ORIENTALIST MOTIVATIONS: A STUDY OF SUBJECTIVITY 331
Wasn't it true that Silvestre de Sacy, Edward Lane, Ernest Renan,
Hamilton Gibb, and Louis Massignon were learned, objective scholars,
and isn't it true that following upon all sorts of advances in twentieth-
century sociology, anthropology, linguistics, and history, American
scholars who teach the Middle East and Islam in places like Princeton,
Harvard, and Chicago are therefore unbiased and free of special
pleading in what they do? The answer is no. 34
Everything about the study of Islam today remains drenched in political
expediency and pressure; articles, reviews, and books drip with political im-
portance even while their authors bury their ill feelings beneath a jargon
of 'scientificimpartiality' and use their university tides to dismissany ulterior
motivea"
4. Pressures andMotives
Orientalist theories are born not in a vacuum, but in a world of pressing
political needs which mould and colour everything about them; let us
inspect how these needs have shifted over time.
i. Colonialism and the Demoralisation of Muslims
Grasping Western motives necessitates that we draw a line through 1948.
Prior to that the main thrust was to expose Muhammad as a false prophet,
the Qur'an as an amateurish and dreadful counterfeit, the hadiths as spur-
ious, and Islamic Law as a poor salad appropriated from many cultures.
In short, findings which sought to demoralise Muslims (particularly the
ruling classes,which were the likeliestto fallvictim), and to assistthe colonial
powers in producing a crop of loyal subjects by crushing any notions of
a regal Islamic history or distinguished Muslim identity.
With almost all Muslim territories ravaged by some form of colonialism,
the Ottoman Caliphate included, the time was ripe for an onslaught on
people's everyday affairs. The legitimate Muslim scholars ('ulamiij were
placed under extreme political constraints; most endowments, a rich source
of support for Islamic scholarship, were abolished or confiscated." Islamic
Law was phased out and abolished. Colonial language and colonial script
34 ibid, p. 23.
35 ibid, pp. xvii, 23.
36 A practice which continues to this day.
332 THE HISTORY OF THE QUR'ANIC TEXT
gained precedence over all else, a decree which effectively thrust entire
nations into institutionalised illiteracy. Their lack of proficiency in European
languages further marginalised the 'ulamii'; the retorts they issuedwere mostly
in their vernacular and went unheeded. Orientalism was not interested in
debating with the 'ulamii' however, much less noting their criticisms; its
sole aim was to use colonial resources in partnership with foreign ministries"
to influence the new breed of Western-educated Muslim elites." By casting
these elites into a secularist mould and convincing them that adherence
to the Qur'an was futile, they longed to undermine all current and future
prospects of Muslim political strength.
'Proving' all manner of vice in Muhammad and all manner of theft
from the Scriptures in the Qur'an, Geiger, Tisdall and others helped to
cement this scheme; all eyes then turned to the Prophet's sunna, and the
honour of demolishing this went to Goldziher (1850-1921), the highest
ranking Orientalist of his time. InProf Humphreys' assessment, his Muham-
medanische Studien successfully
demonstrated that a vast number of hadlths accepted even in the most
rigorously critical Muslim collections were outright forgeries from the
late 2nd/8th and 3rd/9th centuries - and as a consequence, that met-
iculous isniids which supported them were utterly fictitious.F'
Joseph Schacht pursued his mentor's conclusion further: isnadin his
view was a remnant of the Abbasid revolution, in the mid second century.
The more perfect isndds were the ones most likely to be fabrications. So
highly esteemed was his theory that his OriginsifMuhammadan Jurisprudence
became an Orientalist bible, beyond refutation or reproach, of which Gibb
predicted that it would "become the foundation for allfuture study of Islamic
37 One quick example of this is an 1805 article in AsiaticAnnualRegisterby]. Gilchrist
entitled, "Observation on the policy of forming an oriental establishment, for the pur-
pose of furnishing a regular supply of properly qualified diplomatic agents, interpreters,
&c., for facilitating and improving the direct intercourse between Great Britain and
the nations of Asia, in imitation of a similar institution in France." [See WHo Behn,
Index Islamicus: 1665-1905, Adiyok, Millersville PA, 1989, p. I.]
38 Orientalist efforts to eliminate the inviolability of the Qur'an have sadly garnered
some support among Turkey's secularist elite. President Demirel even went on record
[Daily ar-Riyad, issue 27.8.1420 A.H.l5.11.1999] with the contradictory statement
that modern Islam is fully compatible with secularisation, adding that roughly 330
verses from the Qur'an "are no longer practicable" and should be excised. The 76
year-old president faced a veritable tempest of public and journalistic fury following
his statement, while hisbid to organise a 'religious reformation' was rejected by Turkey's
High Court for Islamic Affairs.
39 R.S. Humphreys, Islamic History, p. 83.
ORIENTALIST MOTIVATIONS: A STUDY OF SUBJECTIVITY 333
civilization and law, at least in the West".40 "We may decide simply that
Schacht is right," echoed Humphreys." Critical study of his work has been
systematically neglected," if not barred. When the late Amin al-Masrl
chose a critical study of the work as the subject of his Ph.D. thesis, the
University of London rejected his application; he fared no better at Cam-
bridge University." Professor NJ. Coulson tried to gently point out some
of the weaknesses in Schacht's thesis, though insisting that in the broad
sense it was irrefutable; a short while later he left Oxford University.
Wansbrough, building on Schacht's findings, concluded that "with very
few exceptions, Muslim jurisprudence was not derived from the contents
of the Qur'an". And so the Qur'an's status in early Islamic history was even
further marginalized at the hands of Wansbrough, who almost entirely
eradicated it from the Muslim community's dealings. The few remaining
cases that could be used as evidence of derivation from the Qjrr'an were
casually dismissed: "It may be added that those few exceptions .. . [are]
not necessarily proof of the earlier existence of the scriptural source."
He provides a reference for this conclusive idea. One may wonder what
pioneering work has established this blanket statement about the Qur'an,
but the footnote mentions: Strack, H., Introduction to the Talmud andMidrash. 44
Which implies that if anything is true of the Talmud and Midrash, then
it must be even truer of the Qjrr'an.
ii. The Jewish Question and the Erasure of
History and Fabrication of a New One
A fresh impetus has been added to the Orientalist cause since 1948: the
need to secure Israel's boundaries and regional ambitions. To study this new
motive requires us to first examine the jewish Question'. The brutality of
the Spanish Inquisition, perpetrated by a nation claiming to embrace a
God of love,resulted in the peninsula's 'cleansing' from all Muslim presence
40 H.A.R. Gibb, Journal ofComparative Legislation andInternational Law, 3rd series, vol.
34, parts 3-4 (1951), p. 114.
41 Humphreys isthe King 'Abdul-Aziz Professor of Islamic Studies at the University
of California, Santa Barbara. For this quotation refer to his Islamic History, p. 84. See
alsoJ. Esposito, Islam: the Straight Path, Expanded edition, Oxford Univ. Press, New
York, 1991, pp. 81-82.
42 Such as M.M. al-A'zami, On Schacht's Origins ofMuhammadan Jurisprudence, John
Wiley, 1985.
43 See Mustafa as-Siba'i, as-Sunna waMakiinatuhii, Cairo, 1961, p. 27.
44 Wansbrough, Qyranic Studies, p. 44.
334 THE HISTORY OF THE QUR'ANIC TEXT
in addition to the dispersal ofJewry. Of these Jews some took shelter in
Turkey,under Ottoman protection, while others settled elsewhere in Europe
and bore an uncertain fate. Jews residing in early 19th century Germany
for instance were not even legally human: they existed as the king's personal
property.
Like other serfs, Jews could not move from one town to another,
marry; or have more than one child without permission. Because of
their international connections, however, Jews were officially encour-
aged to settle in Germany with a view to facilitating trade.P
To Germans, theJewish question manifested itself as the bewilderment
of a Christian nation "as to how to treat an entire people who [were unfit]
to be free".46 Of the various theorists who came forth with solutions none
exceeded Karl Marx's influence; his scheme for liberating his fellowJews
was to free them from their religious identity, even while lending his support
to a petition for Jewish rights." Dennis Fischman writes,
Indeed, "in the final analysis, the emancipation of the Jews is the eman-
cipation of mankind from Judaism."Jews, Marx seems to be saying,
can only become free when, asJews, they no longer exist. 48
The term Jew' has two connotations: (1)Jews as a nation, and (2)Jews
as the followers of Judaism. Marx desires to free Jews from what he sees
as the shackling influence of both; clearly the most foolproof approach is
to sever allpeople from their nationalities, tangible belongings, and religions.
Socialism as a working concept may have largely collapsed, but the idea
of abolishing national identity and faith to create a level playing field is
very much alive. This idea was lucidly communicated in an interview given
by former Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres to Sir David Frost. Faced
with a question regarding the source of anti-Semitism, Peres answered
that the same question had plagued the Jewish masses for at least the last
two hundred years, yielding two disparate views.
One answer was, "Because the world is wrong, so we have to change
the world." And the other was, "We are wrong, so we have to change
ourselves." TheJewish people, for example, who became communists,
45 Dennis Fischman, Political Discourse in Exile: Karl Marx andtheJewish Qyestion, The
University of Massachusetts Press, 1991, p. 26.
46 ibid, p. 28.
47 ibid, pp. 7, 15.
48 ibid, p. 13.
ORIENTALIST MOTIVATIONS: A STUDY OF SUBJECTIVITY 335
that changed the world, the world of hatred. "Let's builda world without
nations, without classes, without religion, a world without a Lord, thatcallsfOr the
hatred if other people."49
Jean-Paul Sartre, the existentialistauthor who wasJewish from hismother's
side, argued along these same lines: reason had to displace religion as the
core solution to life'sconcerns. For Sartre the continuation of religion meant
a chronic persecution of Jewry, and its elimination became the key to cur-
tailing anti-Semitism.t"
While perusing a booklet entitled Great Confrontations inJewish History."
I happened across a seminar called 'Modernity andjudaism' delivered by
Dr. Hertzberg, rabbi and Adjunct Professor of History at Columbia Uni-
versity-? Examining the attitudes of prominentJewish thinkers about their
own religion, Hertzberg concentrates most notably on Marx and Sigmund
Freud. The young Marx, he finds, viewed the Jew in DieJudenftage as the
proto-capitalist, a victim of the myriad tensions hatched by monetary
systems and the economic machinery. To solve the Jewish question was
to destroy economic and class hierarchies, to emancipate Christians and
Jews alike by toppling the traditional practices of capitalism. Freud on the
other hand viewed religion as an infantile obsession with authority figures,
as essentially a sickness which every person had to transcend to achieve
mental health and maturity'"
This iconoclastic attitude, this rebellious urge to overthrow historical
norms, was by no means limited to Marx and Freud; the great 'outsiders'
of Jewish thought adopted this stance routinely. Why? Hertzberg sees it
as a eall for liberation: that by divoreingJews from every element of their
past in Medieval Europe, they could start afresh on an equal footing with
gentiles. This, he says,was the beginning ofJewish modernity. Establishing
a sturdy foothold in Western culture entailed burying Europe's past, laden
as it was with Christian mythology and beliefs, such that all men rising
from the ashes of this charred history would work together as comrades
in the new age.54
49 Talking withDavid Frost: Shimon Peres. Aired in US on Public Broadcasting System
(PBS),29 March 1996. Transcript #53, p. 5; emphasis added.
50 M. Qurb, al-Mustashriqiin waal-Isldm, Maktabat Wahba, Cairo, 1999, p. 309. This
idea is found in Sartre's Anti-Semite and]ew (English translation), Schocken Books Inc.,
New York, 1995.
51 This is an anthology of lectures published by the Dept. of History, University of
Denver, and edited by Stanley M. Wagner and Allen D. Breck.
52 He is Rabbi at Temple Emanuel, Englewood, NewJersey. In addition to his rab-
binical role he has taught at Rutgers University, Princeton University,and the Hebrew
University in jerusalem.
53 Wagner and Breck (eds.), Great Confrontations inJewish History, pp. 127-8.
54 ibid, pp. 128-9.
336 THE HISTORY OF THE QUR'ANrC TEXT
In Hertzberg's assessment this anti-nationalist, pro-universalist Reform
Jew is not that different from the contemporary nationalist who prides
himself on being a Zionist. While both behave antithetically they vie for
the same thing. To 19th century ReformJews religion was the shackle they
had to crush to win their equality. By comparison, contemporary Zionism
asserts that religion is no longer adequate as a unifying force.
Except for religious faction, the majority of Zionists, political as well
as cultural, are secularists who begin with the presumption that the
Jewish religion can no longer serve as the basis for Jewish unity and
that therefore Jewish survivalist policy has to be founded on some
other premise... Thegreatest cammandment is no langer tasuffer martyrdomfor
the sanctification if the Divine Name, butrather tofightfOr the rebuilding if the
land. 55
What Peres, Hertzberg, Sartre, Marx, Freud and others appear to be
saying is thatJewish intelligentsia demands a global society that is devoid
of God, of religion, and of history-the complete antithesis of theJewish
claim that their right to Palestine is based on the promise of Yahweh."
Their desired integration into a wider society entails razing the past: the
erasure of history and the fabrication of a substitute. To this effect Well-
hausen and others began the task of chipping away at the OT's integrity,
opening the way for an assault on the NT and, from thence, the Qur'an.
In the bleak years of the Second World War, Jews undoubtedly bore
their share of the tragedy and suffering which inflamed humanity. In
acknowledging their pains the victorious Allies chose to compensate them
through the generous bestowment of a 'homeland' on territory which be-
longed neither to this party nor to that, in the process forcing millions of
the land's original inhabitants to endure the desolate existence of a refugee.
By then the efforts to secularise Christianity andjudaism, to convert them
into mere symbols of little import in daily life, had made considerable
headway. But removing God, religion, and history from Muslim minds
proved to be a greater challenge: even where secularisation did seep in,
Muslims could not tolerate Israel. Success in this field now meant proving
that all references to Jews or to Palestine within Islamic texts were out-
55 ibid, p. 131. Emphasis added.
56 Because (in the words of Rabbi Hertzberg) the majority of Zionists no longer
believe inJudaism as a unifying factor, and look to a secularised notion of 'rebuilding
the land' to fulfiltheir need for a rallying point.
ORIENTALIST MOTIVATIONS: A STUDY OF SUBJECTIVITY 337
right forgeries." and to followthe lead of the NT58 in cleansing the Qur'an
of allpassages which were perceived as anti-Semitic.
So long as Muslims hold fast to the Qur'an as Allah's unalterable Word,
this issue of cleansing remains beyond their reach; in this regard Wans-
brough set out to 'prove' that the present Qur'an is no longer solely the
'handiwork of Muhammad,' but in fact of many communities scattered
throughout the Muslim world which developed the text over the course
of two hundred years. 59 Quoting Humphreys:
Wansbrough hopes to establish two major points:
• Islamic scripture - not merely hadith but the Qur'an itself - was
generated in the course of sectarian controversy over a period of
more than two centuries, and then fictitiously projected back onto
an invented Arabian point of origin.
• That Islamic doctrine generally, and even the figure of Muhammad,
were modelled on RabbinicJewish prototype.!"
To this we can append the contemporary work of Yehuda Nevo and
J. Koren, who apply their own revisionist approach to Islamic studies with
the most startling results. Describing archaeological surveys ofJordan and
the Arabian Peninsula, they say that although Hellenistic, Nabataean,
Roman, and Byzantine artefacts have been uncovered, there are no in-
dications of a local Arab culture in the 6th and early 7th centuries C.E.
In particular, no sixth or seventh-century Jahili pagan sites, and no
pagan sanctuaries such as the Muslim sources describe, have been
57 Shortly after Israel's creation, Rev. Prof. Guillaume 'proved' that the al-Masjid
al-Aqsii which Muslims seemed so attached to was in fact in a tiny village on the out-
skirts of Makkah, so very far fromJerusalem! [A. Guillaume, "Where was al-Masyid
al-Aqsa", al-Andalus, Madrid, 1953, pp. 323-336.]
58 See Holy Bible, Contemporary English Version, American Bible Society, New York,
I995;Joseph Blenkinsopp"The Contemporary EnglishVersion:Inaccurate Translation
Tries to Soften Anti:Judaic Sentiment," Bible Review, vol. xii, no. 5, Oct. 1996, p. 42.
In the same issue: Barclay Newman, "CEV's Chief Translator: We Were Faithful to
the Intention of the Text," ibid, p. 43. The extent of these changes ismore far-reaching
than these articlesimply;for examples refer to the full discussionin this work pp. 291-4.
59 Prof. Norman Calder later joined this bandwagon, showing that the literary
works of that period - and not only the Qur'an - were authored by the Muslim
community as a whole. He theorised that the very famous literary works of late 2nd
and 3rd century scholars such as Muioatta' of Imam Malik, al-Mudawwana of Sahnun,
al-Um of ash-Shafi't, al-Kharqj by Abu Yusuf and so on, were scholastic texts not
authored by any single person. [Norman Calder, Studies in EarlyMuslimJurisprudence,
Oxford Univ. Press, 1993].
60 R.S. Humphreys, Islamic History, p. 84.
338 THE HISTORY OF THE QUR'ANIC TEXT
found in the Hijaz [western Arabia] or indeed anywhere in the area
surveyed.... Furthermore, the archaeological work has revealed no trace qf
Jewish settlement at Medina, Xaybar or VVadi al-OJIrra. Both these points
contrast directly with the Muslim literary sources' descriptions of the
demographic composition of the pre-Islamic Hijaz. 61
Koren and Nevo claim that, by contrast, a plethora of evidence for
paganism exists in the Central Negev (southern Palestine), an area dis-
regarded by Muslim sources. Excavated shrines indicate that paganism
was still practiced there until the outset of the Abbasid reign (mid-eighth
century C.E.), meaning that a considerable region of the Negev main-
tained its pagan identity through the first 150 years of Islam. These shrines,
and the surrounding topography, are highly analogous (they allege) to the
descriptions of Hejazl pagan sites as quoted by Muslim sources.
Thus the archaeologicalevidenceindicates that the pagan sanctuaries
described in the Muslim sources did not exist in the ]ahili Hijaz, but
sanctuaries strongly resembling them did exist in the Central Negev
until soon after the Abbasidscame to power. This in turn suggests thatthe
accounts qfJahilireligion in the HiJaz could well be back-projections qf apaganism
actually knownfrom later andelsewhere.62
If we accept Koren and Nevo's assertion, that there is no proof of
Jewish settlements in Hejaz during the time of the Prophet, the logical result
would be the denial of all the verses relating toJews since they could not
possibly have been 'authored' by Muhammad, The Muslim community
must therefore have appended them at a later stage and falsely claimed
them as Qjir'an; restoring the Book to its 'original' form (as supposedly
penned by Muhammad) requires the prompt removal of these fraudulent,
anti-Semitic passages. And, if we believe that the pre-Islamic paganism
cited in the Qur'an and sunna is simply a fictitious back-projection of a
culture that flourished in southern Palestine, then by extension the fIgure
of Muhammad himself becomes questionable. A back-projection perhaps
of the ancient remnants of rabbinical presence in Palestine, making Koren
and Neve's remarks a perfect fIt with Wansbrough's theories. In this way
Muslims become indebted to Judaism for providing the fictitious basis of
their very identity and historical origins, which in turn serves as further
motivation for the abolishment of all verses reproachingJewry.
61 J. Koren and YD. Nevo, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", Der
Islam, Band 68, Heft 1, 1991, p. 101. Emphasis added.
62 ibid, p. 102. Emphasis added.
ORIENTALIST MOTIVATIONS: A STUDY OF SUBJECTIVITY 339
5. Conclusion
Most Muslim countries surrounding Israel have been made to understand
the urgency of changing their school curriculum, to eliminate any point
which arouses passions that are distasteful to Jews. 63 But the Qur'an re-
mains an obstacle: a Book that frequently cites Jewish intransigence and
disobedience, and whose verses wet the lips of schoolchildren, of con-
gregations in mosques, of the penitent Muslim at night with his Mushaf,
and in almost every aspect of life. Understanding the motives that drive
the present research on the Qur'an is a must, that the products of such
research may not catch the reader unawares.
Strugnell and Delitzsch's research onJewish themes is now considered
void because of allegations of anti-Semitism. The Israel Antiquities Depart-
mentjudges qualifications based on its vision of ideological compatibility.
Yet every Christian, Jew and atheist who engages in wilful lies to under-
mine the precepts, elegance, history, and future prospects of Islam is
allowed to consider himself a sheikh, to believe that Muslims are beholden
to his objectivity and obliged to accept his findings. This is indefensible.
Why are the academic dismissals they unleash against anti-Semites." not
applicable to those who distort Islam for ulterior gains? Why should non-
Muslims be deemed authorities to the exclusion of practising Muslims?
Why should men of the Church - Mingana, Guillaume, Watt, Anderson,
Lammanse, and a horde of others who wish nothing more heartily than to
see their religion eclipse Islam- be regarded as the standard in 'unbiased'
Islamic research? Why should Muir be considered an authority on the
Prophet's life, when he writes that the Qur'an is among "the most stubborn
enemies of Civilisation, Liberty, and the Truth which the World has yet
known'Y'"
63 As a case in point - based on my information from Jordan - Israel recently asked
some of its neighbouring Arab countries (as part of the peace process package) to
eliminate all curriculum references to the Crusades, Salahuddm al-Ayyul»(Saladdin),
and his re-conquering of al-Quds Gerusalem).
64 The term 'anti-Semite' itself isa conscious misrepresentation for anti:Judaic, since
the overwhelming majority of Semites for the past fourteen centuries have been Muslims!
65 As quoted in M. Broomhall, Islam in China, New Impression, London, 1987, p. 2.
340 THE HISTORY OF THE QUR'ANIC TEXT
CHAPTER TWENTY
CLOSING REMARKS
Anyone writing about Islam must initially decide whether or not he believes
in Muhammad as a prophet. Scholars who acknowledge him as a genuine
messenger, the noblest of all prophets, enjoy an incredible library of hadiths
and divine revelationsfrom which to draw their inspiration. Bynecessitythey
willshare innumerable similarities, even total agreement on fundamental
issues; whatever minor variations arise due to shifting circumstances are
entirely natural and human. Those refusing this viewpoint however, must
by extension see Muhammad as a deluded madman or a liar bearing false
claimsof prophethood. This isthe adopted stance of allnon-Muslim scholars,
through which their efforts are ftltered: if they did not set out to prove
Muhammad's dishonesty or the Qjir'an's fallacy,what would hinder them
from accepting Islam?
In Islamic affairs,Western research transcends mere subjectivity to mani-
fest itself as anti-Islamic dogma. Its view is born in regal ancestry: intense
rivalry of religions, centuries of crusades, the colonisation of Muslim lands,
and a colonial pride that blossomed into an overt contempt for the customs,
beliefs, and the very history of Muslims. To this we may add the more recent
motives: encouraging secularism to promote globalJewish assimilation and
ensure Israel's territorial integrity.And along these ancestral lines their efforts
may well continue, attacking the Qur'an as a communal work just as their
forefathers made much use of the enlightened term 'Muhammadans', as
though Muslims prostrated before a golden idol of that name.
The maxim of Ibn Slrin (d. 110 A.H.) holds greater urgency today than
ever before:
Thisknowledge [of religion] constitutes faith,sobe waryof whomyou
acquire your knowledge from. 1
This means that on Islamic issues - whether the Qur'an, tqfs'ir, badTth,
fiqh, history, ... etc. - only the writings of a practising Muslim are worthy of
our attention. These may then be accepted or rejected according to their
I Muslim, $al:zl~, i:14.
342 THE HISTORY OF THE QUR'ANIC TEXT
merits." But as to individuals who clearly hail from outside the community,
their motives concealed behind a slender facade of sincerity, we can only
meet them with rejection. Neither can we make them sheikhs of Islam," nor
can we accept their claims to that title.
In news coverage of President Clinton's impeachment trial a few years
ago, I cannot once recall a tennis player or theatre critic being asked for his
or her legal opinion on this case, even though copies of the United States
Constitution are available for all to read. Legal discussions were rightfully
limited to lawyers, professors of constitutional law; and so forth. Neither
did professors of law from elsewhere participate, since this was an internal
predicament for the United States. Sadly,this isfar from how Islam istreated.
Can a film reviewer, having read the Constitution and listened to lawyers
during news coverage, expect his legal opinion to carry scholarly weight?
No, but people from outside relevant academic circles, such as Toby Lester,
voice their opinions in articles which then gain scholarly status. Does the
German professor of law have the clout to appear on television and instruct
the American people on how to run theirjudicial system? No, but Western
scholars feel obliged to instruct Muslims as to how they must interpret their
own religion.
Allah remains supreme whether we live in the first, twenty-first or last
century, and whoever seeks to dethrone Him, however self-assuredly, burns
only himself without touching a single fibre of His Glory. No one can be
forced to believe in the Qur'an's sanctity; people must settle on their own
paths as they alone will bear the future consequences of their deeds. But
here, in this life, no outsider addressing Muslims and passing judgment
on their faith and scholarship should find his words falling on attentive
ears. If such is not the case today then Muslims must take their fair share
of the blame.
2 Even non-Muslims seeking to learn about Islam should begin by reading the
Muslim literature. When university students wish to study socialism for instance, they
always start with the essential manifestos to comprehend the general subject before,
perhaps, moving on to critiques of socialisttheory. The same scheme applies to Biblical
studies. So for students of Islamic studies to begin and end their field of knowledge with
Western writings, to almost completely ignore the traditional Muslim sources and simply
expand on what Western revisionism is teaching, is wholly absurd.
3 Back in the early 90's while teaching at Princeton University, an incident led me
to rediscoverthe importance of Ibn 8mn's statement. The head of the Dept. of Religious
Studies, Prof. L. Udovich, aJewish scholar well-versed in Arabic and Islamicjurispru-
dence (and a colleague with whom I was on good terms), told me jokingly, "I know
Arabic andfiqh so I am a sheikh:" This disturbed me considerably; I did not know how
to get out of such a possible scenario of non-Muslims deliveringfiziwas(legal opinions)
in the future. After a few days' search I stumbled upon this golden rule, and have grate-
fully remembered it since.
CLOSING REMARKS 343
We live in difficult times, and difficult times may well lie ahead; Allah
knows best. One or two decades ago the notion of Western scholars forcing
Muslims to excise all Qur'anic references toJews might have appeared far-
fetched to some, but now the realities of our era blanket us with the vigour
of a hailstorm. What the scholars did theoretically, their governments are
now pursuing relentlessly, and their efforts take tangible shape all around us.
Western intervention in the Islamic curriculum; forced auditing and closures;
directives which openly call for purging the Qur'an of all references tojihiid
or anything unfavourable towards Christians andJews; vague personalities
with Arabic-sounding surnames (whose names I will not mention as they
deserve no publicity), claiming things about Islam which no Muslim has
claimed before; 'terrorism experts' who appear on international newsfeeds
to pronounce their judgments on Muslim texts; secularist Turkey seen as
the ideal worth aspiring to, while conservative governments loom as an
impending threat. On all levels,the Qur'an isunder assault as never before.
What lies ahead is a mystery kept with Allah, but the least we must do
is to understand the principles of our religion and the essentials which do
not vary with time. Among these must be our reverence for the Qur'an.
Any piece of text which differs from the Mushaf in our hands, regardless
of what it claims to be, is not and can neoer be part of the Qur'an; likewise,
any attempt by non-Muslims to dictate to us the precepts and legitimacy of
our own religion must be dismissed outright. Whatever the political climate,
Muslim views on the Holy Book must remain firm: it is the Word of Allah,
constant, immaculate, unalterable, inimitable.
'J4-J 1 ) J.U!t4 \... r'J l l.u J.W :J~ ;I ill\Jr"J ~ :Jt,; '(,$')...0\ r-:l rY
ill!)Ai. .J:J~ J~)I j!..? jA.! 'J-JJ\ l.u ill\ .J.;..~I ':I!'..r.) ':I) 'J..Lo ~ ill\!JiI. ':I)
+.p\ "-!ill\ JJ.. ':I~) 'i')\....,)'\ "-!~).?
Tamim ad-Dan relates, "I heard the Prophet say, '[This religion] will
reach the expanses of the day and night, and Allah will not leave off
any house of mud nor wool [i.e. in the city or countryside] till He has
introduced this religion into it, either through the glory of the honour-
able or the ignobility of the dishonourable. Such is the honour that
Allah will bestow on Islam, and the debasement that He will cast on
disbelief'"
.- Yo ). 'f). t "';: f J';;:,J 1" .,f, ';;:.J ). ~ J. "J (, J. J
yj Jojy ~ u l ~l 4lJ1 -J.~j ~'J.9~ ~I jy I~ u l --.:..>J..l.<y.! ,
~T .:t-~j ts~~ J~;'j j.:) -:..>~T ;,. ~ ~J~T o.f=
,. ., ).',J,.. "" .... "'). "',J.......).,....,).
5~a; ~§PI 01= yj~;¥=~~I JS- JO~
4 Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, iv:103, ~adfth no. 16998.
5 Qur'an 9:32-33.
344 THE HISTORY OF THE QUR'ANIC TEXT
"Theyseek to extinguish the [guiding) radiance if Allahwiththeir mouths,
andAllahrefuses butto complete His radiance regardless if how abhorrent
that is to those who disbelieve. It is He VVho sentfottli His messenger with
guidance and the religion if truth, that He may elevate it above allfalse
beliefs, however abhorrent that may be to those who ascribe partners to
Him."
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INDEX
Aaron. See Harun learnt directly from the Prophet, 62,
Abbott, Nabia, 116-8, 120 202
abbreviation in early mushafs, 131-5 on oral transmission of Qur'an, 148
'Abd-Manaf, 21 ordered to teach Qur'an with Quraishi
'Abdu, Muhammad, 7 dialect, 87-88
'Abdul Rahman bin Hisham, 89 Orientalist use of aberrant narrations
'Abdul-A'la bin Hakam al-Kilabi, 97 concerning Mushaf of, 160-1
'Abdul-Dar, 21 personal mushaf 97
'Abdul-Fattah al-Qa<;ll, 94 on recitation withJibri1, 52
'Abdul-Farrah ash-Shalabi, 131 sent to Knfa, 85
'Abdul-Hakam bin 'Amr al-jumahl, 107 on trade in rnushafs, 105--6
'Abdullah bin 'Abbas unanimous praise for, 200
on arrangement of verses, 72 See also Ibn Mas'ud's Mushaf
committee for compilation of Qur'an, 'Abdullah bin Mughaffal al-Muzani, 63
89 'Abdullah bin Sa'd bin Abl as-Sarh, 68
hadith on merit of listening to Qur'an, 'Abdullah bin as-Sa'ib, 94
57 'Abdullah bin Sa'Id bin al-'A~, 62
on origin of Arabic characters, 120 'Abdullah bin Salam, 62
on placement of verses of the Qur'an, 'Abdullah bin 'Umar; 57, 89, 107
71 'Abdullah bin az-Zubair, 89, 90
on recitation with Jibrtl, 52 'Abdul-Muttalib, 21~22
recognition of Ibn Mas'ud's scholar- 'Abdur-Rahman bin 'Auf
ship, 202 conversion of, 26, 59
on recording of the Qur'an, 67-68 described as being 'adl, 172
on revelation of Qur'an, 45 'Abdur-Rahman bin Khalid bin al-'A~,
on trade in mushafs, 106 126
'Abdullah bin 'Abdul-Muttalib, 22 'Abdur-Rahman bin Yazid, 200
'Abdullah bin Ahmad bin al-Khashshab, 'Abdur-Razzaq (mufassir), 191
188 'Abdur-Razzaq, Musannaf of, 180
'Abdullah bin 'Arnr; 58, 89 'Abdus-Sabur Shahin, 176
'Abdullah bin al-Arqam, 59 Abijah,221
'Abdullah bin Mas'ud Abiram, 217
among the authority reciters, 197 Abraham. See Ibrahim
beliefs of, 201-2 Abu 'Abdur-Rahman as-Sulami, 94
exclusion from 'Uthman's committee, Abu al-'Ala' al-Hamdhani al-'Anar, 192
197 Abu al-'Aliya, 107
as first teacher of Qur'an, 60 Abii al-Aswad ad-Du'ali, 139-40, 144-5
hadith on reciting the Qur'an, 56 Abii Bakr as-Siddiq
humility of, 200-201 compilation of Qur'an, 78-81, 305
irregular mushaf, 72 conversion to Islam, 26, 59
358 INDEX
caliphate of, 35-37 'adl (muhaddithin term), 172, 175
Imamate of, 56-57 'Affan, 174-5
migration to Madinah, 30 Africa, 15
prevented from reciting Qur'an, 50 Africa, early creed of, 274
Abu Bakr bin 'Ayyash, 153 Ahab,220
Abu ad-Darda', 85-86, 99, 192, 197 Ahaz, 222
Abu Hayyan an-Nahawi, 197 Ahaziah,222
Abu Huraira 'Abdur Rahman ad-Dawsi Ahijah,219
hadith illustrating proliferation of Ahmad bin Hanbal, xx, 178, 183-4
knowledge, 169-71 Ahmad, 'Abdur-Razzaq, 125
hadith on seeking knowledge, 55 al-Ahmar, 'Abdullah bin Husain, xxi
on recitation with Jibrtl, 52 ahruf, 154
Abu Ishaq, 200 A1.J.sa' (eastern region of the Arabian
Abu Jah1 peninsula), 123
battle of Badr, 32 'Ain at-Tamr, 36
eavesdropping the Prophet, 49 A'inna (early Makkan institution), 21
Abu Khuzairna al-Ansari, 84, 91 'A'isha bint Abl Bakr
Abu Lu'lu'a, 86 hadith on leading the prayer, 56
Abu Mas'nd al-Ansari, 56 on revelation of Qur'an, 46
Abu Mas'ud al-Badri, 72 revelation concerning slander of, 47
Abu Muhammad al-Himmani, 104 suhuf of, 90-91
Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, 86, 97, 197 Akbar (Moghul emperor), 267
Abu al-Qasim bin bint Ahmad bin al-Akhnas bin Shariq, 49
Man!', 184 Akiba, Rabbi, 246-7
Abu al-Qasirn bin Muhammad, 184 al-Akwa', al-Qa<;l1 Isma'tl, xxi, 12
Abu Qilaba, 96 a1-'Ala' bin al-Hadrami, 36
Abu Raja' al-'Ataradl, 86 Alexander the Great, 224, 231
Abu Sa'Id al-Khudari, 63 Alexandrian text, NT text type, 283
Abu Sa'td, 182 'All bin Abl Talib
Abu Salama, 59 among the authority reciters, 197
Abu Sufyan bin Harb hadith on learning the Qur'an, 56
battle of Badr, 32 mushaf attributed to, 132
conversion of, 34 Orientalist use of aberrant
eavesdropping the Prophet, 49 narrations concerning, 160
Abu Ta1ib bin 'Abdul-Muttalib, 28 remains in Makkah, 30
Abu 'Ubaid, 90, 146 support for 'Uthman, 88, 94
Abu 'Ubaidah bin al-jarrah, 37, 59, 64 'Ali bin Asma' 103
Abu Umayya, 24 'AlI bin Husain, 105
Abu ws'u, 202 Allah (Almighty), attributes of, 42-43
Abu Yusuf, 178 Alphabet
Abu Zaid, Nasr, 7, 9, 207 early Arabic, 122-4
accuracy of hadith narrators, 174-5 invention of the first, 232
ad-Dani, Abu 'Amr, 94,134-5,140,148 Mingana's theory on Arabic, 115-6,
ad-Du'alt. See Abu al-Aswad ad-Du'ali 122-3, 143-5
adh-Dhahabi, Muhammad bin Ahmad, Phoenician, 115
176 Phoenician-Old Hebrew, 234
Adoptionism, 277, 289 'Alqama, 106, 202
adultery, accusations of against Jesus, al-A'rnash, 176, 198,200
269 al-Amln,24
INDEX 359
Amm, Ahmad, 7 Arkoun, Mul)ammad, 7, 207
Arnina bint Wahb, 22, 24 Armenia, 15,87
'Arnir bin 'Abd Qais, 94 As'ad bin Zurara, 60
amending errors in mushafs, 96-97 Asa,222
Amon, 223 ascension, 297-8
'Amr bin Sa1ima al-jarmi, 56 asceticism, 289
'Amr bin Um-Maktum al-A'ma, 69 al-Asfahani, 192
'Amr bin al-'A~, 36,37 Asher, 214
'Amr bin Murra, 106 Ashnaq (early Makkan institution), 21
Amram, 214 'A~im al-jahdari, 103
Amuru, 15 'Asim bin Abl an-Najud, 161
Amwal muhajjara (early Makkan assassination attempt on the Prophet, 30
institution), 21 Assyrian rule ofJudah, 222
Anas bin Malik, 64, 89, 96, 176 Assyrian script, 234
Anbar (city), 36 Assyriology; 321
angels, 57 astigmatism, 288
Ansar al-Aswad al-'Ansl, 36
establishment of Aws and Kharaj, 18 al-Aswad, 202
support of in battle of Badr; 32-33 Aswan, tombstone, 125
as teachers of the Qur'an, 63-64 atba' at-tabi'ln, 177
Antiochus, 225 Athar of Abu Yusuf 178
anti-Semitism, 321-3, 339 Atjeyhnese people, 327
apostasy; 35 Atlantic Monthly, The, 3
'Aqaba, pledge of, 29-30 atonement, 297
Arabian peninsula, 15 Aws (tribe), 18, 31
Arabic 'Awwad, K, 116,316
diacritical marks, 139-41 ayah (verse) separators, 102, 111---4
dotting schemes, 135-9 Aysar (early Makkan institution), 21
early Arabic alphabet, 122-4 Azerbaijan, 87
early Christian Arabic manuscripts,
116
history of the Arabic characters, Baal, worship of in Israel, 220, 222-3
115-8 Babylon, 15,224
inscriptions on coinage, 128 Babylonian Talmud, 226
irregularities in non-Qur'anic script, alteration of text, 235
145-8 pointing (vocalization), 247-9
suitability of for Divine revelation, 164 Badr, prelude to the battle, 32-33
Arabs, 15-16 Bahrain, 36
as tribal society, 20-21 Bakr (tribe), 34
pre-Islamic religions, 22-23 baptism, 296
Aramaeans, 143 a1-Baqillani, 199
Aramaic Nabatean script, 115, 117 Bar Kochba, 252
compared with Arabic, 118-20 Bara', 61
language of the Nabateans, 120-1 al-Bara'a, sura, 83-84
Aramaic, 232-3 Barthelemy d'Hcrbelot, 330
archival of suhuf 84-85 Basetti-Sani, 11
'ard (muhaddithm term), 178 basmala, as sura separator, 109
'Arfaja bin Harthama, 36 Basra (city), 85
Ark of the Israelites, 218, 228-9 Bathsheba, 218-9, 229
360 INDEX
batil (muhaddithin term), 202 books, preserving from adulteration,
battles, 31-32 178-84
Bayt al-Qaratis, 166 Booth, holiday of, 228
Bellamy,James, 7,318 Bosworth, C. E., xviii
Benhadad,222 boycott of the Muslims, Quraish, 28-29
Benjamin, 214 Bright,John, 322
Bergstrasser, G., 8, 81, 206, 304 Bucaille, Maurice, 267, 281, 295
Beth-Shemesh, 229 al-Bukhart, Muhammad bin Isma'Il, 178
Bi'r Ma 'una, 64 Byzantine text, NT text type, 284
Bible
200,000 variants found in, 303
authorship of the gospels, 280-1 Caesarean text, N'f text type, 283
as basisfor Orientalist study of Arabic, Calder, N., 9
115 Canaan, 212, 218, 260-1
Biblical scholarship compared to Canaanite, 234
Islamic, 207 Cantineau, J, 118-20
compared with the Qur'an, 54 certificates of reading, 184--91
contemporary corruption of the text, chain of authority, 156, 159. See also isnad
291--4 system
Contemporary English Version of, Chester Beatty, 114
291 Chiesa, Bruno, 247
doctrines and corruption, 295-8 child sacrifice, 222-3
edited during Hellenistic period, 231 Christian Arabic manuscripts, 116
Erasmus Bible, 290-1 Christianity
examples of deliberate corruption of, atonement, 297
256-61 attempts to evangelise pre-Islamic
history according to modern scholars, Arabia, 22-23
230-2 authorship of the gospels, 280-1
inspiration, 281-2 cleansed of anti-Semitic references,
Leningrad Codex, 238--40 XVlll
lossand rediscovery of Torah, 228~30 compared to Islam, 41, 54
loss of the original gospel, 66 creeds, 273-5
Masoretic texts, 238--40 disciples of Jesus, 269-72
oldest dated manuscript, xvi-xvii doctrines and corruption of the Bible,
referencesto Prophet Muhammad, 262 295-8
study of, compared with study of early and later creeds compared,
Qur'an, 161 274-5
translations, 294 early practices and beliefs, 277
See also New Testament; Old Hellenistic influence on doctrine, 296
Testament; Gospels influence of sects on the NT, 289
Bilal bin Rabah, 81, 82 interpolations into texts, 182
Bilhah,214 life of Jesus from secondary sources,
Bin Sira, 234 266-8
Bishr bin Husain, 174 message of repentance, 272-6
Blachere, R., 81, 162,208,309-10 persecution of early Christians, 276
Black Stone, 24 secularisation, 10
Blau, 119 the term 'Christian', its meaning,
Blenkinsopp, Joseph, 291 275-6
Bobzin, Hartmut, 319 See alsoBible; New Testament
INDEX 361
classification of hadith narrators, 175-7 Dead Sea Scrolls, 251-6
Clinton, Bill, 342 Damascus document, 229
code of Hammurabi, 235 dismissal of Strugnell, 322-3
coinage, 128 secrecy surrounding, 324
colonialism, 8, 331-3 Delitzsch, Friedrich, 321
Comfort, P. W, 281-2, 289, 297 Demsky, Aaron, 228
Comma]ohanneum, 284, 290-1,295 Dever, William G., 231
Companions Dhakw3.u,60
arrangement of the Qur'an, 73 Dhi'b, Muhammad, 253
considered possessed of 'adl, 177 Dhul-Qassa (city), 36
dedication of 39 diacritical marks
development of isnad system, 167-71 invention of, 139--41
huffaz, 64---66 sources of, 143-5
as teachers of the Qur'an, 60-61, in the Talmud, 247-9
63--64 two schemes of, 141-2
compilation of Qur'an dialects, 62-63
'Uthman's recompilation, 88-97 ahruf 154
during reign of Abu Bakr, 78-81 disputes in recitation, 87-88
justification for, 77 hadith of the seven dialects, 153
methodology of, 81-85 See also multiple readings
Orientalist criticism of, 304-5 Diem, 119
suhuf 84-85 diffusion of hadith compilations, 187-91
conquest of Makkah, 34-35 disciples of jesus, 269-72
Constantine (Roman emperor), 276 dissension, avoiding, 58-59
Contemporary English Version of the dittography, 151, 243
Bible, 291 Docetism, 277
Cook, Michael, 6 -7,10-11 Dodd, C. R., 230-1
copyist errors, 151, 182 dotting schemes, 135-9, 151-9
Coulson, Xj., 333 Driver, Professor, 256
Council of jamnia, 241 Dushti, 'All, 7
Cragg, Kenneth, 11, 318
Crone, Patricia, 5-7, 9 earlyjewish script, 234
Cross, Frank, 241-2, 253 Edom, 258--60
Crucifixion, xviii education
charging for, 55-56
encouragement to learn, 55
Daba (city), 36 learning from non-Muslims, 56
J;:laif, Shauqi, 81, 94 in Madinah, 6162
dam of Mu'awiva, 126, 138 role of 'Umar in spread of Qur'an,
Damascus document, 229 85-86
Damascus, 37, 85 seeking knowledge, 166
Dan, 214 Egypt, 214-6
Dathan, 217 Egyptian Church Order, 274
Davey, Noel, 280 Ehrman, Bart D., 151,277
David. See DaW11d Elisha, 220
Davidson, B., 144-5 endowments, confiscation of, 331
Davies, Peter, 231 English, 129
Davila, j. R., 253 envy, when permissible, 57
DaW11d (David), 41, 218-9, 229 Epistola Apostolorum, 274
362 INDEX
equal status, concept of, 196 Goldziher, Ignace
Erasmus Bible, 290-I criticism of hadith and isnad, 332
Esau, 212, 258-60 on altering a word for its synonym,
Estrangelo, 116 162-3
Ethiopia, 27, 60 second phase of attack on Islam, 8
Europe, 15, 330 theory of divergent readings, xx, 115,
Euting,]., 115 151, 155-9
exegetical commentary, 162-3 Goshen-Gottstein, Moshe, 248
Exodus, 216 gospels
Ezra, 224 ascension of Christ, 297-8
authors of, 280-1
commaJohanneum, 284, 290-1, 295
Fadak (city), 18 difficulties of using as historical
al-Fadl bin Shadhan, 196 document, 266-7
al-Falaq, sura, 199 inspiration, 281-2
al-Fatiha, sura, 199 loss of, 66
Fatima bint al-Khattab, 61, 67 oldest dated manuscripts, xvi-xvii
Fatima, daughter of the Prophet, 52,201 Qgospel, 277, 279-80,296
Fazlur-Rahman, 7 Greek Orthodox Church, 284
Festival of Shelters, 217 Greek religion, 225
Fihr, tombstone of, 118 Greek scripts, 285-8
fiqh, influence of on the Talmud, 250-1 Gruendler, Beatrice, lI5, 118-21, 128
al-Firabri, 182 Guardi brothers, 319
Fischman, Dennis, 334 Guidi, 143
fitna, 168 Guillaume, A., 309-10
Fltigel, 308-9
folklore, use of isnads in, 191
al-Fraheedi, Khalil bin Ahmad, 140-2, Habakkuk, 216
145,248 hadith
Freud, Sigmund, 335 applying principles of to Christian
Frost, David, 334 texts, 207
al-Funaisan, Sa'ud, 148 authentication of, 172-7
Funk, Robert, 267-8 classification of narrators, 175-7
development of isnad system, 167-71
establishing authorship of
Gabriel. SeeJibril compilations, 182-4
Gad, 214 impact of on other sciences, 191-2
Geiger, Abraham, 8 meticulous documentation of, xviii
Genesis, 256-8 preserving hadith books from
German, 130 adulteration, 178-84
gharib hadlths, 177 reading certificates, 184--91
al-Gassani, Muhammad bin 'Ubaid, 139 resolving contradictions, 176
Ghassanid kingdom, 18 testing accuracy of narrators, 174--5
Ghifar (tribe), 153 transmission of compilations, 187-91
Gibb,332 Hadramout, 36
glosses, 182 al-Hafad, 203
God. See Allah Hafsa bint 'Umar
Gokalp, Ziya, 10 duplication of suhuf of, 88
golden calf, 216-7 entrusted with the suhuf, 86
36
suhuf compared with 'Uthrnan's Hisham bin Hakim, 62, 152
compilation, 92-93 history, use of isnads in, 191
Ha.jar (Hagar), 16,211-2,256 homoioteleuton, 243-4
al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf al-Thaqafi homosexuality, accusations againstJesus,
accused of altering the Qur'an, 102-3 269
credited with compilation of Qur'an, Hort,303
315 Hoskyns, Edwvn, 280
distribution of mushafs, 104 I:Iubba bint Hulail, 19
divisions of the Qur'an, 105, 114 Hudaibiya peace treaty, 34
al-Hajrl, tombstone, 125-6 J:Iudaij bin Mu'awiya, 105
Hakim bin Hizam, 34 Hudhaifa bin al-Yaman, 88, 97
al-HamadanI,202 Hudhaifa bin Mihsin al-Ghaiafani, 36
Haman, 306-7 H udhail, dialect of, 87
Hamidullah, M., 38 huffaz, 64--66
Harnmad bin Salama, 174-5,203 preservation of the Qur'an, 165, 305
Hammurabi, code of, 235 role in compilation of Qur'an, 83
al-Hamqatain (city), 36 Hukuma (early Makkan institution), 21
Hamza bin 'Abdul Muttalib, 27 Hulwan-un-nafr (early Makkan
ha-Nasi, Rabbijudah, 250 institution), 21
Hani' al-Barbari, 90 Humphreys, R. S., 6-7,332,337
haplography, 151,243 Hunain bin Ishaq, 143, 145, 248
Haran, 213 Hurgronje, Snouck, 8, 326-7
al-Harith bin al-A'war, 58 al-Husain, 200
al-Harith bin Hisharn, 46 Husain, Taha, 7
harmonisation, 289 hypocrites, 31
Harran, 118, 122
Harun (Aaron), 216-7
Harun bin 'Urnar, 91 'Ikrirna bin AbiJahl, 36, 37, 132
al-Hasan, 200 'Imaratul-bait (early Makkan institution),
Hasan, 'Izzat, 143, 148 21
Hashim dan, boycott of, 28-29 'lsa (Jesus)
Healy, J. E, 119 accusations of homosexuality and
Hebrew, not original language of Torah, adultery, 269
232-4 ascension, 297-8
Hejazi script, xvi, 116, 159 crucifixion, xviii
Hellenism, 295 disciples of, 259-72
Hellenistic rule of the Israelites, 224-6, establishing existence of, 265-9
231 finite scope of message, 41
Heradius, letter to, 123--4 idea of divinity of absent from Q
Hertzberg, 335 gospel, 279-80, 296
Hezekiah, 223 language of, 268
Hijaba (early Makkan institution), 21 life of, from secondary sources, 266-8
Hilkia,223 message of repentance, 272-6
iHillel, 237 non-Christian references to, 266
iJ:Iim~ (city), 37, 85 witnesses of burial and resurrection,
\J:IIra (KUfa), ]8, 36 207
Hira' (cave), 25 i'Iam (muhaddithin term), 179
Hiraql (Heradius), letter to, 123--4 Ibn 'Abbas. See 'Abdullah bin 'Abbas
Firschfeld, 307 Ibn AbI an-Najnd, 153
364 INDEX
Ibn AbI Dawud, 161 prayer of, 44
Ibn AbI Laila, 107 prophethood, 41
Ibn AUI Shaiba, Musannaf of, 180 sacrifice of Isma'll, 17
Ibn 'Asakir,89 Ibrahirn al-Nakha'i, 105-6, 148
Ibn al-Bawwab, 114, 134---5 idolatry, among the Israelites, 220-4
Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani Ifada (early Makkan institution), 21
committee for compilation of Qur'an, Ijaza (early Makkan institution), 21
89 Ijaza (muhaddithin term), 179
on Ibn Mas'ud's Mushaf 201 Imamate, 56-57, 204
on Quraish dialect, 88 impartiality, 327-31
on witnesses, 80 Imru' al-Kais, 118, 120
Ibn al-Hanafiya, 106 Indonesia, 327
Ibn Hazm, 'All bin Sa'ld, 20 I inheritance, 79
Ibn Ishaq, 48-49 inspiration, 281-2
Ibn Ma'ln, 168, 174---5 instructions of 'Uthman, 96-97
Ibn Maja, sunan of, 187-91 interpolations, 182
Ibn Majisbun, 178 Iqlaimis, Yusuf Dawiid, 143-5
Ibn Mas'ud. See 'Abdullah bin Mas'ud Iraq, 36, 102
Ibn Mas'ud's Mushaf irregularities in non-Qur'anic script,
alleged variations, 195-6 145-8
analysis of contents, 200-20I Ishaq, 4], 21]-2
arrangement of, 196-7 Ishmael. See Isma'Il
attribution of aberrant readings, 198 Islam
lack of evidence of variations in, 160 bias of modem Orientalist studies,
omitted siiras, 199-202 330---1
Ibn Miqsarn, 205 compared to Christianity andJudaism,
Ibn al-Mubarak, 172 41, 54
Ibn Mujahid, 153, 156, 203 influence onJudaism, 247-51
fun al-Musayyib, 106 perverted view of, 330
Ibn Qudama al-Maqdisi, 188-91 revisionism, 3-9, 327
Ibn Qutaiba, 103 secularisation, 10
Ibn as-Sabbagh, 20 I studied with Western terminology,
Ibn Shabba, 102, 104 208, 305-6
Ibn Shanbndh, 205 Islamic world
Ibn SInn, 13,88, 145, 168, 34l perceived threat of, 330
Ibn Tariq, l88 rapid military gains of, 37-39
Ibn Urn Maktiim, 46, 47, 60 revisionism, 7-9
Ibn Ushta, 91, 120, 140 spread into Persia, 36-37
Ibn 'Uyayna, 200 Isma'tl (Ishmael)
Ibn Wahb, 178, 185 biblical account, 211-2
Ibn Zabala, 104 birth of, 16
Ibn az-Zubair, See 'Abdullah bin az-Zubair language of, ]20-1
Ibrahim (Abraham) prophethood, 41
and Makkah, 16-19 sacrifice, I 7
biblical account, 211-2 textual corruption concerning, 256-61
building of the Ka'ba, 17 Isma'il al-Qust, l40
corruption of OT texts concerning, isnad system
256-8 authentication of isnads, 172-7
INDEX 365
development of, 167-71 on FlUgel's edition of Qur'an, 309
extended to protect books of scholars, historical works on Qur'an, 304
178-84 on multiple readings of Qur'an, 155-9
for qira'at, 203 reference to sources without isnad,
impact of on other sciences, 191-2 159,195
in transmission of Qur'an, 156, 192-3 second phase of attack on Islam, 6
personal contact, 167 use of Biblical terminology, 208
proliferation of hadith, 168-71 Jehoahaz, 223
quoting, when adding additional Jehoram, 222
material, 182 Jehu, 220
rejected by Oricntalists, 159 Jericho, 218
resolving contradictory hadiths, 176 Jeroboam, 219
testing accuracy of narrators, 174-5 Jerusalem, 224
unbroken chain, 175--6 Jesus. See '!sa:
Isra', See nocturnal journey Jews
Israel, 211 aftertheInqu~rtion,334
as concept of fantasy, 232 the Ark, 218
kings of, 219-21 Babylon, 224
languages of, 232--4 child sacrifice, 222-3
as motivation for Orientalism, 33&-8 compared with the Companions, 39
suppression of Palestinian history, disparaging remarks removed from
325-6 Bible, 291--4
third phase of attack on Islam, 8-9 early history, 211-8
Israelites. SeeJews early Jewish script, 234
Issachar, 214 establishment in Madinah, 18
Itture Sopherim, 244-5 golden calf, 216-7
Iyas bin Mu'adh, 60 Hellenistic rule, 224-6
idolatry among, 220--4
Jewish scholars, 323-5
Jabal Asis, 122 kingdom of, 218-26
Jabal sala', 123 kings of Israel, 219-21
Jabir bin 'Abdullah, 63 kings of Judah, 221--4
Jacob. See Ya'qub languages of, 232--4
Jacob of Raha, 144 modernity, 335
al:Jal;tiz, 192 promiscuity among, 220-4
Jahoshaphat, 222 schemes for liberation of, 334-5
James the disciple, 270 taking of Egyptian jewels, 215-6
Jami' of Ibn Wahb, 178, 185 treachery, 212-3
Jamnia, Council of, 241 views on 'Isa (Jesus), xviii
al-jarh wa at-Ta'dil, 175 See alsoJudaism; Old Testament
Jeffrey, Arthur Jiblil. (Gabriel), 47, 52-53, 71, 79, 153,
acknowledgement of integrity of the 201
Qur'anic text, 206 jihad, 343
alleged variations from Ibn Mas'ud, John of Damascus, 8
195 John the disciple, 270
attribution of aberrant readings to Jordan River, 218
Ibn Mas'ud, 198 Joseph. See Yusuf
disregard of isnad system, 159-60 Josephus, 212, 234, 258, 266
366 INDEX
Joshua, 218, 229 Khazraj (tribe), 18, 31
Josiah, 223, 229 Khirbet Qumran, 251
Judah, 214, 221-4 Khoury, Raif G., 146
Judaism Khubaib bin 'Ad! al-Ansari, 33
altering texts for doctrinal reasons, Khuza'a (tribe), 34
244-5 Khuzaima bin Thabit al-Ansari, 93
compared to Islam, 41 Kilpatrick, George D., 284
influence of Islam, 247-51 Kinda (tribe), 18
interpolations into texts, 182 kitab a1-Ashriba, 183-4
oral law, 236-8 Kitab of Ibn Majishiin, 178
corruption of sacred texts, 256-61 kitaba (muhaddithin term), 178
reforms, 222 Kittel, Rudolf, 238
See also Jews; Old Testament knowledge
Judas Maccabee, 225 encouragement to seek, 55, 166
Judas Escariot, 270-1 enormity of concealing, 55
Jum'a, Ibrahim, 117, 143 journeying in search of, 168
Jurhum (tribe), 16, 120 learning and teaching the Qur'an,
Juster, 266 56-59
juz' of Qur'an, 114 See also education
Koester, Helmut, 273
Kohath,214
Ka'ba Korah,217
building of, I 7 Koren, J., 337-8
custody of, 21 Kala (city), 18, 85
rebuilding of, 24 Katie script, 115,159,125-8
ka1ima shahada, xix Kung, Hans, 318
Kannengiesser, 281
Karabacek, J., 115
Karaite movement, 249 Laban, 213
Kathlr bin Aflah, 89 Lakhm (tribe), 18
al-Kattan!,68 Lambton,7
Katzman, Avi, 322-3 languages, 129-30
Kerygma, 265 colonialism, 331-2
Khabbab bin al-Aratt, 61, 67 of the Israelites, 232-4
KhadTIah bint Khuwaylid, 24, 48 Latin, 130
Khaibar (city), 18 law, use of isnads in, 191
al-Khala', 203 Leah,213-4
Khalid bin 'Amr bin 'Uthman, 104 Lebedev, V, 238
Khalid bin Iyas, 94, 97 Lemche, Niels Peter, 231
Khalid bin Sa'id bin al-'~, 36-37, 68, Leningrad Codex, 238-40
130 Lester, Toby, xv, 3-7,11, '114, 342
Khalid bin Wand, 36-37 letters of the Prophet Muhammad, 123-4
Khalid bin Yazid bin Mu'awiya, 107 Levi, 214, 228
Khalifa bin Khayyat, 192 Levy, M. A., 115
Khalid al-Hadhdha', 145 libraries, 107
Khalil an-Nami, Y, 116 linguistic analysis of sacred texts, 9-10
Khan, Ishaq, 187 literature, use of isnads in, 191
al-Khattabi, 77 Littmann, 118
INDEX 367
Liwa' (early Makkan institution), 21 early Christian Arabic manuscripts,
Lucian of Antioch, 284 116
Luke, 280, 282 establishing authorship,182--4
Luling, Gunter, 7 first century Qur'anic, 316-7
Lull, Raymond, 8 gradations, 81-82
Lunn, Arnold, 269 handling variations in, 99
Luther, Martin, 8, 269 interpolations, 182
Nuskhat Abu az-Zubair, 174
oldest dated Bible, xvi-xvii
Maacah, 222 rarity of Greek NT manuscripts,
Maccabaean dynasty, 225 285-6
Mada'in ~ale!:t (city), 119 reading certificates, 184-91
Madinah Marcosian creed, 274
constitution of, 31 Margoliouth, D. S., 163
Cragg's recommendation to abandon Mark, 280, 282
verses revealed in, 318 Marr az-Zahran (city), 34
Masjid of BanI Zuraiq, 61 Marraci, Luther, 8
migration to, 30-32 Martyr, Justin, 281
Mus'ab bin 'Urnair, 61 Marx, Karl, xix, 227, 334-6
pledgeof'Aqabah, 29-30 Mary, the blessed Virgin, 265
pre-Islamic Madinah, 18 Mashura (early Makkan institution), 21
Qur'anic education in, 61-62, 166 Masjid of Bani Zuraiq, 61
Mahara,36 al-Masri, Amin, 333
al-Mahdi (Abbasid ruler), 104 Masorah, 236-40,246-7, 249
Maimonidies, 250-1 Masruq, 106, 202
Maimun al-Aqran, 140 Massoretic text, 227
Makkah Mathew, 280, 282
building of the Ka'ba, 17 memorisation of the Qur'an, 54, 58, 83,
cheifhood of 'Abdul-Muttalib, 22 64--66, 165
conquest of, 34-35 Metzger, Bruce M., 151
early institutions, 21 Milik,j. T., 252, 255
and Ibrahim, 16-19 Mingana, A
spread of Qjir'an in, 59-61 distortion of Qur'an, 311-3
as tribal society, 20-21 historical works on Qur'an, 303
recordings of Qpr'an in, 67-68 inclination towards aberrant opinions,
Malik bin Abi:'Amir 206
compilation of Qur'an, 89-90 on date of compilation of Qur'an,
mushaf of, 100-102 315
sura separator, 109-10 refutation of claims made by, 143-5
Malik bin Anas, 100 theory on Arabic alphabet, 115--{),
Malik bin Dinar, 132 122-3, 143-5
Malik, Imam, 134-5, 178, 181, 192 theory on Qur'an, 53
Manasseh, 223, 237 on transmission of hadith, 187
manazil of Qur'an, 114 Minor Prophets scroll, 252, 255
mankind, purpose of, 43 minuscule script, 285
manuscripts al-Miqdad bin 'Amr, 32
concept of equal status, 196 miracles of the Qur'an, 48
conditions for using, 181-2 mi'raj. See nocturnal journey
368 INDEX
Miriam, 217 al-Mundhir bin Sawa, letter to, 123-4
Mishna, 226, 236-8 al-Munaggid, S., 105, 143
Islamic influence, 250-1 Munster Institute of the New Testament
al-MizzI,]amal ad-Din, 176 Textual Research, 317
modernity, 335 Mus'ab bin 'Umair, 61
Mo1ech,223 Mus'ab bin Sa'd, 94
Montefiore, Cannon Hugh, 269 Musa (Moses), 214--8
morality lack of chain of transmission from,
as condition for narrating hadith, 172 237
as condition for teaching, 172, 193 miracles, 48
Morozov, N. A., 4,7 Torah delivered to Levites, 228
Moses. See Musa Mnsa al-Asadi, 106
Moubarac, Youakirn, 11 Musa bin Isma'tl, 174-5
Mount Gerizim, 242 Musailama al-Kadhdhab, 35-36
Mu'adh bin]aba1, 64, 85 Mushafs
Mu'arada, 52 of 'All bin AbI Talib, 132
al-Mu'arrij as-Sadusi, 89 amending errors, 96-97
Mu'awiya bin AbI Sufyan, 102, 138, 140 arrangement of suras in partial
dam of, 126, 138 Mushafs, 75-76
mudtarib (muhaddithin term), 176 ayah separators, 111-4
al-Mughlra bin Shihab, 94 of Basra, 100-10 1
al-Mughlra bin Shu'ba, 79 burning of fragments, 94
al-Mughni, 188 copies made by 'Uthman, 94
al-Muhabbar, 182 dating Kufic mushafs, 125-8
muhaddithin determining whether a verse is
applying principles of to Christian Qur'anic, 203--{)
texts, 207 diacritical marks, 139-41
first generations of scholars, 177-8 divisions of the Qur'an, 105
methodologies of hadtih dotting schemes, 135~9
authentication, 172-7 first century manuscripts, 316--7
reading certificates, 184--91 al-Hajjaj's distribution of, 104
use of isnad technique to preserve of Ibn al-Bawwab, 134--5
books, 178-84 instructions of 'Uthman, 96-97
Muhajir bin AbI Umayya, 36 introduction of, 84--85
Muhammad. SeeProphet Muhammad of Kiifa, 100-101
Muhammad bin Mas1ama, 79 of Madinah, 100-101
MuJ:1il,105 of Malik bin AbI 'Amir, 100-102,
Muhriz bin Thabn, 104 109-10
Muir, Sir William, 3-4, 7, 22, 315 orthography in 'Uthman's mushaf,
Mujahid, 107 131-5
multiple readings parchments from Yemeni collection, 73
altering a word for its synonym, 162~3 partial Mushafs, 73-76
Go1dziher's theory, 151 personal Mushafs, 195
hadlth of the seven dialects, 153 private copies, 101-2
Orientalist theory of divergent of Samarqand, Ill, 128
readings, 155-9 of San'a', 112, 141-2
reason for existence of, 153 spelling conventions, 90
munawala, 178 studies on 'Uthman's mushaf, 97-99
INDEX 369
sura separators, 109-10 authorship of the gospels, 280-1
of Tashkent, III contemporary corruption of the text,
trade in, 105-7 291-4
'Uthman's independent copy of, deliberate corruption of, 277
88-99 difficulties of using as historical
variant readings, 99 document, 266-7
with irregular arrangement of suras, disciples ofJesus, 269-72
72-73 divergences within the text of, 283-4
See also Ibn Mas'ud's Mushaf doctrines and corruption, 295-3
manuscripts Erasmus Bible, 290-1
Muslim bin Mishkam, 192 inspiration, 281-2
Muslim state, stability of, 164 oldest dated manuscripts, xvi-xvii
Musnad of Ibn Hanbal, 178 rarity of Greek manuscripts, 285-6
mutaba'a (muhaddithm term), 176 recensions, 284
Muttalib clan, boycott of, 28-29 references to Prophet Muhammad,
Muwatta' of Malik, 178, 181, 192 262
Muwatta' of Shaibani, 178 scribal alterations, 288-9
scribal interpolations, 283
study of, compared with study of
Nabat bin Isma'il, 121 Qur'an, 161
Nabatean script, 115, 117 text types (Alexandrian, Byzantine,
compared with Arabic, 118-20 Caesarean, Western), 283-4
language of the Nabateans, 120-1 textual corruption, 285-9
nabldh,l72 transmission of, 282-4
Nadab,220 Westcott and Hort and the number of
an-Nadim, Muhammad, 196, 199,205 variants therein, 303
Nadwa (early Makkan institution), 21 See also Christianity; Bible
Nafi' bin Abl Nu'aim, 131 Newman, Barclay, 292
Nafi' bin Zuraib, 89 Nicene creed, 274-5
Najiya bin Rumn, 103 an-Nisa'I, sunan of, 180
Namarah, 118, 120 Nisibis, 144
Naphtali, 214 nocturnal journey (Isra' and Mi'raj), 26
narrators of hadith Noldeke, Theodor, 8, 53,115,306-7
classification of, 175-7 non-Muslims, learning from, 56
determining trustworthiness of, 172-4 North Arabic script, 116
journeying in search of knowledge, Norton, Cherry, 54
168 Nu'aim bin 'Abdullah, 67
an-Nas, sura, 199 Nul?- (Noah), 41
Nast' (early Makkan institution), 21 Nuskhat Abu az-Zubair, 174
Nasr bin 'Asim, 140
nation-state, 20, 232
an-Nawawi, Muhyiddin Yal?-ya, 201 O'Conner, 119
Nebajoth bin Isma'il, 121 Old Creed of Alexandria, 274
Nebuchadnezzar, king, 223-4 Old Testament
Negev (desert), 338 destruction of old manuscripts, 246
Neusner, j, 225, 248 discrepancies between Samaritan and
Nevo, Yehuda, 7, 337-8 Jewish versions, 242-3
New Testament edited during Hellenistic period, 231
370 INDEX
examples of deliberate corruption of, synonym theory, 162-3
256-61 theories on divergent readings, 155-9
gross overestimates of number of theories on Qur'an, 53
Israelites, 216 theory of counterfeited Bible, 307-8
history according to modern scholars, use of aberrant narrations, 159-62
230-2 use of Biblical terminology in Islamic
history of, 227-32 studies, 208, 305-6
Jewish sources of the Torah, 235 Origen, 289
lack of authoritative text, 245 original sin, 297
Leningrad Codex, 238-40 orthography
loss and rediscovery of Torah, 228-30 divergence, 204-5
Masoretic texts, 238-40 of European languages, 129-30
non-jewish sources of the Torah, history of the Arabic characters, 115-8
235-6 in non-Qur'anic script, 145-8
oral transmission of, xvi writing styles at the time of the
original language of, 232-4 Prophet, 130-1
references to Prophet Muhammad,
262
search for an authoritative text, 240-7 paid copyists, 106
study of, compared with study of palaeography, 115, 135-9
Qur'an, 161 in non-Qur'anic script, 145-8
unintentional corruption, 243-5 See also orthography
variations, 241-2 paleo-Hebrew, 232
See also Judaism; Bible Palestine
Onias III, 225 spread of Qur'an to, 85
oral law of Judaism, 236-8 suppression of history, 325-6
oral transmission of Qur'an, xv-xvi, Palestinian Talmud, 250
94-95,148 palimpset, 312
Orientalism pan names, 165
accusations of appropriation from partial Mushafs, 73-76
Jewish sources, 306-7 Pentateuch, 231, 242-3
acknowledgement of integrity of the Peres, Shimon, 334
Qur'anic text, 206 persecution of early Christians, 276
bias, 327-31 Persians, 36, 231
Blachere's distortion of Qur'an, personal Mushafs, 195
309-10 Peter the disciple, 270-1
criticism of compilation of Qur'an, Peter the Venerable, 8, 330
304-5 Pharaoh, 215
disregard for Muslim scholarship, 164 Pharisees, 241
Flugel's deliberate distortions of Pharos, 16
Qur'an, 308-9 Philistines, Ark lost to, 229
Hurgronje, Snouck, 326-7 Phoenician alphabet, 115
Israel as motivation of, 336-8 plagues of Egypt, 215
Jewish analogue, 321-5 pledge of 'Aqaba, 29-30
motives for study, 331-8 pointing, 247-9
necessity of proving distortions in politicised Islam, 318
Qur'an, 303 polytheists, effects of the Qur'an on,
San 'a' fragments, 314-8 48-50
INDEX 371
Power, 9 Qgospel, 277-8, 279-80, 296
prayer qari',94-95,197
as means of preservation of Qur'an, qira'at
204 as surma, 152-4
Imamate, 56-57 inaccuracies in, 204
order of verses, 72 isnads for, 203
pre-Islamic era Qiyada (early Makkan institution), 21
Arab religion, 22-23 Qubba (early Makkan institution), 21
development of the Arabic script, Quda'a (tribe), 36
115-8 Qumran, 245, 251-6
early Arabic alphabet, 122-4 Qur'an
Madinah (Yathrib), 18 altering a word for its synonym, j 62-3
Nabatean as dialect of Arabic, 118-21 and anti-Semitism, 339
use of skeletal dots, 136 7 arrangement of verse and suras,
Presbyters, 274 69-72, 72-76
Pretzl, 0., 304 assault against, 342-3
private copies of the Qur'an, 101-2 attempts to reduce to a cultural text, 9
promiscuity among the Israelites, 220-4 avoiding dissension through, 58-59
proofreading of the Qur'an, 69, 106 calls for reinterpretation of, II
Prophet Muhammad (~) compared with the Bible, 54
accusations of sorcery, 50 deliberate Orientalist distortions of,
the amin, 24 308-15
arrangement of the Qur'an, 70-71 determining whether a verse belongs
assassination attempt, 30 to, 203-6
battles of, 31-32 dialects, 62-63
birth of, 24 disputes in recitation, 87-88
death of, 35-36 education of, 59-61, 60-64
final messenger, 44-45 effects on the polytheists, 48-50
first revelation, 25 enormity of forgetting, 58
letters of, 123-4 first century manuscripts, 316-7
in Madinah, 30-32 first revelation, 25, 47-48
marriage to Khadijah, 24 4ufIa~, 64-66
migration to Madinah, 30 learning and teaching, 56-59
miracles preceding his prophethood, merit of merely listening to, 57
25 oral transmission, 94-95, 148
preaching openly, 26-27 Orientalist theories on, 53
references to in the Bible, 262 preservation of, 51, 77
roles regarding the Qur'an, 50-51 proofreading of, 69, 106
states during revelation, 46-47 recitation with]ibrll, 52-53
as teacher of the Qur'an, 59-60 revelation of, 45-47
temptations offered by the Quraish, revisionism, 3-9
27-28 searches for ulterior sources, 8
universality of, 41 substituting with translations, 10
prophcthood, 41 theory of counterfeited Bible, 307-8
prophets arc sinless, xx written recordings of, 67-68, 83
message of the prophets, 43-44 See also compilation of Qur'an;
public libraries, 107 mushafs; multiple readings; suhuf;
Puin, G.-R.]oseph, 4-7,11-12,314-8 manuscripts; San'a'; recitation of
372 INDEX
Qur'an; silras; 'Uthman's Roman empire
Mushaf; Zaid bin Thabit conquest of Jerusalem, 225
Quraish loss of Syria, 37
boycott of Muslims, 28-29 persecution of early Christians, 276
dialect of, 87-88 Rowley, 230
Qusayy, 19-21
al-Qurazt, 196
Qu~ayy, 19-21 Sa'd bin AbI Waqq~, 26, 59
Quzu'ah (tribe), 36 Sa'd bin Mu'adh, 33
Sadana (early Makkan institution), 21
Safwan bin Umayya, 33
RabbiAJciba,246-7 Sahaba, See Companions
RabbiJudah ha-Nasi, 250 Sahih of al-Bukhari, 178, 180
Rachel, 213-4 SaW bin Sa'd al-Ansari, 63
Rafada (early Makkan institution), 21, 22 Sa'Id bin al-'A~, 89
Rafi' bin Malik al-Ansari, 60, 68 Sa'id binJubair, 106
Raqush tombstone, 119, 136 Sa'Id bin Zaid, 61, 67
Ras Shamra, 236 Said, Edward, xix, 327, 330
Raza Library Collection, 131 Sa'td, Yusuf, 143
Razln bin Anas as-Sulami, 130 Sajah bint al-Harith bin Suwaid, 35,
reading certificates, 184--91 36-37
Rebekah, 212-3 Sakaka (city), 136
recensions of the New Testament, 284 Sa1arJung Museum, 75-76
recitation of Qur'an Salat. See prayer
disputes in, 87-88 Salim bin 'Abdullah, 107
with exegetical commentary, 162-3 Salma bint 'Arnr; 21
Orientalist synonym theory, 162--3 Saltykov-Shchedrin Library, 238
as prophetic role, 50-51 sama' (muhaddithm term), 178
assunna, 152~3 Samaritans, 242~3
reciters, 94--95 Samarqand, mushaf of, Ill, 128
the seven most distinguished, 197 Samuel, 218
use of the isnad system, 192 as-Samhudi, 104
Reeland, Adrian, 327 San'a'
Rehoboam,219,221 fragments, 4--6, 12,314--8
Reimarus, Hermann, 267, 272 mushafs of, 112
religion, uprooting of, 336 mushafs showing diacritical marks,
resurrection ofJesus, 207 141-2
Reuben, 214 Sarah (Sarah), 16,211-2,256-8
revelation Sarawat mountains, 15
first descent of, 25, 47-48 Sassanid dynasty, 38
of Qur'an, 45-47 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 335
Orientalist theories on, 53 Saul,218
suitability of the Arabic language, 164 Sauvaget,J. 81
revisionism, 3-9, 327 Sawwar bin Shabib, 90
ar-rihla, 168 Schacht, Joseph, 8, 305, 326, 332-3
Flippin, Andrew, 5, 9 scholars, 177-8
Robert of Ketton, 8 conditions for using a book, 181-2
Robson, j., 187 ideological incompatibility, 325
INDEX 373
schools. See education Spanish Inquisition, 333--4
Schuror, 266 square script, 234
scribes Starcky,j., 115
interpolating into texts, 182 stone tablets, 216-7
of the Qur'an, 67-68 Strack, H., 333
writing styles, 130-1 Strugnell,john, 322-3
Second Temple, 224--5 Succeeding Successors, 177
seeularisation, 11, 331-2 Successors, 177
Seir, gods of, 222 Suffa, 61-62
Semites, 15-16 Sufyan ath-Thawri, 191
Seperation~m,277 suhuf
Septuagint, 242 archival of, 84--85
seven dialects, 153 compared with 'Uthman's
seven reciters, 197 compilation, 90-93
shadh (muhaddithin term), 176,202 compilation of, 84--85
shahada, xix duplication of, 88
Shaiba ibn Hashim. See'Abdul-Muttalib entrusted to Hafsa bint 'Umar, 86
ash-Shaibani, 202 Sulaim (tribe), 36
Shaibani, Muhammad, 178 Sulaiman (Solomon), 41, 219
Shammai, 237 as-Sulami, 161, 202
Shanks, H., 253, 324, 326 Sumatra (major island in the
Shapham, 223 Indonesian archipelago), 327
ash-Sharq al-Awsat, 4 Sunan Ibn Maja, 187-91
Shechem, 242-3 sunna,39
Shiite Islam and the Qur'an, 197-8 siiras
Shiloh, temple of, 218 basmala as separator, 109
Shurahbil bin Hasana, 36 omitted stiras in Ibn Mas'ud's
Shuraih, 106 Mushaf, 199--202
Sibawaih, 145 separators in mushaf of Malik bin
Sillirah (early Makkan institution), 21 AbI 'Amir, 102
Simeon, 214 title as separator, 110
Siqaya (early Makkan institution), 21,22 Suwaid bin Muqarrin, 36
Strat Ibn Ishaq, 309-10 Suwaid bin Sa'Id al-Hadathanl, 181
skeletal dots, 135-9 Suwaid bin ~amit, 60
lack of as basis of Orientalist theory, 151, as-Suyuti, JalaludIn, 59, 172
155-9 Syal, Rajeev, 54
sources of, 143-5 synonym theory, 162-3
Smith, A., 303 Syria, 37, 85
Smith, G. R., 119 Syriac script, 115-6, 143-5
Smith, W.C., 11
Socialism, 334
Solomon. See Sulaiman at-Tabari, 310
Son of God Tabernacles, 228
idea absent from Qgospel, 279--80, tabi'In, 177
296 Tacitus, 266
in Greek manuscripts, 286-8 tafslr literature,
Son of man, 288 Western criticism of, 11
Soviet scholars, 4 use of isnads in, 191
374 INDEX
Tahama,36 transposition, 151
Tahir bin Muhammad al-Maqdisi, 188 tribal societies, 20-21
Ta'if (city), 18, 126 Trinity
Taima' (city), 18, 23 based on questionable verses, 295
Tall)a bin 'Ubaidullah, 26, 59 CommaJohanneum, 284, 29{}-1, 295
Talmon, Shemaryahu, 241-2 contradicts oneness of God, 41
Talmud, 226 in Greek manuscripts, 286-8
alteration of text, 235 idea of Son of God absent from Q
Islamic influence, 250- 1 gospel, 279, 296
opinion on 'Isa, xviii introduction into creed, 274--5
pointing (vocalization), 247-9 as proof that the Qur'an is not
See also Babylonian Talmud, counterfeit, 307--8
Palestinian Talmud trustworthiness of hadith narrators,
Tarnirn ad-Dart, 343 172-4, 175
Tashkent, mushaf of, III Tulaiha bin Khuwailid, 35-36
tawatur,83 Turaifa bin Hajiz, 36
at-Tawba, sura, 83~84 Turk ve Islam Eserleri Miizesi, 317
Tavy mountains, 18 Turkey
Tayy (tribe), 18, 23 attempts to replace the Qur'an, 10
Temple of Solomon, 219 shelter forJews after the Inquisition,
Ten Commandments forgotten, 54 334
terminus datum of Qumran, 252-6 Tyndalc, William, 206
Tha'liba (tribe), 18
Thaur (cave),30
Theophilus, 144 'Ubada bin as-Samit, 55, 63, 85
thiqa (muhaddithln term), 172, 175 'Ubaidullah bin Ziyad, 133
Tiberian system, 249 Ubayy bin Ka'b
Tiqqune Sopherim, 244--5 among the authority reciters, 197
at-Tirrnidhi, Sunan of, 180 in committee for compilation of
Tisdall, 8, 303, 332 Qur'an,89
title of sura, as separator, 110 differences in recitation, 152
tolerance, 10-11 hadith of the seven dialects, 153
Tolstov,7 mushaf of; 72,195,201,203
tombstone of al-Hajrl, 125-6 on placement of verses, 71
tombstone of Aswan, 125 reciting Qur'an to the Prophet, 52
tombstone of Filir, 118 spelling conventions, 90
Topkapi Sarayi, 105 as teacher of the Companions, 62-63
Torah Ubulla (city), 36
delivered to Levites, 228 Ulrich, Eugene, 324
history according to modern scholars, 'Urnar bin al-Khattab
23{}-2 compilation of Qur'an, 78, 305
Jewish sources of, 235 conversion of, 67
loss and rediscovery of, 228-30 development of diacritical marks, 139
See also Old Testament, Talmud; differences in recitation, 152
Judaism hadith about the Qur'an, 57
trade in mushafs, 105-7 hadith used as proof for synonym
translations of the Qur'an, 10 theory, 162
transmission of hadith compilations, learnt directly from the Prophet, 62
187-91 role in spread of Qur'an, 85-86
INDEX 375
territory gained by, 37-39 Vernes, Geza, 324
use of skeletal dots during reign of, de Vogue, M., 115
137 von Dobschutz, 266
use of the word 'adl, 172 vow of 'Abdul-Muttalib, 22
'Umar bin Shabba, 90
Umayyad caliphate, 102
Umm al:Jimal (city), 118 Wabra bin Yuhannas, 64
Um-Sa'td bint Buzrug, 64 Wadi Murabba'at, 245, 251-6
uncial script, 285 al-Wali, 'Ali 'Abdul-WaJ.:1id, 143
universalism, 11 wahy See revelation
'Uqab (early Makkan institution), 21 al-Walid bin al-Mughlra, 49-50
'Lqba bin 'knir, 63 Wansbrough, xviii, 6-7, 9, 305, 333,
'Uqba bin Nafi' al-Fihri, 105 337-8
Uriah,218-9 al-Waqidl,61
Usaid bin Hudair, 57 wasiyya (rnuhaddithln term), 178
Usul al-Fiqh, 251 Wensinck, A.]., xix
'Utba bin Rabi'a, 27-28, 60 Westcott, 303
'Uthrnan bin 'Affan Western text, NT text type, 283
among the authority reciters, 197 Whitelam, Keith, 325-6
arrangement of the Qur'an, 73 wijada (muhaddithin term), 179
Bayt al-Qaratis, 166 Wilfmson, I., 117, 143
conversion of, 59 witnesses
hadith on learning the Qur'an, 56 chain of authority (isnads), 159-60
how isnad system was introduced, 168 compilation of the Qur'an, 305
independent copy of mushaf 88~97 law of, 79-80
instructions concerning mushafs, personal contact, 167
96-97 worship, 41, 43
introduction of the mushaf, 84-85 written verses, 83
oral transmission of Qur'an, 148 diacritical marks, 139-41
resolving differences in recitation, 88 dotting schemes, 135-9
territory gained by, 37-39 writing styles, 130-1
See also 'Uthman's Mushaf Wurthwein, Ernst, 151,234,240-1,247
'Uthman bin Abl a1-'A.~, 62, 71
'Uthrnan bin Maz'nn, 59
'Uthrnan's Mushaf Ya'la,46
deviating from, 205-6 Ya'qub (Jacob), 41,212-4
Orientalist theory of divergent Yahya bin Ab! Kathir; 148
readings, 155-9 YaJ.:1ya bin Ya'rnar, 140, 145
orthography of, 131-5 Yarnama, 36, 78
status of, 195 Yathrib. See Madinah
studies on, 97 -99 Yazld al-Farsi, 133
use of basmala, 109 Yazid bin 'Abdullah bin Qusait, 86
Uzziah,222 Yazid bin Abi Sufyan, 37, 85
Yemen
rnushafs of San'a', 112, 141-2
Valerian (Roman emperor), 276 parchments from Yemeni collection, 73
Van Buren, Mascall, 10 Sari'a' fragments, 4-6, 12,314-8
variant readings. See multiple readings Ytisuf (Joseph), 41, 214
376 INDEX
Zabad (city), 118, 122 reciting Qur'an to the Prophet, 52
Zahn, 266 as scribe of the Prophet, 69
Zaid bin Thabit on sunna of qira'at, 154
Abu Bakr's instructions to, 79-81 Zamzam, 16,22
among the authority reciters, 197 az-Zarakhshi, Badruddin, 83
arrangement of the Qur'an, 71, 73 Zebu1um, 214
compilation of the Qur'an, 77-78, Zedekiah, 223--4
89-90 Zeus, alters to, inJerusalem, 225
credentials of, 78-79 Zilpah,214
handling of variant readings, 99 Zirr bin Hubaish, 200, 202
memorisation of Qur'an, 61 az-Zubair bin 'Am, 174
methodology of compilation, 81-85 az-Zubair bin al-'Awwam, 26, 59
on mode of revelation, 46 az-Zuhri, 68
as reciter, 94 Zuraiq (tribe), 61
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