Advanced Placement English Language

in futur subsequently

from Place beyond
over where around
here in the middle near
in front of there farther
here and there in the distance below
above betwee
at the right n
before beside
in the foreground
whenever on this side
opposite

Reason, Condition, Purpose and Result

inevitably inasmuch as in order that

as a result under these conditions because

for this purpose in this way since

hence if> thus

provided that so that for this reason

therefore granted that on thaat account

admittedly notwithstanding in case that

with a view to unless consequently

on account of owing to accordingly

TRANSITIONS

An essay without effective transitions is like a series of isolated islands. The reader will struggle to get from one
point to the next. Use transitions as bridges between your ideas.

What are transitions and how are they used?
¾ Transitions are phrases or words used to connect one idea to the next.
¾ Transitions are used by the author to help the reader progress from one significant idea to the next; in other
words, they make an essay coherent.
¾ Transitions also show the relationship between the main idea and the support the author gives for those
ideas within a paragraph (or even within a sentence).
¾ Transitions have a variety of specific uses.

1) Transitions within paragraphs
Within a single paragraph, transitions, such as single words or short phrases, help the reader anticipate what will
come next. The transition may signal an additional or similar piece of information, or it may prepare the reader for a
change or exception to previously stated information.
For example:

Mary Cassatt, one of the few female Impressionist painters, lived in France although she was of American
descent. Unlike her fellow painters, who chose landscapes as their primary medium, Cassatt's main subjects
were her immediate family. In fact, her nieces and nephews were captured in many of her most famous
works of art.

2) Transitions between paragraphs
Transitions between paragraphs serve as connections between old and new information. A word, a phrase, or a
sentence signals to the reader that something different is coming and transitions the reader from old to new
information.
For example:

Mary Cassatt, one of the few female Impressionist painters, lived in France although she was of American
descent. Unlike her fellow painters who chose landscapes as their primary medium, Cassatt's main subjects
were her immediate family. In fact, her nieces and nephews were captured in many of her most famous
works of art.
For instance, the painting, Mother with Child, shows Cassatt's sister bathing her child. This painting not
only illustrates Cassatt's use of her family as subjects, but also highlights the theme of mother and child.
The closeness of the mother with her child remains a constant theme of Cassatt's painting and sketching
throughout the Impressionist period.

Note: The first sentence of the second paragraph draws the reader's attention to a new idea, a specific example in
this case. The following sentence repeats a familiar theme (family members) from the first paragraph and then
introduces a new idea (mother and child).

ADDITIVE TRANSITIONS: These show addition, introduction, or similarity to other ideas.
Words that show Addition relationships:

additionally, also, moreover, not to mention, in addition, furthermore, further, and, too, either (neither),
besides, not only , but also, as well, or, alternatively, nor, on the other hand, in fact, as a matter of fact, to
say nothing of, actually, indeed, let alone, much less

Words that Introduce:

such as, for example, for instance, as, like, especially, particularly, in particular, notably, including, as an
illustration, to illustrate

Words that Reference:

speaking about, as for, considering, concerning, regarding, on the subject of, with regard to, the fact that

Words that show Similarity:

similarly, likewise, in the same way, in a like manner, by the same token, equally

Words that Identify:

that is, namely, specifically, thus

Words that show Clarification:

that is (to say), in other words, put another way

ADVERSATIVE TRANSITIONS: These transitions are used to signal conflict, contradiction concession,

or dismissal.

Conflict:

but, however, in contrast, by way of contrast, (and) yet, when in fact, while, whereas, conversely, on the
other hand, though (final position), still

Emphasis:

even more, above all, indeed, more importantly, besides, surely, indeed, in fact, truly

Concession:

but even so, however, still, yet, nevertheless, nonetheless, although, though, even though, on the other
hand, despite, in spite of, regardless, notwithstanding, be that as it may, granted, admittedly, albeit

Dismissal:

either way, in either case, in either event, all the same, in any case, in any event, at any rate

Replacement:

(or) at least, (or) rather, instead

CAUSAL TRANSITIONS: These transitions signal cause/effect and reason/result.
Cause/Reason:

seeing that, since, as, inasmuch as, forasmuch as, because, due to, in view of, owing to, for the (simple)
reason that, for, in that

Condition:

if, in case, provided, providing, on (the) condition, in the event that, given that, granted, granting, as/so
long as, even if, only if, unless

Effect/Result:

so that, so, so much (so) that, for this reason, as a result, because, therefore, consequently, as a
consequence, thus, hence, in consequence, accordingly

Purpose:

so, so as to, so that, in order to, in order that, with this in mind, with this intention, in the hope that, for the
purpose of, to the end that, for fear that, lest

Consequence:

then, if so, in that case, under those circumstances, if not, otherwise

SEQUENTIAL TRANSITIONS: These transitions are used to signal a chronological or logical sequence.
Numerical:

in the (first, second, etc.) place, initially, secondly, at first, to start with, to begin with, for a start, first of all

Continuation:

previously, afterwards, eventually, subsequently, next, then

Conclusion:

finally, eventually, at last, in the end, at last, last but not least, as a final point, lastly

Summation:

to sum up, given these points, therefore, consequently, thus, hence, on the whole, altogether, in all, all in
all, overall, in short, in a word, truly

Embedding Quotes

The best way to include quotes is by integrating them smoothly into your
own sentences. (i.e., embedding, incorporating)

Quotation = any word, phrase, sentence or passage that you would copy
from the story.

Bad: “The author uses the words “rigid, arrested and thinning” to show his
opinion.

Better: “The snake “lay rigid,” “arrested” in time and place in the “thinning”
light of the desert.”

Better: “In recognizing “the other” who “lay rigid, and was “as suddenly
arrested,” the author reveals the equality with which he holds the rattler in
the pursuit of self-defense.”

If you change the form of the quote or add words of your own to the original
citation, you must enclose those words in brackets to show your reader what
you did.

Ex: The snake “lay rigid,” “arrested” in time and place as the light
“[thinned]” in the desert.

Argumentation

The ability to advance sound argument is an important skill not only for the A.P. exam but in
everyday life. Becoming skilled in clear, logical reasoning can aid you in seeing faulty
arguments in the news, advertising, business, political speeches, and personal relationships.
Argumentation advances a controversial point – one that not everyone will be inclined to accept.
Arguable assertions may be supported with several kinds of evidence. Without evidence, writers
have no argument. Specific information as discussed gives weight to general or abstract
assertions. In addition, as critical writers and readers, students should consider the following
sorts of evidence:

EVIDENCE FOR ARGUMENT

Facts: verifiable statements
Statistics: facts expressed in numbers
Examples: specific cases covered by an assertion
Expert Opinion: judgments of authority
Appeals: to readers’ beliefs and needs

Kinds of Evidence:

Facts – statements that can be verified by checking the right sources
□ Richard Caswell was the first governor of North Carolina.
□ Nuclear reactors used in the United States consist of three main parts: the reactor, the
core and the control rods.

Statistics – facts that use numbers
□ Each year, children in the United States consume juice drinks in about four billion of
those little individual boxes, which, because they are not recyclable, end up in landfills
and take about 300 years to decompose.

Examples – specific instances that illustrate a point.
The student-written paragraph under “expert opinion” (below) has an instance of example.

Expert Opinion – recognized authorities in a given field who can speak knowledgeably and
reliably on the subject.

□ As a professional writer for twenty-five years, Dorothy Canfield Fisher has earned her
right to be an authority on theme writing. She targets the beginning writer by assuring
him that almost all authors are at first stymied. One should just start to write. Continue
to write as much as one can is her advice. When I am at a loss for ideas, I also write
everything I can and then I go back and use bits and pieces.

Appeals to beliefs or needs – asks readers to accept assertions because they coincide with
something the readers know or believe to be true. They are generally used in combination with

other types of evidence. The following appeal counts on the reader’s desire to the socially
correct thing.
It is sometimes necessary or desirable to use euphemisms. The term “correctional institution”
avoids the negative connotations of “prison” and speaking of the “passing on” of someone’s dear
departed relative is kinder than talking about her death.

THE RELIABILITY OF EVIDENCE:

To work effectively, evidence must meet four criteria. It must be

ƒ Accurate – correctly reported, drawn from a reliable source, quote exactly, and undistorted
in meaning.

ƒ Relevant – relating directly to the point and drawn from a source with authority on the
topic.

ƒ Representative – accurately reflecting the sample from which it is said to be drawn.
ƒ Adequate – sufficient and specific enough to justify your conclusions.

In the following paragraph, the evidence from the American Bar Association could be checked
for accuracy, and it is directly relevant to the assertion about laws regulating AIDS transmittal.
Readers could question whether the single expert opinion is representative and adequate for
supporting the assertion.

□ Additional laws regulating transmittal of AIDS virus are not needed. The
criminal justice system already has sufficient power to deal with those who might
recklessly endanger others through their actions. This position is supported by a
report of the American Bar Association, which has concluded that existing
legislation is adequate for combating the AIDS epidemic and that additional
measures to criminalize HIV transmission would be redundant.

(Source: AP workshop – October 1998 – Ft. Lauderdale, FL)

A.P. English Language General Terms in Argumentation
Ms. Walz

1. Argument: a process in which a speaker, writer, or artist tries to elicit a desired response
from an audience by identifying commonalities in the interests of both parties

2. Assertion: conclusion one draws based on some combination of reasons and assumptions
3. Assumption: provides the connection between the evidence or proof and the conclusions

drawn from the proof (the unseen glue in an argument)
4. Thesis: the main assertion in an argument
5. Claim: an assertion
6. Summary: key ideas from an argument
7. Premise: another word for assumption and reasons (formal logic)
8. Definition of terms: explaining or clarifying a word or expression
9. Analogy: suggestion that two ideas, situations, are comparable in a certain way.
10. Syllogism: classic outline of deduction used to test the logic of an argument
11. Enthymene: a compact deductive argument
12. Deductive: a method of organizing arguments by drawing a conclusion based on a general

principle (such as the Declaration of Independence)
13. Inductive: a method of organizing an argument by generalizing from the specific data
14. Least-to-most important in organization: starts with less strong assertion and builds up to

the strongest ones in order to establish a sense of momentum and emphasize the most
important points.
15. Conclusion: a third statement produced from two statements or propositions taken to be true
16. Inference: conclusion reached from something known and going on to something not fully
known or observed
17. Rebuttal: proof that an argument or statement is wrong; the answer to an assumption, point
of view, or statement with which one disagrees

Errors in Logic:
18. Faulty assumption: an incorrect connection between the evidence and the conclusion
19. False dilemma: an either-or situation in which the writer implies that we have only two

choices
20. Equivocation: two meanings at the same time in one word or phrase
21. Begging the question: assuming something as a given that has not been proved
22. Ad hominem: the writer attacts an individual holding the position rather than the position

itself
23. Red herring: a distraction inserted into an argument
24. Non sequitur: an erroneous connection between the evidence and the conclusion

APPEALING TO YOUR AUDIENCE

When analyzing someone else’s argument or constructing your own, always ask yourself
these questions: Who is the speaker? Who is the speaker or author’s intended audience?
How do I know who the audience is? How has the audience influenced the speaker or
author’s choice of argumentative strategies?

PATHOS - EMOTIONAL
Arguments from the heart are designed to appeal to audience’s emotions and feelings.
Emotions can direct people in powerful ways to think more carefully about what they do.
In hearing or reading an argument that is heavy on emotional appeals, ask yourself these
questions: How is the speaker or author appealing to the audience’s emotions? Why?
Always try to name the emotions being appealed to (love, sympathy, anger, fear, hate,
patriotism, compassion) and figure out how the emotion is being created in the audience.

Emotional appeals are often just examples - ones chosen to awaken specific feelings in
an audience. Although frequently abused, the emotional appeal is a legitimate aspect of
argument, for speakers and authors want their audience to care about the issues they
address.

Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used in this type of appeal:
• moving stories and anecdotes that prove your opinion
• using emotional language or “catchy words” to appeal to people’ s values or

guilty consciences or vivid description.
• slanting . Omitting or not using information that may conflict with or weaken the

author’s opinion.
• predicting extreme outcomes of events/dire predication in order to create a

sense of urgency
specific examples

LOGOS - LOGICAL
Loosely defined, logos refers to the use of logic, reasons, facts, statistics, data, and
numbers.

Logical appeals are aimed at the mind of the audience, their thinking side. Very often,
logos seems tangible and touchable. When a speaker or writer uses logical appeals, he
or she will avoid inflammatory language, and the writer will carefully connect its reasons
to supporting evidence. Ask yourself why the author or speaker is using logos?

Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used in this type of appeal:
• logical reasons why your audience should believe you (keep in mind that not all
reasons are equally persuasive for all audiences).
• evidence that proves or explains your reasons
~ facts–using information that can be checked by testing, observing firsthand,
or reading reference materials to support an opinion.
~ statistics–percentages, numbers, and charts to highlight significant data

~ expert opinion––statements by people who are recognized as authorities on
the subject.
~ examples-giving examples that support each reason
~ use of cause and effect, compare and contrast, and analogy

ETHOS – ETHICAL
Ethical appeals depend on the credibility or training of the author. Audiences tend to
believe writers who seem honest, wise, and trustworthy. An author or speaker exerts
ethical appeal when the language itself impresses the audience that the speaker is a
person of intelligence, high moral character and good will. Thus a person wholly
unknown to an audience can by words alone win that audience’s trust and approval.
Aristotle emphasized the importance of impressing upon the audience that the speaker is
a person of good sense and high moral character.

ORGANIZATION
Organization is critical because without it, the reader will lose sight of the main issue or
argument. The most common method of organization is (1) State a thesis that is the
opening statement of the author’s opinion or position on an issue. (2) Support that point
of view with more than one argument and solid evidence (3) Give a summary of the
writer’s argument – ending perhaps with a call to action.

Other methods of organizing persuasive writing include:
9 State a thesis then refute it
9 State a thesis, refute the other side, and then support your side with evidence
9 Suggest possibilities and dismiss all but one
9 Pose a problem and solve it
9 Form a hypothesis and test its implications
9 Tell a story that has a strong argument
9 Narrate several unrelated episodes and link them in a surprising way

THE OTHER SIDE
When writing a persuasive essay, you need to look at the other side of your issue. There
are two possible ways to do this: refute and concede-counter. Refute is when you
disprove or rebut the other side. A concede-counter gives in to one or two points on the
other side and then refuting the stance of the opposition. Does your essay acknowledge
the opposition and provide evidence to refute that opposition?

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Authority
• cites an authority who is not qualified to have an expert opinion.
• cites an expert when other experts disagree on the issue.
• cites an expert by hearsay only.
"Firemen support Jones as the best choice for our town's future."
(Firemen would be experts only on the town's fire safety.)

Appeal to Force
• predicts dangerous outcomes if you follow a course other than the speaker's.
"This kind of economic policy will lose you your job - and hurt your children's future."
(Is there evidence that it might actually build prosperity and bring additional jobs?)

Appeal to Popularity
• also known as "Bandwagon"
• holds an opinion to be valuable because large numbers of people support it.
"Polls show that Americans prefer their current health care system."
(Are there options? Could a majority be missing the boat?)

Attacking the Person
• also known as "Ad Hominem"
• attacks the person making the argument instead of the argument.
• attacks the person making the argument because of those with whom he associates.
• insinuates that the person making the argument would stand to gain by it.
"Certainly he's in favor of a single tax - he's rich!"
(But could it be that a single tax might benefit others too?)

False Dilemma
• offers a limited number of options - usually two - when there are really more choices.
"Either we continue the failed war against drugs and lose another generation or make marijuana legal.”
(Are there other ways to deal with the drug issue?)

Hasty Generalization
• uses a sample too small to support the conclusion.
"We've seen here in Smallville's widget factory that free trade doesn't help the American worker."
(How about the millions of American workers elsewhere?)

Slippery Slope
• threatens a series of increasingly dire consequences from taking a simpler course of action.
"First it's gun show laws, and then they'll come to confiscate all guns, and then we lose democracy
altogether."
(Do gun laws do imply eventual confiscation?)

A.P. English Language Format

and Composition • Extra 15 minutes - timed
• Access to Questions (all essay prompts)
Synthesis Question
and all Sources for Synthesis
• First Question in packet in Synthesis
• Access to writing packet only after 15 min
• Most likely, asking for an argument or

position on topic addressed in sources.

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Sources Types of Sources

• Six to eight sources • News articles
• Texts of no longer than one page • Opinion articles
• At least one graphic, chart, cartoon or • Graphics
• Charts
other visual • Political Cartoons
• Transcripts (interview)
• Speeches (text)

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Synthesize the Argument Distinctions

• Use a minimum of three Sources to • Use the Sources as your evidence
support your position • Bring in other relevant details as support
• Use a MINIMUM of three sources
• Clearly cite your Sources in the essay; • Clearly identify the sources (Source A,
e.g., Source A, Source B, Source C
Source B, etc…)
• Cite the Source at the end of a direct or
partial quote.

• Cite the Source at the end of a paraphrase

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Savvy Writers Six-Part Approach

• converse with sources • Read,
• incorporate (literally: em-body) them in • Analyze,
• Generalize,
their argument • Converse,
• Finesse, and
• Argue

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Read… and Analyze Generalize

• Use 15 minutes to read/analyze sources • Generalize about potential stands on the
issue
• Read and write on the cover sheet
• Consider possible positions; select a
• Annotate the sources themselves strong one

• Analyze the argument each source is • Resists the temptation to oversimplify the
making issue

• Consider: claim, data/evidence, and • Given thought to the nuances, the
assumptions or beliefs that warrant the complexities of the assigned topic
claim (Toulmin argument analysis)

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Converse Finesse

• Imagine presenting each of the best • Finesse, refine, the point about the issue
positions on the issue to each of the to create a central proposition, a thesis
authors of the provided sources
• Proposition or thesis should appear
• Create an imaginary conversation with the quickly - after one or two sentences that
author/creator of the source contextualize the issue for the reader

• Would the author/creator agree? Why? • Proposition should be as complex and
Disagree? Why? Want to qualify it in some robust as the topic requires.
way? Why and how?

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Argue Conclusion

• Argue your position • Include a brief conclusion
• Recreate your “conversations” • Try to come full-circle to the original
• Feel free to say things like, "Source A
position statement
takes a position similar to mine," or • Avoid merely restating the thesis
"Source C would oppose my position, but
here's why I still maintain its validity," or
"Source E offers a slightly different
perspective, one that I would alter a bit."

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3

THE SYNTHESIS ESSAY

WHAT IS A SYNTHESIS ESSAY?
A synthesis essay draws on two or more sources and combines their ideas into a coherent whole.

WHAT DO I NEED TO DO TO WRITE ONE?
Writing a successful synthesis essay will require you to do four things:

1. read accurately and objectively,
2. see relations among different viewpoints,
3. define a thesis based on these relations,
4. support the thesis effectively.

You will not discuss all the points in every essay; but you should use every essay assigned, and
you should use points from each that are appropriate for the thesis of your own essay.

THIS LOOKS KIND OF HARD. HOW DO I WRITE IT?
A synthesis essay may be developed in several ways, including the following:

Thesis supported by examples. Develop a thesis based on common points among the works,
and Support the thesis with appropriate examples from each work. This strategy works well with
essays that approach a subject from highly diverse viewpoints.

Comparison and contrast. Discuss the similarities and differences in the writers' viewpoints
and draw whatever conclusions are possible from your comparison.

Argument. If you have a clearly defined opinion about the subject, support that opinion by
incorporating the valid viewpoints of the writers of the essays you have selected, and show the
weaknesses of those ideas which you feel are not valid.

WHAT STEPS SHOULD I TAKE TO WRITING THIS ESSAY?
Consider using the following procedure for writing your essay:

1. Read carefully. First, skimming through the readings and look for similar issues in each essay.
Reflect on those issues, and jot down your ideas. Reread and decide on one topic that will unify
your essay. Note each essay's thesis and main points. Finally, take notes.

2. Next, determine your thesis. A thesis is a direct statement of a main issue or idea that you've
developed from studying the essays. If you're writing a comparison-contrast essay, your thesis
may explain the main points of agreement and disagreement among the writers you're dealing
with. If you're writing a thesis-with-examples essay, your thesis may state the main idea you've
developed from your readings, which will be supported with examples from the readings in the
body of your essay. If you're writing an argument, your thesis will state your opinion about the
subject and will indicate that you'll be supporting your views through an analysis of the essays.

3. Then, organize your essay with your thesis in mind. The type of organization you use depends
on your thesis, but in general you should be able to use either block-by-block or point-by-point
organization with any of the essay types.

4. Write a rough draft after you've decided on the organization you'll be using. Here are some
pointers: Early in your paper, mention the titles and authors of the essays you will be discussing.
Quote or paraphrase brief passages from the essays to show how the essays illustrate, agree with,
or disagree with each point you make. Whenever you quote or paraphrase, cite the author
properly.

5. And finally, REVISE. Remember: All good writing is rewriting.

YEESH. I STILL HAVE NO IDEA WHAT THIS THING IS SUPPOSED TO BE LIKE.

The synthesis essay is one of the most difficult essays to write. It can be very confusing and the
assignment can be hard to understand.

EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT WRITING THE
EXEMPLARY AP MULTI-PARAGRAPH ESSAY

How to improve your essay writing grade:
1. Vocabulary: more precise, descriptive, elevated
2. Effectively written thesis that precisely and interpretively answers the prompt
3. Insight: more commentary (CM) that reveals your analysis of the material
4. Precise concrete detail (CD) references from the text
5. Word Count: generally speaking, write more for every assignment (except when given an
exact word count). The easiest way to do this is to vary your sentence structure and use
more compound, complex, and compound/complex sentences.

Suggestions for effective THESIS in a prose analysis prompt:
The author (name) challenges, attacks, laments, clarifies, explores, exposes, etc (be sure to
use an action verb) (WHATEVER?????) in order to (now use a second action verb) reveal,
differentiate, provoke, raise awareness of, etc. ________________.

EXAMPLE:
Chinua Achebe in Things Fall Apart exposes the inner feelings of the main character
Okonkowo in order to reveal that this is more than just an African novel, but also a timeless
one that confronts all mankind with the essentials of its humanity.

If a student chooses to follow formulaic writing, body paragraphs would be constructed as follows:
NOTE: if a student wishes to write organically, he/she should still ensure that adequate CD and CM
is included in each and every body paragraph. Specifics will make your writing stronger.

1. TS: topic sentence: provides evidence relating to thesis of the essay
2. CD: For example, (a fact, quote, or paraphrase that supports topic sentence #1)\
3. CM: This shows that…CM sentence #3 comments about CD#2
4. CM: It also shows.., CM sentence #4 says more about sentence #3
5. CD: In addition, (another fact, quote, or paraphrase that supports topic sentence #1)\
6. CM: This shows that…CM sentence #6 comments about CD#5
7. CM: It also shows.., CM sentence #7 says more about sentence #6
8. CD: Furthermore, (another fact, quote, or paraphrase that supports topic sentence #1)\
9. CM: This shows that…CM sentence #9 comments about CD#8
10. CM: It also shows… CM sentence #10 says more about sentence #9
11. CS: As a result… ALL commentary. Do not copy or use the same words as in the TS. The

concluding sentence of the paragraph should give a finished feeling.

*Hint: Think of the CD as the “play-by-play” given by a sports announcer
Think of the CM as the “color commentary” given by a sports announcer

Helpful Hint: Write in the literary present tense
# Another Helpful Hint: Be organized and be sure to use transitions.

Weaving: To break away from the formula:
1. Play with vocabulary in concrete detail and add commentary words.

2. Delete the transition device and capitalize the next word; for example, delete “For example”
and “As a result”

3. Flip sentences around to see which way flows the best. Change CD, CM, CM to CM CD
CM

4. Chart possible CDs and CMs for topic. Put them together the way you want, but check all
CD words and phrases to ensure that the proper ratio of CD to CM exists.

EXAMPLE: If your body paragraph is about DICTION and is only 8 sentences1:

1. TS: The author’s diction gives insight into the formality that Captain MacWhirr assumed to
escape childhood memories.

2. CD: His ship was his “abode of harmony and peace,” his respite from “the ant-heap of the
earth” as he led a “bare existence.”

3. CM: MacWhirr ran away from his parents and their judgment of his failure to the archetypal
symbol of a mother’s womb-of the sea.

4. CM: There, he lived simply and contentedly, away from the artificiality of society.

5. CD: His “flight of fancy” was merely one to achieve greater peace, away from his father’s
“sly chaffing” to which he always responded with “undutiful stupidity.”

6. CM: Although his parents viewed his departure as a foolish, adolescent decision, MacWhirr
knew he was escaping the constant, subtle criticism that his father doled out.

7. CM: He remembered as well how he always failed to win his father’s approval and love.

8. CS: At the end of the passage, it was MacWhirr who lived a fruitful and rewarding life; at
his funeral, more would be said than simply, “and then he died.”

More Helpful Hints:
• Don’t mention the literary or rhetorical device repeatedly throughout the paragraph—discuss the

work!!
• Be very specific with your examples/CD and discuss the purpose—how does it relate/prove

your thesis?
• An author will use a literary or rhetorical device to express point of view, further the narrative,

develop a character, express a theme, reveal an argument, persuade an audience, etc.. He/She
does not use diction to make the work more interesting to the reader , unless the purpose is to
convince or persuade the reader on a topic. For example, an author may use an image to reveal
something about a character, not to “put pictures into the reader’s mind.”
• Don’t forget the main idea of the work or passage you’re writing about—listing devices is not
sufficient—what is the PURPOSE for the literary/rhetorical devices? What does it all mean?
What’s the point?

1 From Jane Schaffer’s Style Analysis Packet

Top Ten Mistakes

Many students, and some teachers, think of language as a fixed logical structure with timeless
rules. A guide such as this one that presumes to teach the "right" way to write for college may
well reinforce this view of an eternal, ideal language. But such a view misunderstands what
language is. Language, our species' greatest invention, is a rich, rough-and-tumble, and ever-
changing mix of formal rules and informal custom. In a broad sense usage is always logical, but
the logic of rhetoricians (who have traditionally tried to base all their rules for English on how
Latin works) and of a living language can be quite different.
Things that were once against the rules gradually win popular
acceptance to the point that they become part of "standard
English"; other things, once respectable English, are gradually
driven into disrepute by scholarly opinion.

An example: double negatives as a way of emphasizing negation have a long history in educated
English, stretching back to the time of Chaucer. But in the 18th century classically-oriented
grammarians, aware that in Latin double negatives cancel out, applied the same rule to English:
"Two negatives in English destroy one another, or are equivalent to an affirmative" (Robert
Lowth, A Short Introduction to English Grammar, 1762). Today most people accept this Latinate
logic unquestioningly, though it has been observed that a different logic, that of algebra (-1 + -1
= -2), would support the old sense of amplified negation. The grammarians have driven the
poor old double negative into the gutter. It is not recommended for formal writing.

Thus there is an element of artificiality in any list of the leading mistakes in English. The list
presented here would undoubtedly change over time. Apostrophes, for instance, are probably on
the way out, in the judgment of most language scholars today. But they're not gone yet, and the
audience for formal college English tends to be conservative. Thus the wisest course is to give
your readers what they are used to in terms of usage.

And now, the Nuts and Bolts top-ten list of usage mistakes in student essays.

10. Apostrophes

Apostrophes have two functions: to show contractions (I won't) and possession (Shakespeare's
tragedy). They are not used to show the plural of a noun:

WRONG RIGHT

Many have criticized the degree to which Many have criticized the degree to which
American's revere personal freedom. Americans revere personal freedom.

Machiavelli uses stories of actual prince's to Machiavelli uses stories of actual princes to
support his argument. support his argument.

Contractions are acceptable in academic writing, though since some teachers disagree you may
have to adapt to different requirements. The main problem apostrophes present for students is in
showing possession. The rule is simple, mostly—use an apostrophe followed by s for singular
nouns, and an apostrophe alone for plurals:

WRONG RIGHT

The Prime Ministers memoirs contain The Prime Minister's memoirs contain
numerous inaccuracies. numerous inaccuracies.

For now, the conspirators aspirations survive. For now, the conspirators' aspirations survive.

Some writers use an apostrophe alone for nouns ending in s or z (as I did with species, above),
especially when the next word begins with the same sound. But many teachers will mark this as
wrong.

There is one case where it is preferable to use an apostrophe without an s: for multisyllabic
names ending in s or z, especially those of biblical and classical origin:

Moses' leadership

Socrates' wisdom

Jesus' teachings

9. Nouns ending in y

Nouns ending in y often produce similar confusion with regard to possession. If you want to talk
about something belonging to a country, for instance, write country's, not countries.

8. Conjunction confusion

Conjunctions like and, but and for join independent clauses: I studied for hours but he never
opened a book—and we both got A's. Students often use however, therefore, and thus as if they
were conjunctions, too, but they are not. They're adverbs, and can't connect independent
clauses—you'll still need a semicolon or period.

WRONG RIGHT

Truth is a good thing, however it is not the Truth is a good thing; however, it is not the
highest political good. highest political good.

It's usually more graceful, however, to place however, therefore, and similar words not right at
the beginning but at some convenient pause later on:

Truth is a good thing; it is not, however, the highest political good.

7. Infamy and notoriety

Infamous is not a fancy way of saying famous. It means quite the opposite: famously wicked or
bad. Churchill was famous; Hitler was infamous.

Likewise, notoriety doesn't mean just being widely known—it means being known for being bad
(though in British as opposed to American usage this distinction doesn't hold). Calling someone
with a record of hefty contributions to charity "a notorious altruist" is a gaffe.

WRONG RIGHT

Although point-of-sales (POS) equipment was Although point-of-sales (POS) equipment was
introduced over two decades ago it is only introduced over two decades ago it is only
now receiving the notoriety it deserves. now receiving the attention it deserves.

6. Cannot

One word, not two (not can not).

5. Affect and effect

Many writers confuse these two words. The common mistake is to use effect when you should
use affect, typically when using it as a verb. Effect can be used as a verb, but its meaning is
restricted, and is synonymous with produce:

She effected a change in the way the IRS conducted its audits.

For the sense of to have an effect upon, use affect:

She affected the IRS's procedures.

WRONG RIGHT

A legacy of foreign rule significantly effects a A legacy of foreign rule significantly affects a

nation's political culture. nation's political culture.

4. Intents and purposes