ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES I Made Sujana – the University of Mataram • English for Basic Science • English for Social Sciences • English for Language & Culture • English for Humanism Needs Analysis Target Situation (TSA) Present Situation (PSA) Learning Situation (LSA)
CHAPTER #1 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING (ELL) AND THEIR RELATION TO INNOVATION ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAINING (ELT) I Made Sujana English Education Department University of Mataram Basic Competency: After completing this chapter, learners are expected to be able to understand the principles of ELL and translate them into the innovation in ELT. Achievement Indicators: 1. Learners are able to explain the Principles on English Language Learning (ELL); 2. Learners are able to translate these principles into the innovation to English Language Teaching (ELT)
CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING (ELL) AND THEIR RELATION TO INNOVATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAINING (ELT) INTRODUCTION English in Indonesia setting is called as an EFL (English as a Foreign Language), in which the language is usually learned and used only in classroom contexts The ultimate goal of learning a foreign language is that the learners are able to use the language communicatively and contextually. To achieve this target, the teaching and learning process must be planned and implemented by considering various aspects of language teaching and learning, both theoretically and practically. One consideration needs to be taken into account is the shift attention on the role of learners and teachers in current practice of education. Stevick (cited in Sheerin, 1991) states that the role of the teachers and learners in traditional learning style needs to be changed in order to optimize learning achievement. He suggests the change of the role as follows: Teachers paternal/assertive ---------> fraternal/permissive dispenser of knowledge ---------> resource person fostering dependence ---------> training for independence Students passive ---------> active no responsible for learning ----------> assume responsibility for learning seeking approval ---------> doing without overt approval submissive ---------> involved in decision-making It is clear from the description above that learners take central role in learning and the teachers take the role of facilitators. Given responsibility in learning, the learners will be able to improve their Engilsh effectively and efficiently. Based on the research, Naiman, et al. (cited in Sheerin, 1990) conclude that the good language learners are those who are given freedom and responsibility in learning on their own way. The major target of learning a foreign language is that the learners are able to use the language
There is a shift in the role of teachers and learners in education from teachercentered view to learner-centered view and current education. In this sense the learners are given more responsibilities by negotiating to manage and direct their own learning. We cannot teach all what we teachers have to our students, so build their responsibilities to independent study by developing ‘learning how to learn skills’ A learner-centered approach has become a focus in teaching and learning process encourage by negotiation and through development of learning how to learn A. PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING (ELL) This material is intended to provide overview about what made students learn language best. The understanding of these principles will help teachers to select appropriate actions for preparing teaching and learning programs. These principles will raise innovations of ELT Scarino, et al. (1994) proposed the eight principles of ELT by reflecting when students learn language best. Those principles are: 1. Learners learn language best when they are treated as individuals with their own needs and interests. Every group of learners has its own needs and interest in learning a foreign or second language. The fulfillment of the needs and interest will form ‘positive attitude’ toward learning. The positive attitude will lead to active participation in learning. The learning will be easy when learners open their mind to learn and participate independently. In relation to the importance needs and interest in learning, Hammer (2007) commented that we can drag a horse to the river but we cannot make it drink. Such a big and powerful animal is still possible to be dragged to a river, but we cannot guarantee that the horse is willing to drink until it feels thirsty. The same happens in teaching and learning process. The teacher can force students to be in class. Therefore, it is very important to consider learners’ needs and interests prior to design and implement language teaching program. Scarino, et al. (1994) suggest that the fulfillment of needs interests in language learning can be done by:
o considering learners’ whole aspects of development (i.e. intellectual, social, and affective) when specifying the content and processes of learning; o engaging learners’ intellect through various activities such as problem solving, information gap, jigsaw, etc; o appealing to learners’ imagination and harnessing their creativity through, for example, simulations, games, stories, drama, self-created fantasies, visuals, etc.; o employing strategies and selecting activities that accommodate individual differences, leaning styles, and language background; o providing different kinds of supports and feedback to accommodate different needs. o creating opportunities for learners to express their own opinions and ideas. 2. Learners learn language best when they are provided with opportunities to participate in communicative use of the target language in a wide range of activities. Mastering language through ‘learning process’ is different from that through ‘acquisition process’. Language acquisition takes place subconsciously in community where the language is used. The learners are surrounded by ‘language model’ --- wherever they go, they will listen and use the language. However, language learning takes place in formal classroom. The target language is mostly heard in the classroom contexts since they rarely have or even have no chance to communicate outside the class. Therefore, it is important to maximize learners’ opportunities to use the target language in the classroom and extend it outside the class. Communication class is regarded as ‘fail’ if a learner keeps silent or doesn’t participate in 15 minutes [Consider your Speaking 1, 2, 3 at your department: ‘how much do you speak in a 100-minute class meeting?”] The learners’ participation in using the target language can be done by: o encouraging and promoting learners’ active involvement in communication activities;
o promoting genuine communication with various parties (teacher - learners, learners-learners, native speakers, etc.) and in various forms (face-to-face, pen pal or correspondence, sharing opinion through social media, etc.; o providing a variety of activities based on a range of suitably graded spoken and written communicative data: activities engaged in for pleasure activities involving problem solving, information or opinion gaps, class survey, reading race, games simulation and drama activities projects (magazine, cultural performance, posters, exhibitions, etc.) study tours overseas or visiting native speakers in local community. 3. Learners learn a language best when they are exposed to communicative data which is comprehensible and relevant to their own needs and interests. Reflect your own experiences in learning English at schools: “What happened when you were given materials which were too difficult for you? or When the materials were too easy for you?”. The materials which are too difficult will make learners frustrated while the easy ones will make them bored. Krashen proposed that language is acquired through exposure to input that is comprehensible and just beyond the current ability. Therefore, it is necessary to break down the language teaching and learning into levels. The lower level becomes prerequisite for the higher level. ADVANCED 8 PRE ADVANCED 7 POST-INTERM 6 UPPER-INTERM 5 INTERM. 4 PRE-INTER 3 ELEM 2 BASIC 1 Picture 1: Stages in Course Levels
One consideration that needs to be taken into account in ELT is teaching materials in terms of levels of difficulties, complexities, and relevance. In relation to this, Stephen Khrasen (1982) proposed that i + 1 4. Learners learn a language best when they focus deliberately on various language forms, skills, and strategies in order to support the process of language acquisition. The target of learning language is to be able to use the language for communication (in both spoken and written forms). Communication is mastered through process of ‘acquisition’ (subconscious) and through process of ‘learning’ (conscious process). In the process of acquisition, learners acquire the language unconsciously in their environments. It is made possible because learners are surrounded by the target language; they are exposed by extensive language use and models. In learning process, learners are consciously learn the language in limited contexts (e.g. a formal classroom). Limited models and exposure of the target language make the learning process to be separated. The teachers deliberately separate materials into language forms (vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation), language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and strategies. Since the main goal of learning language is to be able to use the language, the learners should be provided with the chance to integrate forms, skills, and strategies into communication. Criticism to the form of ELT in Indonesia contexts is that the learners are provided with knowledge of language forms, skills, and strategies without adequate practices using it. As a result, Indonesian students have a lot of grammar, vocabulary in mind, but they are not confident enough to use the language for communication. In short, in mastering language through learning process in formal contexts, it is difficult to learn the language directly to be able to communicate. It must be deliberately focused separate forms, skills, and strategies. Since the target of learning language is to be able to use the language, those forms and skills, and strategies must be blended through practices. Learning language is learning skills. It cannot be mastered just by learning knowledge of the language. It must be learned through practices to use the language. However, it is important to introduce the language forms, skills, and strategies prior to ‘mixing’ them in communication (spoken or written). Scarino, et al.
(1994) suggest that the process of language learning in foreign language contexts can be done by: o focusing on forms (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation), skills, strategies, and item of general knowledge as an integral part of language learning experience. At the appropriate time, they are supported to develop and mobilize the language knowledge (resource) to language use. o focusing on forms, skills, strategies, and items of general knowledge through a range of exercises carried out prior to, during, or after undertaking communication activities. o providing various activities capable of personalizing and contextualizing their learning through individuals, group work, or pair work in both spoken and written form. o teaching pronunciation as an integral part of oral language use, working on stress, intonation, rhythm and pausing, and using language in context. o providing learners with opportunities to reflect their own meaning contextually and encouraging them to work together to draw conclusions on language use they are learning. 5. Leaners learn a language best when they are exposed to socio-cultural data and direct experience of the culture(s) embedded within the target language. Miscommunication between Native Speakers of English and Non-native speaker is sometimes not caused by the linguistic aspects but caused by cultures underlying the communication. Language and culture are two sides of the same coin. They cannot be separated 6. Learners learn a language best when they become aware of the role and nature of language and culture. Since the role of cultures is important in language learning, the language and cultures underlying communication must be taught explicitly in language learning. They can be done by: o emphasizing and making general features of language and culture and their role in society explicit to learners. o emphasizing not only learning language, but also learning through language, and learning about language.
o promoting language awareness through: introducing rhyming games, spelling games, and other forms of paying with words and meanings. asking learners to reflect their own learning experiences related to language, language learning, and language use. fostering a school policy on various language use at school either through formal class (language across curriculum) or outside class (e.g. English zone) o providing experience of various cultures followed by guided reflection to build up culture awareness and sensitivity. o reflecting learners’ experience with other cultures they have come into contact, finding similarities and differences, and the possible reasons to these. 7. Learners learn a language best when they are provided with appropriate feedback about their progress. It must be admitted that providing feedback to learners’ effort is one of weaknesses in Indonesian education contexts. Teaching parallel classes with big number of students in one class become one of the scapegoats. Feedback is very important in language learning. The quality of language learning can be achieved by: o discussing learning goals and objectives and the ways to achieve them to learners. o making explicit the criteria of performance. o providing learners with immediate and appropriate feedback on learning process and product with suggestions on how to improve their learning. o encouraging learners to monitor their own and others’ performance. o responding to learners’ error in different ways depending on the characteristics of learners, the characteristics of the materials, the seriousness of error, and expectation. 8. Learners learn a language best when they are provided with opportunities to manage their own learning.
Self Access Language Learning (SALL) is a way of improving learners’ English on their own way, that is, by selecting materials based on their own needs and interest and by working on their own time and speed. The SALL program demands learners’ responsibilities, motivation, and diligence for learning. The SALL is very popular in today’s language teaching programs to provide learning material and access in addition to learning in formal teaching in class. The establishment of the SALL is inspired among others by (1) the development in educational psychology which now focuses on learner’s needs and attitude toward learning (see Hutchinson & Waters, 1993), (2) the change of learners’ and teachers’ roles in learning process (Stevick in Sheerin, 1991), the result of research on characteristics of a good learner(Naiman, et al, in Sheerin, 1991), and (4) the development in humanistic psychology viewing a learner as an individual (Sheerin, 1991). The development in educational psychology which emphasizes on learners’ needs and attitude towards learning has changed the paradigm of teaching English as a second and foreign language. With this paradigm, learner’s need should be prioritized in every planning step so that the learning will be effective and efficient (Hutchinson & Waters, 1993). Since the focus is on learners’ need and attitude toward learning, the learners’ role in learning should be emphasized by strengthening the role of learners and reducing, even if possible omitting, the dependence of learners on teachers. In relation to this, Stevick (cited in Sheerin, 1991) says that the role of the teachers and learners in traditional learning style needs to be changed in order to optimize learning achievement. It is clear from the description above that learners take central role in learning and the teachers take the role of facilitators. Given responsibility in learning, the learners will be able to improve their Engilsh effectively and efficiently. Based on the research, Naiman, et al. (cited in Sheerin, 1990) conclude that the good language learners are those who are given freedom and responsibility in learning on their own way. According to Sheerin (1990), the development of SAL accord to humanistic psychology seeing the learner as individual which differs from one to another in terms of needs, interest, learning habit, cognition development, language development, etc. To support learning style as expected in the description above, it is necessary to establish a centre capable of providing learning material and access in self-access mood. Carvalho (1993) suggests that the self-access centre should fulfill such criteria as interesting, attractive, relevant to students’ needs, capable of accommodating various levels, and easy and cheap to prepare. According to Brown (cited in Dickinson, 1994), the establishment of the SAC is very useful to help students get access of learning materials in self-access mood and these kinds of the materials can be used to remedy slow learners, to fulfill students’ needs and interests, to practice certain skills for active students. Furthermore, Richards &
Lockhart (cited in Detaramani & Shuk Im Chan, 1999) said that self-access materials can facilitate the different perception between teachers and students in teaching and learning process. B. INNOVATIONS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAINING (ELT) From the eight principles proposed by Scarino, et al. (1994) mentioned above, teachers need to redesign the plan and implementation in ELT. Teachers need to think about innovations in ELT. Teaching by applying of multi in ELT: multi-methods, multimedia, and multi-assessment. 1. Use an ESP Approach in Designing Course English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is an approach to designing English language teaching (ELT) based on learners’ needs (Hutchinson and Waters, 1993; DudleyEvans & St. Jones, 1998). Principle 1 from Scarino, et al. mentioned above implies that it is necessary to accommodate one’s needs in designing ELT since the fulfillment of needs (and interest) will raise their motivation and interest to learn. Fulfillment of needs can also build their positive attitude to learning. . “You can drag a horse to a river, but you cannot make it drink” The same as learners in learning English in that we teachers can force learners to learn, but we cannot guarantee they will study. 2. Apply multi-media and multi strategies on teaching and learning process The importance of media and methods in teaching and process raised in Principle 2 above is realized through some subjects in EED curriculum (Media on ELT, Teaching Method, Teaching Language Elements and skills, etc. Those subjects are intended for preparing teachers to be able to apply various methods and media based on learners’ characteristics and learning situations. 3. Provide self access materials Because of the differences in many aspects among the students, the teacher cannot satisfy all students’ at the same time. Some student progress fast, some of them have average progress and some of them are slow learners. For the students, learning in class pace makes more able students will get bored soon; while the slow learners will always get behind and get frustrated easily. Providing self access materials will solve this kind of problems. Fast learners can access other materials in order to
avoid boredom and achieve more and slow learners can repeat as needed. SelfAccess Language Learning (SALL) [What is SALL] ? will provide the materials which can be accessed individually. 4. Include culture awareness The ultimate goal of learning language is to achieve linguistically accurate and culturally appropriate. Culture is inherent in language, meaning that learning language cannot be separated from learning the culture of the target language. The language learning must include the aspects of cultures underlying the uses of the language. The teacher’s job is to identify what cultures need to be included and how to integrate the culture in language teaching without individually teaching cultures. 5. Provide immediate and appropriate feedback The problem that often arises in Indonesia’s education context is lack of feedback or late feedback. The learning will be meaningful when the students know what they have achieved. Late feedback will cause some problems to students 6. Recruit homogeneous students In the design of learning (English), it is necessary to strive for class homogeneity to facilitate program design, material selection, and the teaching and learning process. It is necessary to carry out a placement test and a needs analysis before allocating students to a particular class. B. CONCLUDING REMARKS It is necessary that course designers in ELT have awareness of various principles in order to be able to consider the teaching programs from various perspectives such as learner’s needs and interest, styles of learning, course levelling, the difference between first language learning and foreign language learning (acquisition vs. learning), the roles of feedback, the roles of cultures in language use, and many others. In English Education Department contexts, those principles have raised various innovations in the forms of pedagogical subjects such as ELT Curriculum, Lesson Plan Development, Materials Development, Language Assessment, Teaching Methods, Cross-Cultural Understanding (CCU) and Discourse Analysis, English for Specific Purposes (ESP). All those subjects are intended for preparing students to be professional teachers. EED students
must be able to blend all subjects in their considerations in designing and implementing English courses.
REFERENCES Hammer, J. 2007. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited Hutchinson, T. & A. Waters, 2010. English for Specific Purpose: A learning-center approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (main sources) Nunan, D., 1993. Introducing Discourse Analysis. Victoria: Penguin Books Australia. Peterson, P.W. (editor). 1986. ESP in Practice: Models and Challenges for Teachers. Washington DC: ELP Division USIS Robinson, P. C., 1991. ESP Today: A Practitioner's Guide. New York: Prentice Hall. Scarino, A., D. Vale, P. McKay, & J. Clark. 1994. A Learner-Centered Approach and the Application of the Eight Principles of Language Learning”, in P. Henry, et al. (eds). Foundations of Language Teaching: Reader. Geelong: Deakin University Press. Sujana, I M. 2012. “Integrating Mind Mapping and Information Gap Activities in Teaching Academic Reading”, Online Journal “ESP_World” Issue 36 No. Accessed from http://esp_world.info. Sujana, I M., 2006. Redesigning the Teaching of Reading to Improve Academic Reading and to Promote Learning-how-to learn, a paper presented at International TEFLIN Conference, UKSW Salatiga, 4-6 December
STUDENTS’ WORKSHEET/LEMBAR KERJA MAHASISWA LKM 1 Basic Competencies (KA) Understand comprehensively various principles in English language learning (ELL) and translate those principles into innovation on English language teaching (ELT) Achievement Indicators 1. Explain various principles in ELL 2. Translate those principles to innovations on ELT LEMBAR KERJA/WORKSHEET 1: REFLECTION AND DISCUSSION ON PRINCIPLES OF ELL AND INNOVATION ON ELTS 1. Based on your experience in learning English for more than 7 years, reflect “what made you learn English best” and “what made it worst. 2. Find out articles on Principles on ELL and read and discuss to your group of 3. 3. Compare the results of your experience reflection to the theories quoted. 4. From the results of your reading and discussion, what are the possible solution/innovation in E LT. 5. Share your finding with friends next to you. 6. Write a short report based on the result of your discussion.
LEMBAR KERJA/WORKSHEET 1 1. Based on your experience in learning English for more than 7 years, reflect “what made you learn English best” and “what made it worst or “what you liked and what you did not like during the class”. What made you learn language best? What made you learn language worst?
2. Read an article by Scarino, et al., 1994 “A Learner-Centered Approach and the Application of the Eight Principles of Language Learning” and summarize those principles. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________
3. Compare the results of your experience reflection to those theories/principles. To what extent do they match? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________
4. From the results of your reading and discussion, what are the possible solutions/ innovations in ELT? (Use your experience and principles to prepare your future class). Share your ideas in a small group. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
5. In a group of 3, discuss and write a mini report based on your reflections, readings, opinions, consisting of summary of your reflection, principles on ELL, and possible innovations in ELT. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________