of natural increase.
rectangular parcels.
Reterritorialization With respect to popular culture, when people
Redlining A discriminatory real estate practice in North America in within a place start to produce an aspect of popular culture themselves,
which members of minority groups are prevented from obtaining money doing so in the context of their local culture and making it their own.
to purchase homes or property in predominantly white neighborhoods.
The practice derived its name from the red lines depicted on cadastral Roman Catholic Church One of three major branches of
maps used by real estate agents and developers. Today, redlining is of- Christianity, the Roman Catholic Church, together with the Eastern
ficially illegal. Orthodox Church, a second of the three major branches of Christianity,
arose out of the division of the Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian
Reference maps Maps that show the absolute location of places and into four governmental regions: two western regions centered in Rome,
geographic features determined by a frame of reference, typically lati- and two eastern regions centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul,
tude and longitude. Turkey). In 1054 CE, Christianity was divided along that same line when

A-28 Glossary

the Eastern Orthodox Church, centered in Constantinople; and the These clearings are usually abandoned after a few years in favor of newly
Roman Catholic Church, centered in Rome, split. cleared forestland. Also known as slash-and-burn agriculture.

Romance languages Languages (French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, Shintoism Religion located in Japan and related to Buddhism.
and Portuguese) that lie in the areas that were once controlled by the Roman Shintoism focuses particularly on nature and ancestor worship.
Empire but were not subsequently overwhelmed.
Shiites Adherents of one of the two main divisions of Islam. Also
Root crop Crop that is reproduced by cultivating the roots of or the known as Shiahs, the Shiites represent the Persian (Iranian) variation of
cuttings from the plants. Islam and believe in the infallibility and divine right to authority of the
Imams, descendants of Ali.
Russification the Soviet policy to promote the diffusion of Russian
culture throughout the republics of the former Soviet Union. Site The internal physical attributes of a place, including its absolute
location, its spatial character and physical setting.
Rust belt a region in the northeastern United States that was once
characterized by industry. Now so-called because of the heavy deindus- Situation The external locational attributes of a place; its relative
trialization of the area. location or regional position with reference to other nonlocal places.

Sacred site Place or space people infuse with religious meaning. Slash-and-burn agriculture See shifting cultivation.

Sanitary landfills Disposal sites for non-hazardous solid waste that is Slavic languages Languages (Russian, Polish, Czech, Slovak,
spread in layers and compacted to the smallest practical volume. The sites Ukrainian, Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian) that developed as
are typically designed with floors made of materials to treat seeping liq- Slavic people migrated from a base in present-day Ukraine close to 2000
uids and are covered by soil as the wastes are compacted and deposited years ago.
into the landfill.
Social networks interconnections among individuals that foster social
Scale Representation of a real-world phenomenon at a certain level of interaction.
reduction or generalization. In cartography, the ratio of map distance to
ground distance; indicated on a map as a bar graph, representative frac- Social stratification One of two components, together with agri-
tion, and/or verbal statement. cultural surplus, which enables the formation of cities; the differ-
entiation of society into classes based on wealth, power, production,
Second Agricultural Revolution Dovetailing with and benefiting and prestige.
from the Industrial Revolution, the Second Agricultural Revolution
witnessed improved methods of cultivation, harvesting, and storage of Soil erosion The wearing away of the land surface by wind and mov-
farm produce. ing water.

Secondary economic activity Economic activity involving the pro- Solid waste Non-liquid, non-soluble materials ranging from munici-
cessing of raw materials and their transformation into finished industrial pal garbage to sewage sludge; agricultural refuse; and mining residues.
products; the manufacturing sector.
Sound shift Slight change in a word across languages within a sub-
Secondary hearth an early adopter of a cultural practice or trait that family or through a language family from the present backward toward
becomes a central locale from which the practice or trait further diffuses. its origin.

Secularism The idea that ethical and moral standards should be for- Sovereignty A principle of international relations that holds that final
mulated and adhered to for life on Earth, not to accommodate the pre- authority over social, economic, and political matters should rest with
scriptions of a deity and promises of a comfortable afterlife. A secular the legitimate rulers of independent states.
state is the opposite of a theocracy.
Space Defined by Doreen Massey and Pat Jess as “social relations
Seed crop Crop that is reproduced by cultivating the seeds of the plants. stretched out.”

Selective immigration Process to control immigration in which in- Spaces of consumption Areas of a city, the main purpose of which is
dividuals with certain backgrounds (i.e. criminal records, poor health, or to encourage people to consume goods and services; driven primarily by
subversive activities) are barred from immigrating. the global media industry.

Semi-periphery Places where core and periphery processes are both Spatial Pertaining to space on the Earth’s surface; sometimes used as a
occurring; places that are exploited by the core but in turn exploit the synonym for geographic.
periphery.
Spatial distribution Physical location of geographic phenomena across
Sense of place State of mind derived through the infusion of a place space.
with meaning and emotion by remembering important events that oc-
curred in that place or by labeling a place with a certain character. Spatial fix the movement of production from one site to another based
on the place-based cost advantages of the new site.
Sequent occupance The notion that successive societies leave their
cultural imprints on a place, each contributing to the cumulative cul- Spatial interaction See complementarity and intervening
tural landscape. opportunity.

Shamanism Community faith in traditional societies in which people Spatial perspective Observing variations in geographic phenomena
follow their shaman—a religious leader, teacher, healer, and visionary. across space.
At times, an especially strong shaman might attract a regional following.
However, most shamans remain local figures. Special Economic Zone (SEZ) Specific area within a country in
which tax incentives and less stringent environmental regulations are
Shantytown Unplanned slum development on the margins of cities, implemented to attract foreign business and investment.
dominated by crude dwellings and shelters made mostly of scrap wood,
iron, and even pieces of cardboard. Splitting In the context of determining representative districts, the
process by which the majority and minority populations are spread evenly
Sharia law The system of Islamic law, sometimes called Qu’ranic law. across each of the districts to be created therein ensuring control by the
Unlike most Western systems of law that are based on legal precedence, majority of each of the districts; as opposed to the result of majority-
Sharia is based on varying degrees of interpretation of the Qu’ran. minority districts.

Shifting cultivation Cultivation of crops in tropical forest clearings Standard language The variant of a language that a country’s politi-
in which the forest vegetation has been removed by cutting and burning. cal and intellectual elite seek to promote as the norm for use in schools,
government, the media, and other aspects of public life.

Glossary A-29

State A politically organized territory that is administered by a sover- Taoism Religion believed to have been founded by Lao-Tsu and
eign government and is recognized by a significant portion of the interna- based upon his book entitled “Tao-te-ching,” or “Book of the Way.”
tional community. A state has a defined territory, a permanent population, Lao-Tsu focused on the proper form of political rule and on the oneness
a government, and is recognized by other states. of humanity and nature.

Stateless nation Nation that does not have a state. Tear-downs Homes bought in many American suburbs with the in-
tent of tearing them down and replacing them with much larger homes
Stationary population level The level at which a national population often referred to as McMansions.
ceases to grow.
Technopole Centers or nodes of high-technology research and activ-
Step migration Migration to a distant destination that occurs in stages, ity around which a high-technology corridor is sometimes established.
for example, from farm to nearby village and later to town and city.
Tectonic plates large pieces of rock that form portions of the Earth’s
Stimulus diffusion A form of diffusion in which a cultural adaptation is mantle and crust and which are in motion.
created as a result of the introduction of a cultural trait from another place.
Territorial integrity The right of a state to defend soverign territory
Structural adjustment loans Loans granted by international finan- against incursion from other states.
cial institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary
Fund to countries in the periphery and the semi-periphery in ex- Territorial representation System wherein each representative is
change for certain economic and governmental reforms in that country elected from a territorially defined district.
(e.g. privatization of certain government entities and opening the coun-
try to foreign trade and investment). Territoriality In political geography, a country’s or more local com-
munity’s sense of property and attachment toward its territory, as ex-
Structuralist theory A general term for a model of economic devel- pressed by its determination to keep it inviolable and strongly defended.
opment that treats economic disparities among countries or regions as See more generally human territoriality.
the result of historically derived power relations within the global eco-
nomic system. Tertiary economic activity Economic activity associated with the
provision of services—such as transportation, banking, retailing, educa-
Subfamilies (language) Divisions within a language family where tion, and routine office-based jobs.
the commonalities are more definite and the origin is more recent.
Thematic maps Maps that tell stories, typically showing the degree of
Subsistence agriculture Self-sufficient agriculture that is small scale some attribute or the movement of a geographic phenomenon.
and low technology and emphasizes food production for local consump-
tion, not for trade. Theocracy A state whose government is under the control of a ruler
who is deemed to be divinely guided, or of a group of religious leaders,
Suburb A subsidiary urban area surrounding and connected to the as in post-Khomeini Iran. The opposite of a theocracy is a secular state.
central city. Many are exclusively residential; others have their own com-
mercial centers or shopping malls. Third Agricultural Revolution Currently in progress, the Third
Agricultural Revolution has as its principal orientation the development
Suburban downtown Significant concentration of diversified eco- of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).
nomic activities around a highly accessible suburban location, including
retailing, light industry, and a variety of major corporate and commer- Three-tier structure With reference to Immanuel Wallerstein’s
cial operations. Late-twentieth-century coequal to the American central world-systems theory, the division of the world into the core, the pe-
city’s Central Business District (CBD). riphery, and the semi-periphery as a means to help explain the inter-
connections between places in the global economy.
Suburbanization Movement of upper- and middle-class people from
urban core areas to the surrounding outskirts to escape pollution as Thunian pattern See Von Thunian Model.
well as deteriorating social conditions (perceived and actual). In North
America, the process began in the early nineteenth century and became a Time-Distance decay The declining degree of acceptance of an idea
mass phenomenon by the second half of the twentieth century. or innovation with increasing time and distance from its point of origin
or source.
Succession Process by which new immigrants to a city move to and
dominate or take over areas or neighborhoods occupied by older immi- Time-space compression A term associated with the work of David
grant groups. For example, in the early twentieth century, Puerto Ricans Harvey that refers to the social and psychological effects of living in a
“invaded” the immigrant Jewish neighborhood of East Harlem and suc- world in which time-space convergence has rapidly reached a high
cessfully took over the neighborhood or “succeeded” the immigrant level of intensity.
Jewish population as the dominant immigrant group in the neighborhood.
Time-space convergence A term coined by Donald Janelle that
Sunbelt The South and Southwest regions of the United States refers to the greatly accelerated movement of goods, information, and
ideas during the twentieth century made possible by technological in-
Sunbelt phenomenon The movement of millions of Americans from novations in transportation and communications.
northern and northeastern States to the South and Southwest regions
(Sunbelt) of the United States. Toponym Place name.

Sunnis Adherents to the largest branch of Islam, called the orthodox Total Fertility Rate (TFR) the average number of children born to a
or traditionalist. They believe in the effectiveness of family and commu- woman during her childbearing years.
nity in the solution of life’s problems, and they differ from the Shiites in
accepting the traditions (sunna) of Muhammad as authoritative. Township-and-range system A rectangular land division scheme de-
signed by Thomas Jefferson to disperse settlers evenly across farmlands
Supranational organization A venture involving three or more of the U.S. interior. See also rectangular survey system.
nation-states involving formal political, economic, and/or cultural
cooperation to promote shared objectives. The European Union is Toxic waste Hazardous waste causing danger from chemicals and in-
one such organization. fectious organisms.

Synekism the possibility of change that results from people living to- Trade area Region adjacent to every town and city within which its
gether in cities. influence is dominant.

Synergy The cross-promotion of vertically-integrated goods. Traditional Term used in various contexts (e.g., traditional religion) to
indicate originality within a culture or long-term part of an indigenous
society. It is the opposite of modernized, superimposed, or changed; it
denotes continuity and historic association.

A-30 Glossary

Trafficking When a family sends a child or an adult to a labor re- Vectored disease A disease carried from one host to another by an
cruiter in hopes that the labor recruiter will send money, and the family intermediate host.
member will earn money to send home.
Vertical integration Ownership by the same firm of a number of
Transhumance A seasonal periodic movement of pastoralists and companies that exist along a variety of points on a commodity chain.
their livestock between highland and lowland pastures.
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer The
Unilateralism World order in which one state is in a position of dom- first international convention aimed at addressing the issue of ozone
inance with allies following rather than joining the political decision- depletion. Held in 1985, the Vienna Convention was the predecessor to
making process. the Montreal Protocol.

Unitary (state) A nation-state that has a centralized government and Voluntary migration Movement in which people relocate in re-
administration that exercises power equally over all parts of the state. sponse to perceived opportunity, not because they are forced to move.

Universalizing religion A belief system that espouses the idea that Von Thünen Model A model that explains the location of agricultural
there is one true religion that is universal in scope. Adherents of univer- activities in a commercial, profit-making economy. A process of spatial
salizing religious systems often believe that their religion represents uni- competition allocates various farming activities into rings around a cen-
versal truths, and in some cases great effort is undertaken in evangelism tral market city, with profit-earning capability the determining force in
and missionary work. how far a crop locates from the market.

Urban (area) The entire built-up, nonrural area and its population, Washington Consensus Label used to refer to the following fundam-
including the most recently constructed suburban appendages. Provides netal principles of free trade: 1) that free trade raises the well-being of all
a better picture of the dimensions and population of such an area than countries by inducing them to devote their resources to production of
the delimited municipality (central city) that forms its heart. those goods they produce relatively most efficiently; and 2) that compe-
tition through trade raises a country’s long-term growth rate by expand-
Urban hierarchy A ranking of settlements (hamlet, village, town, city, ing access to global technologies and promoting innovation.
metropolis) according to their size and economic functions.
Wisconsinan Glaciation The most recent glacial period of the
Urban morphology The study of the physical form and structure of Pleistocene, enduring about 100,000 years and giving way, beginning
urban places. about 18,000 years ago, to the current interglacial, the Holocene.

Urban realm A spatial generalization of the large, late-twentieth- World city Dominant city in terms of its role in the global political
century city in the United States. It is shown to be a widely dispersed, economy. Not the world’s biggest city in terms of population or indus-
multicentered metropolis consisting of increasingly independent zones trial output, but rather centers of strategic control of the world economy.
or realms, each focused on its own suburban downtown; the only ex-
ception is the shrunken central realm, which is focused on the Central World-systems theory Theory originated by Immanuel Wallerstein
Business District (CBD). and illuminated by his three-tier structure, proposing that social
change in the developing world is inextricably linked to the economic
Urban sprawl Unrestricted growth in many American urban areas activities of the developed world.
of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of
land, with little concern for urban planning. Zero population growth a state in which a population is maintained
at a constant level because the number of deaths is exactly offset by the
Urbanization A term with several connotations. The proportion of a number of births.
country’s population living in urban places is its level of urbanization.
The process of urbanization involves the movement of people to, and Zionism The movement to unite the Jewish people of the diaspora
the clustering of people in, towns and cities—a major force in every and to establish a national homeland for them in the promised land.
geographic realm today. Another kind of urbanization occurs when an
expanding city absorbs the rural countryside and transforms it into sub- Zone Area of a city with a relatively uniform land use (e.g. an indus-
urbs; in the case of cities in the developing world, this also generates trial zone, or a residential zone).
peripheral shantytowns.
Zoning laws Legal restrictions on land use that determine what types
Variable costs Costs that change directly with the amount of produc- of building and economic activities are allowed to take place in certain
tion (e.g. energy supply and labor costs). areas. In the United States, areas are most commonly divided into sepa-
rate zones of residential, retail, or industrial use.

References DAPPENDIX

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