ISJS-Transactions, Vol. 6, Issue#3&4

International School for Jain Studies C/o Firodia Hostel, 844, B.M.C.C. Road, Shivaji Nagar, Pune - 411 004 (Maharashtra), INDIA web: www.isjs.in | e-mail: [email protected] SELF STUDY IS THE SUPREME AUSTERITY FOR L J A A N IN IO S T T A U N D R EI ET S NI OOL CH S ISJS - TRANSACTIONS A Quarterly Refereed Online Research Journal on Jainism VOL. 6 No. 3 & 4 July - December, 2022 ISSN : 2457-0583 (A Division of Amar Prerana Trust)

ISSN: 2457-0583 ISJS – TRANSACTIONS A Quarterly Refereed Online Research Journal on Jainism VOL.6 No.3 & 4 July – December, 2022 CHIEF EDITOR Prof. Prakash C Jain Former Professor of Sociology School for International Studies Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Email: [email protected] EDITOR Dr. Shrinetra Pandey Joint Director International School for Jain Studies, Pune Email: [email protected] ASSISTANT EDITOR Ms. Pragya Jain Research Associate International School for Jain Studies, Pune Email: [email protected] International School for Jain Studies (A Division of Amar Prerana Trust) C/o Firodia Hostel, 844, B.M.C.C. Road, Shivaji Nagar, Pune – 411 004 (Maharashtra), INDIA website: www.isjs.in | e-mail: [email protected]

ADVISORY BOARD • Dr. Shugan Chand Jain, President, International School for Jain Studies, Pune. Email: [email protected] • Prof. S.R. Bhatt, Former Chairman, Indian Council of Philosophical Research, Ministry of Education, Government of India. Email: [email protected] • Prof. Kamal Chand Sogani, Director, Jain Vidya Sansthan, Jaipur. Email: [email protected] • Prof. Kusum Jain, Former Director, Center for Advance Philosophical Research, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. Email: [email protected] • Dr. Sulekh Chand Jain, Former President, JAINA, USA. Email: [email protected] EDITORIAL BOARD • Prof. Viney Kumar Jain, Emeritus Professor, Dept. of Yoga and Science of Living, Jain Vishva Bharati Institute, Ladnun – 341 306, Dist. Nagaur, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected] • Prof. Christopher Key Chapple, Director, Master of Arts in Yoga Studies, University Hall, Room 3763, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, California-90045, USA. Email: [email protected] • Prof. Anne Vallely, Department of Classics and Religious Studies, University of Ottawa, 55, Laurier East, Ottawa, ON, Canada- K1N 6N5. Email: [email protected] • Prof. Jayanti Lal Jain, Dean, Faculty of Humanities, Mangalayatan University, Mathura - Aligarh Highway, 33rd Milestone, Aligarh -202 145. Email: [email protected] • Prof. Priyadarshana Jain, Head, Department of Jainology, University of Madras, Chennai – 600 005. Email: [email protected] Articles can be sent in favour of International School for Jain Studies, Pune ISSN: 2457-0583 PUBLISHED BY International School for Jain Studies C/o Firodia Hostel, 844, B.M.C.C. Road, Shivaji Nagar, Pune – 411 004. Email: [email protected] © International School for Jain Studies Note: The facts and views expressed in the Journal are those of the authors only.

FROM THE CHIEF EDITOR’S DESK We are glad to present this joint issue of the ISJS-Transactions (Nos. 3 & 4) to our readers. It consists of six articles on diverse themes of Jain Studies. The first article by Prof. Patricia Rodrigues de Souza is titled “Jain Sensorial Aspects: Body as a Tool to Reach Spirituality”. It is argued here that in conjunction with the scriptural analysis, the ethnographic study of “the materiality of Jainism such as bodily conducts, clothing, iconography, offerings (pūjās), and food practices do not merely add additional information about Jain customs but enables better understanding of it.” Further on, the author argues for incorporating such sensorial aspects and knowledge in defining Jainism, or for that matter, any region. The next article “The ‘Widow Question’ in the Jain Community” by Prof. Prakash C. Jain highlights an important ancient social problem that prevailed in the community until at least the last quarter of the 29th century. The 1931 British India census data especially underscore the severity of this problem along with its two main causative factors – child marriage and polygamy, both of which were considerably “normalized” after the passage of appropriate legislations. However, another aspect of this problem, namely the customary ban on widow/divorcee remarriage, particularly in North India continues to persist in spite of the fact that public opinion as well as some other aspects of the Jain demographics has created favourable conditions for it. The third article titled “Uniqueness and Relevance of Jainism” by Dr. Shugan C. Jain highlights the unique features of Jainism as an ancient philosophical system along with its relevance in dealing with many problems of the contemporary world. Taking Jain metaphysical and ethical principles into consideration, the author argues that scientific researches in the field of atomic physics as well as human consciousness have increasingly been proving the validity of most Jain principles and practices. The Jain ethical values have especially been found relevant to today’s many social and ecological issues. The fourth article “Yoga in Jain Tradition” is authored by Dr. Priyadarshana Jain. Given the fact that yoga has been one of the most widely used concepts and practices in various Indic philosophical and religious traditions, the article naturally first defines and delineates its meaning and other unique features in the Jain tradition. Besides Agamic literature, there exist a large number of Jain texts which expounds on the concept of Yoga and its practice in the

life of a householder as well as an ascetic. The author critically examines this literature in order to profile the unique features of Jain yoga. The fifth article “Derridean Philosophical View vis-à-vis Jain View of Anekānta” by Samani Dr. Shashi Pragya critically compares certain features of anekānta with the philosophical views of the Algerian French philosopher Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) who is well-known for his philosophy of Deconstruction. Here in this article for comparison’s sake, the Derridean views “of non-stable meaning of the word, contextual change of meaning of the same word, endless deferral of signifier and signified, and the relativity of word-meaning”, etc. have been taken into consideration to conclude that “parallel acceptance of the impossibility of exhaustive cognition as well as expression of any object by an empirical human being is accepted by Jain philosophers and Jacques Derrida.” The final article in this issue is in Hindi, and is titled “Jain Śāstroṁ ke Pariprekṣya meiṁ Puṇya-Pāpa kā Bandh-hetutva” Authored by Dr. Rishabh Jain, the article deals with an intricate aspect of the Doctrine of Karma, namely the role of merits and demerits as the causative factors in the bondage of soul with the karmic matter. While the bondage due to demerits is obvious and easily explained, the bondage on account of merits requires some “technical” elaborations. This is precisely what is attempted to do in this article in the perspective of the Jain sacred texts which unanimously agree that merits as well as demerits have to be completely destroyed in order to achieve liberation. “Social Implications of Jain Doctrines” by Samani Dr. Shashi Pragya is the book that we have taken up for review in this issue of the journal. It is reviewed by Dr. Triveni Goswami Mathur. I am thankful to all the authors for contributing their scholarly papers to the journal. I am also thankful to Dr. Shugan C. Jain, President ISJS, for his continuous support and guidance. Thanks, are also due to Dr. Shrinetra Pandey for rendering his editorial skills, Ms. Pragya Jain for her editorial assistance and Mr. Sushil Jana for his technical support and putting it on our website. The readers as well as the contributors are welcome to send their valuable suggestions for improving the journal. May 17, 2023 Prakash C. Jain

CONTENT From the Chief Editor’s Desk 1 Jain Sensorial Aspects: Body as a Tool to Reach Spirituality Dr. Patricia Rodrigues de Souza 1 – 9 2 The “Widow Question” in the Jain Community Prof. Prakash C. Jain 11 – 18 3 Uniqueness and Relevance of Jainism Dr. Shugan C. Jain 19 – 30 4 Yoga in Jain Tradition Prof. Priyadarshana Jain 31 – 40 5 Derridean Philosophical View vis- à-vis Jain View of Anekānta Dr. Samani Shashi Prajna 41 – 47 6 tSu 'kkL=ksa ds ifjçs{; esa iq.;&iki dk cU/k&g srqRo Jh _"kHk tSu 49 – 58 7 Book Review – Social Implications of Jain Doctrines Dr. Triveni Goswami Mathur 59 – 60

JAIN SENSORIAL ASPECTS: BODY AS A TOOL TO REACH SPIRITUALITY Patricia Rodrigues de Souza* Abstract With reference to data drawn from both ethnography and Jain sacred scriptures, the paper argues that studying the materiality of Jainism such as bodily conducts, clothing, iconography, offerings (pūjās), and food practices do not merely add additional information about Jain customs but enables better understanding of it. Rather than defining religion only cognitively in relation to beliefs and believing in the content of sacred scriptures, this paper explores the role of sensorial aspects and knowledge produced by Jain practices. Cārittaṃ khalu dhammo “The attainment of conduct is true dharma.” – Kundakunda (Pracacanasāra 7) Introduction At first sight, Jainism presents itself as a very idealistic religion where sacred texts and rational cognition are very central. However, Jain idea of salvation (mokṣa), better translated as liberation, implies systematic bodily methodologies to provide the soul gradual detachment from bodily needs, desires, pain, and limitations, as well as all material life. Besides its sophisticated philosophy, Jain sacred scriptures such as the Tattvārthasūtra contain principles which are unfolded into other texts with precisely described conducts (samyak cāritra) for monks and householders. Although such conducts aim moral and spiritual purposes, most of them involve bodily actions and other material aspects such as offerings (dravya pūjā), specific clothing (or nakedness), limitations in relation to locomotion and direction (digvrata), possession of objects and engagement in certain activities, as well as a complex set of rules to food obtaining and consumption. Very few religions are so precise about methods and instructions for conduct, mostly consisting of very concrete actions. The Daśavaikālika Sūtra, the basic compendium of śramaṇa conduct, for example, consists of a meticulous text, almost like a practical manual which regulate daily activities. It contains, for instance, a whole chapter dedicated to procedures for begging alms – describing what is proper (kalpa), in what manner, from whom, when (frequency, times of the day), and in what places. The excerpt bellow contains a question/answer that depicts well how material such issues can be: How does one move, stand, sit, lie down, eat and speak so as to avoid the bondage of sinful karma?1 * M.D., Ph.D. in Religious Studies from Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, Brazil. Researcher in Religion & Food and Material Religion. ISJS Alumni (2022). Email: [email protected] 1 kahaṁ care kahaṁ ciṭṭhe kahamāse kahaṁ sae | kahaṁ bhuñjanto bhāsanto pāvaṁ kammaṁ na bandhai || (Daśavaikāsika 4.23.7)

2 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 If one moves with care, stands with care, sits with care, lies down with care, eats with care and speaks with care, he avoids bondage of sinful karmas.2 Such texts on conducts impress by the exactitude they offer on the instructions and the detailed explanations, as it is again expressed in another text on conduct for householders, the Ratnakaraṇḍa Śrāvakacāra, from Ācārya Samantabhadra: Abstaining from taking the four kinds of food for the whole day on the 8th and the 14th [days of every fortnight), with a view to strengthen the vows, should be known as the proṣadhopavāsa vow.3 Explanation: The four kinds of food are: (i) solid, (ii) liquid, (iii) semi-liquid and (iv) things like betel leaf, which do not serve the purpose of food, but are taken for relish. In the same book one also finds very accurate procedures for the moment of death, which is called Sallekhanā and it provides a gradual and careful disconnection from the body. Conducts are fundamental in Jainism, material aspects (body, foods, spaces) are to be overcome by oneself effort. As Jain practitioner Pragya Jain4 gives her testimony: “practices make the philosophy real.” I had asked her: If Jainism is so focused on soul and rationality, why then practices are so necessary? Then she elaborated: I go to the temple because I like to see the image like whom I wanna be one day. […] When I indulge in those practices like pūjā, fasting, conducting cultural programs etc., I want to celebrate my existence, and the understanding of my existence. Performing temple practices, that is because I cannot always remain in that spiritual feeling, and that I have a habit of indulging in ‘activities’ since ever, I like to reconnect myself with my goal and celebrate it. (Interview on 18/07/2022) In her own words, Pragya is declaring how religious practices help her to embody Jain teachings. She is not only thinking about her religion, but she is also being affected by Jain aesthetics, provided by material resources – temple architecture, rituals (pūjās), iconography, food practices, etc. Therefore, not only the Jain conduct, so precisely prescribed, but also a whole dimension of material aspects forms a distinct Jain ethos. This ethos makes Jainism not just a religion, but a way of life, as it proposes, in addition to a way of thinking about the world, a way of acting on it. The concepts, but above all, the Jain practices, favor intra and inter-species respect and 2 jayaṁ care jayaṁ ciṭṭhe jayamāse jayaṁ sae | jayaṁ bhuñjanto bhāsanto pāvaṁ kammaṁ na bandhai || (ibid 4.23.8) 3 parvaṇyaṣṭamyāṁ ca, jñātavyaḥ proṣadhopavāsastu | caturbhyavahātyyāṇāṁ, pratyākhyānaṁ sadecchābhiḥ || (Ratnakaraṇḍa Śrāvakācāra 106) 4 Pragya Jain belongs to Jain community and teaches Jainism at International School for Jain Studies, Pune, India.

Jain Sensorial Aspects .. | 3 ecological responsibility. In this sense, further in this paper I will detail how Jain epistemology and its practical aspects may positively shape its believers. Learning (religion) Through Senses: Material Religion and Jain Concept of Mati-jñāna There are many ways to study religions, but most of them fit in one or another of the following methodologies: (1) Scriptural – based on philological approach it has sacred texts as its main source. It focuses on conceptual/rational knowledge and leads to ideal and idealistic knowledge of religions. (2) Material – is that which gets its information from material aspects such as use of objects, architecture, clothing, bodily practices, foodways, among others. This methodology focuses on practices and material aspects and any features of religions which are not discursive. It leads to sensory knowledge. It also reveals spontaneous devotional aspects, innovations, and idiosyncrasies among lay followers. Sacred texts are more important to priests than to laymen, but neither the latter nor the former are content with them. Religious life is more complex than just doctrine and its interpretation. The predominance of texts varies from religion to religion, but it is clear that there is no one that appears to be completely filled only by its sacred texts. At this point, therefore, there is a disproportion between, on the one hand, what most religious scholars consider important, and, on the other hand, what is important to most believers; that is, there is a contrast between the true religious life and a deliberate limitation on the part of researchers. (Greschat 53, translated from Portuguese). It is also important to remember that “religious texts frequently articulate or attempt to make verbal sense out of what is first both experienced and expressed physically.” (Carp, 2011:436). Religious studies academia seems to have forgotten it. The narratives contained in the Agamic texts, for example, initially took shape in the context of early oral tradition, where they found their meaning from the Jinas’ lives. Doctrinal aspects are originated in lived experiences. The most significant events of tirthaṁkaras’ lives happened materially before they were registered in the sacred texts. Combining scriptural and material methodologies seem to give a better portrait of a religion, showing the “official” religion, but also the “lived” religion. According to Professor Arvind P. Jamkhedkar, “we should combine sacred texts, mythology and material culture to study religions” (Jamkhedkar). Also, Professor Maruti Nandan P. Tiwari, “texts tend to be unilateral, conveying only the author’s vision, whereas material culture is created by many, and therefore, presents variations” (Tiwari). Therefore, in this paper I’m combining both methodologies by associating Material Religion approaches to Jain epistemology. However, I intend to put emphasis on the material culture of Jainism, since it has been less explored in comparison to scriptural aspects. Although there are many respectable works on Jain architecture, art, and rituals, they do not usually consider these activities as knowledge-forming. Such aspects are mostly comprehended as depictions of concepts.

4 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 I shall start explaining how the two fields, Jain epistemology and Material Religion, are intersected. Material Religion approaches may help to highlight some of the Jain aspects not yet fully explored in academy, as Jain theory of knowledge may contribute to religious studies’ methodologies. My theoretical framework is composed by several scholars within Material Religion approaches, as well as the Tattvāthasūtra, one of the main references among Jain texts, accepted by Digambaras, as well as by Śvetāmbaras. Jain concept of anekānta conceives reality as having multiple perspectives. Anekānta includes several nayas – viewpoints which do not rule out each other and are thereby expressions of partial truths about an object. “Nayas do not interfere with one another or enter in conflict with one another. They do not contradict one another. They uphold their own objects without rejecting others’ objects” (Compendium of Jainism 98). Therefore, I propose an “epistemological anekānta”, that is, the inclusion of one more perspective (naya) through which Jainism can be comprehended – via its material/sensory aspects. Material Religion Since 1990s Western social sciences and humanities academies have been experimenting methodologies based on non-discursive aspects – material-sensory phenomena. Many scholars (Stoller 1997; Carp 2007; Vasquez 2011; Hazard 2013; Harvey 2013) of this movement believe there is call for such tendency, which has been named Material turn by some or Sensory turn by others. Scholars of religion have as well engaged with the material perspective, originating Material Religion field study. In 2005, this approach was consolidated through the creation of a journal called Material Religion. Developed by the scholars Birgit Meyer, Brent S. Plate, David Morgan and Crispin Paine, this was not the first initiative to establish this perspective, but it has been conventionally considered the official beginning of this field. Professor Richard Carp, another important reference in the systematization of material culture studies of religions, defines that: Religions discipline and interpret bodies; create and define sacred spaces; generate, adore, and study images in all media; regulate the intake of food; structure temporal experience; and in general, interpenetrate and are permeated by the cultural landscapes in which they exist, [therefore] religious studies must engage religious materiality. (Carp, 2007: 3) Material religion is everything perceptible that is part of a religious tradition. This extends to ritual objects, images, architecture and music, but also food (and diet), scents (e.g., incense), prescribed uses of the body (kneeling for prayer, postures of exaltation), proscribed uses of the body (women hiding their hair except to their husbands, forbidden sexual practices, fasting, prohibitions on tattooing), and so forth. (Carp, 1997: 279-280) As such field study consolidates itself, specifications, and subdivisions within it have emerged. Some scholars may focus on the study of objects, some in space, others in body and bodily practices and as well as in the senses. Many authors consider that “things retain analytical importance only in so far as they pass through the body’s interface as sensations and perceptions” (Hazard 63). Following a similar idea, an interesting concept which has emerged

Jain Sensorial Aspects .. | 5 in this context is Birgit Meyer’s Aesthetic Formation. Combining Aristotelian notion of aesthesis (perceiving the world through the senses) to Zygmunt Bauman’s idea of community, she states that communities are formed through shared aesthesis, meaning that “feeling the world” in similar ways is a strong point of cohesion among individuals of one same group. The term aesthetic formation highlights the convergence of processes of forming subjects and the making of communities—as social formations. In this sense, “aesthetic formation” captures very well the formative impact of a shared aesthetics though which subjects are shaped by tuning their senses, inducing experiences, molding their bodies, and making sense, and which materializes in things. (Meyer 17) Religions have particular colors, architecture, clothing, they also have their own taste, through the foods they prescribe and proscribe. Every religion builds a distinguished sensory world in which their believers get sensorily enculturated, shaping their perception. Different religiously sensory environments, by the experiences they provide, enhance or inhibit this or that sense. According to Morgan, religion is largely a form of sensation—it is seen, heard, tasted, felt, and imagined, through fundamentally material bodily processes (Morgan 8). Therefore, religions not only have their sets of beliefs, but they also have specific “sensational forms” (Meyer). “It is important to pay more attention to the body and the senses in knowledge formation” (Borrelli and Grieser 33). Borrelli and Grieser, long argue that knowledge comes in specific aesthetic forms, and that, by shaping our senses, cultures and religions will impact on the way we understand the world, in Richard Carp’s terms: “People from different cultures inhabit different sensory worlds” (Carp 1997: 298). This idea can also confirm, reinforce, and shed new light over anekānta concept – different sense perceptions lead to different viewpoints. The wellknown metaphor of the six blind men touching the elephant, in this case, would make even more sense. If on the one hand sensing the world the same way connects some people helping to form a community, on the other, different sensory enculturation may make individuals feel very different from the groups they do not belong to. In religious conflicts, it is not uncommon that material aspects may trigger confrontations – the way particular religious groups dress or eat may make individuals of other groups feel offended. Based on this, scholar of religions, Graham Harvey, suggests that a way to understand religions could be grounded on how religious groups classify and deal with quotidian issues such as food, sex and strangers (including other species), as he elaborates: Religion has everything to do with the relationships that constitute, form and enliven people in everyday activities in this material world. In particular, it is human relationships with other species that are the key to understanding real world religion. It is possible that religion began as a kind of interspecies etiquette – especially when members of one species needed to eat members of another. Religion continues today when people eat or do not eat together, when they engage or do not engage in sexual activities, when they include or exclude strangers from their communities. (Harvey 2)

6 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 This quote is particularly suitable to Jain case, because of its precise way of organizing living beings in its ontology and its consequent rules of eating, as I shall mention it later in this paper. Jain Theory on Sensory Knowledge Based on the theory presented so far, any religion can be studied through its material/sensory aspects, Jainism in special, not because it has more or more evident bodily-material aspects, but because Jain epistemology has long ago foreseen the importance of sensory and material aspects of reincarnated life and how they become acquired knowledge through experience. This is the main point of convergence between Material Religion methodologies and Jain theory and practice. Jain philosophy includes sensory knowledge (mati-jñāna) as one among five types of knowledge described in the Tattvārthasūtra. Although the ultimate knowledge is the total one (pramāṇa), which perceives objects as they really are in their totality, it starts from partial knowledges, i.e., sensory (mati-jñāna) and scriptural knowledges (śruta-jñāna). One of the sutras of Tattvārthasūtra can be directly related to material-sensory approaches: “Scriptural knowledge is preceded by sensory cognition”. 5 Duli Chandra Jain explains (Tattvuathasūtra 36): Knowledge acquired through written or spoken words, signs and symbols is called literal knowledge. Evidently, literal knowledge includes scriptural knowledge, and is always preceded by sensory knowledge. Sensory knowledge is the instrumental cause of literal knowledge, it (sensorial knowledge) is not literal knowledge; just as a potter’s wheel is instrumental cause of an earthenware pot, but the wheel is different from the pot. Duli Chandra Jain is right to say that wheel is different from pot, but the wheel can certainly interfere in the final shape of the pot, such as the individual’s sensory shaping (enculturation), will also interfere in his/her knowledge formation. There are many other sutras in the Tattvārthasūtra specifying aspects of the sensory knowledge, for example: the five types of knowledge6 , the four stages of sensory cognition, 7 classification of sensory cognition, 8 the five senses, 9 two components of senses, 10 physical senses, 11 abstract senses12 , among others. Even the classification of living beings in Jain ontology is based on the senses – one-sensed beings, two-sensed beings, three-sensed beings, four-sensed beings and five-sensed beings. And from this classification derives Jain definition 5 “śrutaṁ matipūrvakaṁ dvyanekadvādaśabhedam” (Tattvārthasūtra 1.20) 6 “matiśrutā’vadhimanaḥparyayakevalāni jñnam” (ibid 1.9) 7 “avadgrahehāvāyadhāraṇāḥ” (ibid 1.15) 8 “bahubahuvidhakṣiprāniśritāsandigdhadhruvāṇāṁ setarāṇām” (ibid 1.16) 9 “pañcendriyāṇi” (ibid 2.15) 10 “dvividhāni” (ibid 2.16) 11 “nirvṛttyupakaraṇe” (ibid 2.17) 12 “labdhyupayogau bhāvendriyam” (ibid 2.18)

Jain Sensorial Aspects .. | 7 of food: only the bodies of one-sensed beings, immobile, can be food. Also, considering ahiṃsā (nonviolence) Jain principle, the degree of violence committed is greater and graver when committed against living beings that possess more senses, as it is consequently, the karma bondage to the killer or eater. However, senses are not simply channels, the widely held position that the senses merely provide “raw material” is refuted by that which states that senses are “refined” through higher cognitive processes (Borrelli and Grieser 35). Once more Jain epistemology is precise when it associates, in its mati-jñāna concept, the mind to the senses: “Sensory cognition (mati-jñāna) – knowledge is acquired through the five senses and mind (the faculty of thinking)”, as Duli Chandra Jain comments on Tattvārthasūtra (1.9). Our senses are shaped by the cultural environments we are raised and live in, we all inhabit cultural “sensescapes”, any given environment shapes our senses – school, work, etc. – but religions also create their own. Under this premise, “many aspects of being religious are based on sensory knowledge” (Borrelli and Grieser 34). What would be, then, the kind of sensory knowledge provided by Jain practices? How does it feel a Jain sensescape? My attempt to answer these questions started from my own experience on Jainism. Sensory Knowledge: Experiencing Jainism My first official contact with Jainism happened in December 2021 through ISJS course during a ten-day online program. Although the course was well structured, teachers with great knowledge, and we had contact (Zoom) with Jain families and nuns (sādhvīs), some kind of “religious feeling” was missing, especially because the course was online due to pandemic. My second course on Jainism at ISJS though, held in India, made obvious to me what it lacked: experience. Just before coming to India, I was working intensively in my home country, Brazil. I was exhausted and a little apprehensive about my first trip to this country. When I arrived in Delhi, I was lodged for a week at the facilities of a Jain temple, Chhoti Dadabari. In that environment I would wake up by 6:30 AM hearing the first sounds of temple’s bells. Leaving my room, my first view would be a temple complex made in white sparklingly clean marble intricately sculpted with elephants, flowers, deities, dancers and other human figures, svāstikas, other symbols and ornaments. I would watch monks in their white clothes (dhotī), lay Jain men and ladies in colorful neat saris bowing, praying, and making offerings with water, fire, rice, coconut bits, flowers, almonds, cloves and a yellow paste (sandalwood paste). Recitation of mantras could be heard in different parts of the temple complex; however, I did not understand the language, I could feel the impact of such environment. By 8 o’clock I would have breakfast among the Jain community. Food was lacto-vegetarian, and following Indian custom, eaten with the right hand and a spoon only, all new things to me. Taking off the shoes before entering dining hall and temple was mandatory, as well as silence in both environments. Also, there was a proper time for everything, that followed a natural cycle. In my first evening I missed dinner for not knowing that Jains only eat up to sunset and do not indulge in snacks out mealtimes. I could constantly see somebody gently sweeping the floor and kindly pushing insects away, without hurting them. Strictly filtered water was available in abundance. Everything was kept

8 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 clean so that smaller forms of life stayed away and safe from human agency. Although at first, I did not quite know the whys for any of this, such environment positively affected me in ways that I could not express in words, although as a result, after a week I was much more relaxed, with my mind settled and physically reinvigorated. This experience changed my first impression of Jainism from an almost “mathematical” (due to its emphasis on rationality) way of thinking to a religion that, actually brings balance between body and mind by combining rational thinking to bodily practices. Also, such experience brought me that sense of “religious feeling” I was lacking at the beginning, and it clarified that I could define it as a kind of knowledge that comes through bodily senses and does not reveal its effects to the conscious mind as it happens, but consists of powerful resources through which religions, in different manners, help their devotees in the comprehension of specific ontologies. My sensory experiencing of Jainism made possible my reflection on its effects, as well as it inspired me onto this paper. Not only ideas are materialized, but also material aspects may generate ideas, philosophical content, etc. Religious rational concepts are fundamental, but aesthetic experience is also formative, especially when it comes to religious knowledge. Intellect is subordinated to intuition, dogma to experience, outer expression to inward realization. Religion is not the acceptance of academic abstractions or the celebration of ceremonies [in the symbolic sense], but a kind of life or experience. [...] Religion is a specific attitude of the self, itself and no other, though it is mixed up generally with intellectual views, aesthetic forms, and moral valuations. […] The mind of man does not function in fractions. It cannot be split up into a few sharply defined elements, as the intellect, the emotions and the will. (Radhakhrishnan 13-19) – author’s emphasis Conclusion Jain ontology and philosophical concepts lead us through rational thinking to a better comprehension of the world and the purpose of our existence as human beings, but Jain aesthetics through its bodily practices and material forms make us experience and embody of such truths. Jain aesthetic aspects should be further explored in Jain scholarly literature, especially because this is not alien to Jain epistemology, but part of it. As stated by Radhakhrishnan, we do not function in fractions; we not only learn through conscious rational ways, but as argued throughout the text, we also learn through the senses in ways that are not always possible to trace. Basic notions of earthly time and space, for example, are first felt when we are children – space is experienced when a child moves, touch close objects or walk towards distant ones, and time is felt when a child awaits between meals, or to be again in contact with the mother. And only later, such sensations become concepts. It would be difficult to explain time and space without such primordial sensations. And so, this happens to many other aspects such as religious ones. Bodily conducts, therefore, are powerful means of deeply ingraining knowledge. Studying and practicing religion through the combination of

Jain Sensorial Aspects .. | 9 these different faculties (rationality and sensibility) enlarges the perspectives over reality and this is also exercising anekānta. The idea of anekānta, by the way, can not only be used in a person’s or group’s life to solve conflicts, but has also the potential to be a scholarly category in which a subject can be scrutinized. As other concepts from Indic traditions like karma, reincarnation and meditation have been widely spread all over the world, so should be anekānta someday. In West, the elephant metaphor is already well known, but the concept and its origin, rarely appear. Although short, my living of Jainism in India made me not memorize concepts but embody them through Jain aesthetic. I would suggest that ISJS future courses keep on including and enhance it, as much as possible, more of this aesthetic perspective, not only talking about it, but providing experiences such as taking part in temples’ ceremonies, pujas, trying vegetarianism, knowing Jain art and other aesthetic methods. References: Borrelli, Arianna and Grieser, Alexandra. "Aesthetics of Knowledge." Handbook of the Cultural and Cognitive Aesthetics of Religion. Ed. Anne Koch and Katharina Wilkens. London, New York: Bloomsburry Academic, 2020. 33-46. Carp, Richard M. "Perception and Material Culture: Historical and cross-cultural perspectives." Historical Reflections/Réflèxions Historiques 23.3 (1997): 269-300. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/41299096>. —. "Teaching Religion and Material Culture." Teaching Theology and Religion 10.1 (2007): 2-12. Greschat, Hans-Jurgen. O que é ciência da religião? [What are Religious Studies]. Paulinas: São Paulo, 2005. Harvey, Graham. Food, Sex and Strangers. Understanding Religion as Everyday life. Durham: Acumen Publishing Limited, 2013. Hazard, Sonia. "The Material Turn in the Study of Religion." Religion and Society 4.1 (2013): 58–78. Jain, Pragya. Jain Practices Patricia Souza. Pune, 18 July 2022. English. Jamkhedkar, Arvind P. "Dating of Mahavira Nirvan." International Conference. Pune: Navalveerayatan, 9-10 July 2022. JES904, JAINA Education Series -, ed. Compendium of Jainism. Jain Academic Bowl Manual. JAINA Education Committee Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 2015. Kundakunda. Pravacansāra. Trans. Kalpana Jain Shastri. Bengalore: Shri Digambar Jain Trust, 1997. Meyer, Birgit. "Introduction: From Imagined Communities to Aesthetic Formations: Religious Meditations, Sensational Forms and Styles of Bindings." Aesthetic Formations: Media, Religion, and the Senses. Ed. Birgit Meyer. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2009. 1-18. Morgan, David. Religion and Material Culture: The matter of Belief. New York: Routledge, 2010. Radhakhrishnan, Sarvepalli. The Hindu View of Life. London: Unwin Hyman Limited, 2017. Samantabhadra. Ratnakaraṇḍa Śrāvakācāra. Trans. Champat Rai Jain. Arrah: The Central Jaina Publishing House, 1917. Muni, Amar and 'Saras', Shrichnad Surana, ed. Daśavaikālika Sūtra. Trans. Surendra Bothra. Delhi: Padma Prakashan, 1997. Stoller, Paul. Sensuous Scholarship. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1997. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan P. "Dating of Mahavir Nirvan." International Conference. Pune: Navalveerayatan, 9-10 July 2022. Umāsvati. Tattvuathasūtra. Trans. Duli Chandra Jain. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2012. Vásquez, Manuel A. More than Belief, A Materialist Theory of Religion. Oxford: Oxford university Press, 2011.

THE “WIDOW QUESTION” IN THE JAIN COMMUNITY Prakash C. Jain* Abstract This article highlights the “Widow Question” in the context of the Jain community in India since the late 19th century. The issue is discussed in terms of its two major dimensions: (i) the preponderance of the number of widows in the community, and its causes and consequences, and (ii) the problem of widow remarriage in the face of its religious sanction. It is argued here that while the number of Jain widows had begun to decline following the passage of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 and eventually became “normal” by the census year 2011, the issue of the customary ban on widow/divorcee remarriage continues to exist, in spite of the fact that a majority of Jains in different parts of the country were found to be in its favour. Introduction The “Widow Question” in the Jain community has been an ancient problem – perhaps as old as the prevalence of child marriage, age-incompatible marriage and polygamy. However, in this article we go back to only the late 19th century when in the wake of the Jain renaissance a number of Jain associations began to emerge at the national, regional and later on at local and caste levels, and they took up the issue of Jain widows for discussion and debatesin their annual meetings (Kothari 2004; Jain 2020). Debates and Discussions Most members of All-India Digambar Jain Mahasabha, established in 1895 and one of the oldest and still existing associations, held the view that along with child marriage, polygamy and age-incompatible marriage, preponderance of widows in the Jain community was also a major social problem whose eradication was urgently needed. Most of them however were opposed to widow remarriage. They argued that it was not prescribed by the Jain canonical literature. They firmly believed that the Jain widows should spend the rest of their lives by religiously prescribed way of life. Many of them also believed that polygamies and ageincompatible marriages were the main cause of the multitude of widows in the community. Further on, the root cause of all such social evils was thought to be the lack of education among Jain women (Kothari 2004). It must be pointed out here that only one or two per cent of Jain women were literate around the turn of the 20th century. In the Bundelkhand region, a well-known debate also took place between social and educational reformer and ascetic Ganesh Prasad Varni and Brahmachari Shital Prasad at a session of the Parwar Sabha (the association of the Parwar Jain caste) at Bina Baraha (Madhya * Former Professor of Sociology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, E-mail: [email protected]

12 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 Pradesh) in which Varni took up the status quoist position against widow remarriage (R. K. Jain 57) (Varni 430-38). The debates and resolutions on the widow question in the Jain associations brought into focus two aspects of the problem: One, the presence of a large number of widows in a small community, and their social rehabilitation, and two, the customary ban derived from religious sanctions on widow remarriage, especially in North India. Still, the Jain leadership could neither perhaps fully appreciate the gravity of the issue, nor as was expected, do anything more beyond reiterating their advocacy and support to the issue of widow remarriage which continues to exist even today. Perhaps strong measures and/or structural factors are required for such kinds of change to take place in society. Census Data The serious concern for the widow question and other marriage-related issues can well be seen in the census data collected by the British census authorities since the first systematic census of 1881. Fortunately, we have detailed published data on the Jain community from the 1931 Census (Sangave 1-45) (Sangave, Jain Population, 1881-1971 32-82), and also for the 2011 Census (D. Jain) (P. C. Jain, Jain Population and Demography, 2011 154-192) that help us in putting the problem in proper perspective. During the British period, particularly from 1881 to 1931, the information was collected under the category of civil condition, and included data on men and women as unmarried, married and widowed. According to Prof. Vilas A. Sangave: “This information was very useful in realising the correct position in different communities about the various aspects of marriage like the age of marriage, the proportion of the widowed, etc.” (Sangave, Jain Community: A Social Survey 26). The distribution of 1,000 of each sex of various communities according to their civil condition as per 1931 census is given in Table 1. Table 1: Distribution of 1,000 of each sex of various communities as per their civil condition, 1931 Community Sex Unmarried Married Widowed India M F 476 388 470 505 54 157 Hindu M F 463 324 480 507 57 169 Jain M F 503 337 415 442 82 221 Sikh M F 550 411 370 475 80 114 Muslim M F 500 358 456 513 44 129 Source: (Sangave, Jain Community: A Social Survey 26)

The “Widow Question” in the Jain Community | 13 The data in Table 1 suggest that the Jains had significantly more widowed persons, both male and female, than the Hindus or general figures. Also, the proportion of widowed females in the Jain community is nearly three times to that of their male counterparts. Thus, this unusually high proportion of female widows appears to be the predominant feature of the Jain community up to 1931 as the data in Table 2 suggest. Table 2: Distribution of 1,000 of each marital status of the Jain communities by gender in Bombay, Rajasthan and India as a whole in different censuses up to 1931 Unit Year Sex Unmarried Married Widowed India 1931 M F 503 337 415 442 82 221 1921 M F 507 327 392 420 101 253 1911 M F 493 301 418 446 89 253 1901 M F 473 299 436 470 91 231 Bombay 1931 M F 472 327 457 471 71 202 1921 M F 480 307 434 456 86 237 1911 M F 466 281 452 474 82 245 1901 M F 545 272 470 499 76 229 1891 M F 459 269 480 516 61 215 Rajasthan 1931 M F 517 321 390 432 93 247 Source: (Sangave, Jain Community: A Social Survey 27) Data in the Table 2 reveal that during the British period in different census years the Jain widows outnumbered the widowers by a ratio ranging from 1:2 to 1;3. The data also suggest that compared to the national average figures of widowers and widows (82 and 221 respectively) in 1931 census, the situation in Bombay Presidency with 71 widowers and 202 widows was a little better, and considerably worse in Rajasthan with 93 widowers and 247 widows. In the case of Rajasthan, where the Jaina population is mostly concentrated, 247 widows per 1000 married couple means that out of four females one female was a widow. The data in the Table 2 also suggest that the proportion of widows had continued to increase up to 1921 and then it suddenly dropped in 1931. As Professor Sangave explained, “this did not mean that the situation had improved but it was the result of comparatively greater increase in the proportion of married persons due to the fear of the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929,

14 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 popularly known as the Sharada Act” (Sangave, Jain Community: A Social Survey 28) Thus, child marriage, age-incompatible marriage and polygamy were the main causes behind the preponderance of widows among the Jains. In all these matters the Jain community was ahead of all other communities in India during the British period (Table 3). Table 3: Major religious communities of India; married females aged 0-15 per 1000 females of that age, 1881-1931 Community Married females aged 0-15 per 1000 females of that age 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 Hindu Muslim Jaina Sikh Christian 208 153 189 120 33 193 141 172 143 37 186 131 164 101 38 184 123 130 88 37 170 111 117 72 32 199 186 125 80 43 Source: (Sangave, Jain Community: A Social Survey 28) Table 4: Statement showing distribution of Jain Population in the Bombay Presidency by Civil Condition of 1,000 of each sex and main age-period, 1901-1931 Age 1931 1921 1911 1901 Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Married All Ages 457 471 434 456 452 474 470 499 0-5 13 50 10 31 71 37 12 29 5-10 36 192 18 145 21 173 26 182 10-15 76 400 69 427 91 530 121 403 15-20 352 865 260 877 314 897 370 903 20-40 742 809 699 768 715 763 749 804 40-60 740 369 705 372 714 370 762 423 60 & Above 550 95 579 106 538 85 530 170 Widowed All Ages 71 202 86 237 82 245 76 229 0-5 1 1 2 3 9 2 -- 1 5-10 2 7 3 12 5 7 3 1 10-15 3 13 6 28 9 31 8 32 15-20 12 40 16 52 19 58 21 55 20-40 52 178 76 215 72 227 65 187 40-60 208 625 232 620 222 624 178 573 60 & Above 417 895 443 888 418 910 410 825 Source: Adapted from (Sangave, Jain Community: A Social Survey 44-45, Appendix XIV).

The “Widow Question” in the Jain Community | 15 In 1931 in the Bombay Presidency too, the Jains had the highest number of infant girls married and that both Hindus as well as the Jains had very high figures for marriages of girls under the age of 15. Data in Table 4 clearly reveal that there were persons married as well as widowed at the early age groups. And this trend more or less continued in spite of the fact that the Jains constituted a relatively affluent, advanced and literate community. Moreover, the proportion of widows continued to remain very high among the Jains. Impact on Population Dynamics In the small Jain community of only about 12 lakhs in 1931, the religious ban on widow marriage had a far greater impact on the Jain population dynamics than is commonly understood. The ban must have stunted the growth of Jain population in different periods of their history. This is clearly revealed by the British-Indian census data. In the words of a wellknown American sociologist and demographer Kingsley Davis: The Jains have a low percentage of their women aged 15-39 married. A fifth of their women in this age group were widows during the period 1921-1931. If they permitted widows to marry, to a degree that would give them the same proportion of widows as the United States had in 1930, their fertility would be increased more than 20 per cent. (Davis 184) Prof. Sangave appears to endorse this view: Due to this unusually high proportion of widows, who are effectively debarred from marrying again, the sex composition of the community becomes very unbalanced. The ban on widow remarriage considerably reduces the proportion of females in the reproductive period. Obviously, this situation very adversely affects the rate of increase in the Jain population as compared to the rate of increase in population of other communities. … Thus, if conversion is not practised, the removal of ban on widow remarriage appears to be the most pressing and urgent need for the growth of Jaina population. (Sangave, Jain Community: A Social Survey 29-30) Post-Independence Scenario Of the three major causes of the large proportion of widows in the Jain community until about the last quarter of the 20th century, child marriage began to decline due to the passage of Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, and the polygamy on account of the enactment of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. The third cause, that is, the age-incompatible or “bad” marriage also disappeared on account of the spread of education and social awareness in the community in general and women in particular. The 2011 Census data confirm the fact that the once widely prevalent child marriage (under 15 years) got restricted to only 10.3% of the Jain population. Gender-wise break-up was as follows: Male 2.7%; Female 7.6% (Jain 2017: 8). By the early years of the 21st century, polygamy and age-incompatible marriages also became rare phenomena among the Jains. Consequently, disproportionate trend of widowhood in the Jain community has also acquired the normal proportion vis-à-vis other communities in India (Table

16 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 5). A complete profile of the marital status or civil condition of the Jain community is presented in Table 6. Table 5: Marital Status by Religious communities in India, 2011 Religion Widowed Separated Divorced Never Married People of Marriageable Age* (%) M F Hindu 88.3 5.5 1.8 16 10 Muslim 72.7 4.8 3.4 17 13 Christian 97.0 9.4 3.9 21 18 Sikh 88.2 4.2 2.8 17 14 Buddhist 100.3 9.5 4.3 21 14 Jain 79.6 3.1 2.6 18 14 All Religion 16 14 *Male 21+ years, Female 18+ years Source: (Verma 6), (P. C. Jain, Jain Population and Demography, 2011 Table 7.16, 176) Table 6: Marital Status/Civil Condition of Jain Population in India by Gender, 2011 Sex Never Married Currently Married Widowed Divorced /Separated Total Male (%) 9,88,224 12,34,743 48,641 6,489 22,78,097 (43.38%) (54.20%) (2.14%) (0.28%) (100.00%) Female (%) 7,44,292 12,52,526 1,67,872 8,966 21,73,656 (34.24%) (57.62%) (7.72%) (0.41%) (100.00%) Total (%) 17,32,516 24,87,269 2,16,513 15,455 44,51,753 (38.92%) (55.87%) (4.86%) (0.35%) (100.00%) Source: Jain (P. C. Jain, Jain Population and Demography, 2011 Table 7.15, 172) Also, (D. Jain 7) Today, while the preponderance of widows in the Jain community is no longer an issue, the question of widow remarriage still continues to exist. In actual practice, it is a low-key affair, even when the low sex ratio (1000 males and 954 females as per 2011 census) and other sociological factors have forced the community to go for late marriages, no marriages, intercaste and inter-religion marriages by choice and/or purchase. Along with these developments, another problem that has been accelerated during the past couple of decades is the question of marriage of separated and divorcee women who at 3.1 and 2.6 per 1000 married couple respectively constitute a considerable population (Table 5). Thus, the question of the marriage of widows and separated/divorcees looms large against the customary ban on such remarriages. More so in the face of the changing attitude, a majority of Jains have increasingly been

The “Widow Question” in the Jain Community | 17 supportive of remarriage of these segments of the Jain population since at least the turn of the present century. Acceptance of Widow/Divorcee Remarriage Unlike in South India, in the Jain tradition of North India, widow/divorcee remarriage is not allowed; instead, they are required to live an austere life and perform religious duties involving daily temple visits, scripture readings, listening to religious discourse, etc. Until recently, only a minority of Jains supported widow/divorcee remarriage, but now their attitude towards this issue has been changing, though very slowly. In a study of the Jains in the Bundelkhand region conducted in 2014, it was found that about 83.6% of the respondents supported widow/divorcee remarriage (Jain 2020: 87). Also, in the same study, about 10.0% of the respondents had reported to have been the witness of such marriages in their own or kins’ families. The change was more visible in educated and service class families located in big cities and towns. In an all-India wide sociological survey of the Jains done in 2019, about 78% of the respondents were found to be supportive of the widow/divorcee remarriage, about 16% were opposed to it and about 6% had no response (ISJS 2019: 64). When asked about the occurrence of widow/divorcee marriage in their own or kins’ families, 13.1% responded in the affirmative, 78.3% denied it and 8.6% had no response. This kind of favourable attitude towards this issue was perhaps never there in the history of the Jain community. It is high time the Jain community leaders – both sacred and secular reconsidered the entire “Widow Question” in a perspective that was conducive to the wider interest and wellbeing of the Jain community and its future. Conclusion In the social history of the Jain community, the “Widow Question” was perhaps never crystalized until the late 19th century when in the wake of the Jain renaissance, a number of Jain scholars began to articulate the issue and formed a separate Jain association that supported the cause of widow rehabilitation and remarriage. The contentious issue of widow/divorcee remarriage continues to persist in the Jain community in spite of the fact that its main causes have since long almost disappeared. Not only that, during the past half-a-century at least, the women have become more educated and quite a number of them gainfully employed in nonagricultural sectors leading to the enhancement of their socio-economic status (Jain 2022: Chapter 5). At the same time, from the perspective of widow/divorcee remarriage, the disproportionate sex ratio in India across most religious communities, except the Christians, is also favorable to women. Besides deficit of women, at least in the Jain community there exists presently a wider acceptance of widow/divorcee remarriage. Notwithstanding all these “favorable” developments, widow/divorcee remarriage remains practically a non-starter which further begs the question of its proper conceptualization. Should it be conceptualized in terms of gender inequality only? Or, could it be blamed on the “obsession for female virginity” and/or patriarchal hypocrisy prevalent in the Indic culture and value system?

18 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 References: Davis, Kingsley. Population of India and Pakistan. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951. Jain, Dheeraj. Population of Jains in India: A Perspective from the Census 2011. New Delhi: International School for Jain Studies, 2017 . Jain, Prakash C. Jain Community of Bundelkhand: Economic and Socio-cultural Change. New Delhi: Shipra Publications, 2020. Jain, Prakash C. "Jain Population and Demography, 2011." Studies in Jain Population and Demography. Ed. Prakash C. Jain. Jaipur and Delhi: Rawat Publications, 2019. 154-91. Jain, Ravindra K. The Universe as Audience: Metaphor and Community among the Jainsa of North India. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1999. Kothari, Trilok C. Akhil Bharatvarsheeya Digambar Jain Mahasabha ka Ateet (in Hindi). Kota: Trilok Institute of Higher Studies and Research, 2004 . Sangave, Vilas A. Jain Community: A Social Survey. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1980. Sangave, Vilas A. "Jain Population, 1881-1971." Studies in Jain Population and Demography. Ed. Prakash C. Jain. Jaipur and Delhi: Rawat Publications, 2019. 32-82. Varni, Kshullak Ganesh Prasad. Merī Jīvan Gāthā (Hindi) . Banaras: Shri Ganesh Varni Digambar Jain Sansthan, 1949. Verma, Subodh. "Tripal Talaq effect? 5 in 1000 women divorced." Times of India 24 August 2016: 9. Comments: I have gone through the article which is based on the analysis of some useful demographic data. The continuing nature of the debate in the Jain community, with the majority still weighing in on the side of retaining the ban, seems to be the outgrowth of a continuing crisis of consciousness in colonial and postcolonial times. Put briefly, on the one hand, is the associational and public activity of the Jains which had been occasioned by the imitation of the declamatory Protestantism in India and the British census operations. This is the trigger of the so-called Jain Renaissance; here the religion of the Jains becomes almost perforce 'public' (worn on the sleeve) whereas in essence Jainism is individualistic. On the other hand, socially the Jains partake of their position in the savarna category with all the taboos (e.g., vegetarianism, anti-widow remarriage etc.) as the ideals. This contradiction and yet mutual coexistence of the so-called westernization and sanskritization in the social consciousness of the Jains results in a status quoist position which is strikingly evident in that, in the modern times, an increasing number of Jains pay lip service to a position against the ban but in actuality continue to avoid the practice of widow remarriage in the majority. This seems to me to be a sociological/anthropological explanation rather than in terms of psychology (hypocrisy) or ideology (such as patriarchy as feminists would have it). Ravindra K. Jain, Former Professor of Anthropology and Dean, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Dear Prof. Jain, I fully agree with your comments on my conceptual "crisis" in the article. You have provided a very good sociological / anthropological explanation on the continuing customary ban on widow remarriage among the Jains in India. Thanks. The Author

UNIQUENESS AND RELEVANCE OF JAINISM Shugan C. Jain Abstract Jainism, although an old tradition, is alive in the twenty-first century due to its relevant ethics and principles. Its relevance makes it unique and stand out among various Indian and western traditions. Its exclusive principles include the six substances that the universe is made up of, the seven verities, and the concept of origination-destruction-permanence in the substanceattribute-modification theory. Ethics are a vital part of Jainism that make an inquisitive set on the path of liberation including right faith-knowledge-conduct. Jainism is also rich in its art and architecture. Moreover, researchers have been connecting Jain theories with scientific theories as there are many similarities found between both. Besides, ultra-modern practices for saving the environment and dealing with various social issues share some intentions of Jain values like ahiṁsā. This paper showcases unique principles of Jainism that are relevant in modern applications. I Introduction Who is a Jain? The term Jain is derived from the word jina, which means a spiritual victor who has conquered his emotions and sensual inclinations/urges to attain the pure state of the soul with infinite perception-knowledge-bliss-energy. Followers of jina are called Jains. Jina’s doctrine is based on the concept of realizing the full potential of one’s soul to achieve eternal bliss. This state of soul is attained through the practice of strenuous self-effort, non-violence, self-restraint and penance. Lord Mahāvīra, the 24th and the last ford-maker of Jainism of the current era re-established the ancient principles of Jainism in eastern India some 2600 years ago. Today, Jains are mostly located in the northern, western and central states in India. They have migrated to USA, UK and other countries as well. Jains constitute a religious, peace loving and non-violent community who value education and hard work to achieve their material and spiritual objectives. As per the 2011 census of Government of India, more than 94.88% Jains are literate among which about 25.65% are graduates (Jain 80). Many of them are engaged in professions like medicine, law, engineering, IT and management while the others are engaged in trade and business. Deepak Jain, Dean of INSEAD; Ajit Jain, CEO of Buffet group; Navin Jain, IT entrepreneur in the USA; diamond traders in Belgium who were inhabitants of Palanpur (Gujarat); Oswals, Patnis, Walchands, Adanis, Lalbhais, SP Jain etc. are just a few names who speak of Jains and their voluminous President, International School for Jain Studies (ISJS), Pune & Chairman, Jain Education Institutes Support (JEIS), New Delhi; Email: [email protected]

20 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 achievements. Although they are less than 0.5% of total population of India, it is estimated that they contribute more than 5% to the GDP. According to the reports, Jains contribute actively on the social front. They have set up a large number of schools and colleges in India, several thousand hospitals and dispensaries, research institutes, orphanages and homes for elderly and destitute. Jains have always contributed significantly towards the arts, culture and similar activities in India as well as abroad (Jain 26- 29). Shravanabelgola in Karnataka; temples of Dilawara, Ranakpur, Jaisalmer, Soniji ki Nasia in Rajasthan; Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh; Gopachal in Madhya Pradesh; Ellora caves in Maharashtra; Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Odisha etc. are shining examples of their contribution to Indian art, architecture and culture. Lal Mandir, in front of the Red Fort in Delhi is another example of Jains being in the forefront of Indian religions since Moghul times. Atma Vallabh Smarak in North Delhi, Ahinsa Sthal in South Delhi and over 500 temples in Delhi alone are indicative of their contribution to the Indian religious-cultural heritage. Similarly, a large corpus of Jain literature in Indian languages like Kannada, Prakrit and Sanskrit are example of their contribution to Indian literature. Besides, there are several residential schools across the country run by various institutions where Jain religious and spiritual practices are taught from a young age to boys and girls. Jainism is an independent religion which belongs to the Śramaṇic tradition in India. Jains claim their religion to be eternal as Jain holy texts describe their first tīrthaṁkara (ford-maker, achiever and propagator of the Jain path of spiritual purification) R̥ṣabhadeva only of the present time cycle (K. C. Jain 1-7). R̥ṣabhadeva actually existed several millennia ago. References of vātarasanā, vrātyas, munis and R̥ṣabhadeva in Vedas and Ariṣṭanemi in Mahābhārata take Jainism to pre-Vedic age. Similarly, excavations from Mohenjo-Daro and Gujarat show signs of nude Jain idols in meditative posture (padmāsana) establishing that Jainism existed more than 4000 years ago. Historically, it exists from the time of Lord Pārśvanātha (around 2900 years ago) and re-established by Lord Mahāvīra around 2600 years ago. There is a wide scope of extensive research to establish antiquity of Jainism. Since the 1 st century BC,Jains have been assimilating their religious practices with other Indian religious systems and rituals (idol worship, eliminating animal or human sacrifice) and philosophies (non-violence and path of spiritual purification). Jains, thus, assimilate with the society they live in fairly easily. II Salient features of Jainism Jains believe in certain concepts regarding the functioning of the universe, some of which are: • The universe is eternal. 1 God is not creator, destroyer or administrator of the universe (Āptaparīkṣā-Svopajña Ṭīkā 32-35). It existed from times immemorial, will exist forever; only its constituents go through a process of continuous transformation. 1 “nityāvasthitānyarūpāṇi” (Tattvārthasūtra 5.4)

Uniqueness and Relevance of Jainism | 21 • The five co-factors, namely nature (svabhāva); predetermined associations (niyati), time (kāla); past karma (pūrvakṛtra) and efforts (puruṣārtha) can explain all the events taking place.2 • Substance (dravya) is defined as ‘existent’ which is the ultimate reality or ‘sat’. Substance is further broadly classified as living beings (jīva) and non-living beings (ajīva). 3 • The primary characteristic of substance is ‘permanence with change’, also can be understood as origination (utpāda), destruction (vyaya) and permanence (dhrauvya). 4 • Jīva is subdivided as liberated souls (mukta) and empirical souls (saṁsārī). Empirical souls are further classified in many ways. The most common classification is immobile (sthāvara) i.e. living beings which cannot move on their own and possess only one sense that is touch, and mobile (trasa) i.e. living beings, which can move as per their objectives and possess two (touch and taste), three (touch, taste and smell), four (touch, taste, smell and sight) or five (touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing) senses. Ajīva are subdivided as matter (pudgala), the only concrete substance; principle of motion (dharma); principle of rest (adharma); space (ākāśa) and time (kāla) that are supportive of the activities of jīva and matter and are non-concrete substances. Jīva and pudgala are the only active substances while the other four support actions and interactions of jīva and pudgala. (Dravyasaṁgraha 2.10-14) The table below presents the classification of different types of substances: Sr. Substance (Dravya) Classification Sub-classification 1 Living beings Liberated Soul (mukta jīva) - Empirical Soul (saṃsārī jīva) Immobile Beings (sthāvara) Mobile Beings (trasa) 2 Non-living beings Matter (pudgala) Atom (paramānu) Atomic Cluster (skandha) 3 Media of Motion (dharma) - 4 Media of Rest (adharma) - 5 Space (ākāśa) Accommodation for all six substances (lokākāśa) Only the substance of space (alokākāśa) 6 Time (kāla) - 2 kālosahāvaṇiyaīpuvvakayaṁpurisakāraṇegaṁtā | micchattaṁteceva u samāsaohoṁtisammattaṁ || (Sanmati Tarka 3.53) 3 jīvamajīvaṃ davvaṃ jiṇavaravasaheṇa jeṇa ṇiddiṭṭhaṃ | devinda-vinda-vandaṃ vande taṃ savvadā sirasā || (Dravyasaṁgraha 1.1). 4 “utpād-vyaya-dhrauvya-yuktaṁ sat” (Tattvārthasūtra 5.29)

22 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 • Empirical soul (soul that is wandering in the world) and matter interact with each other. The states of empirical soul during these interactions along with the matter are called seven verities (tattvas) 5 . The first two are soul (jīva) and matter (pudgala), which are the main actors; the next two - influx (āsrava) and bondage (bandha) show the interactions between them i.e. engagement (pravr̥tti) for merit/pleasure and demerit/pain. Jains talk of moral ethics to minimize demerit (pāpa) and maximize merit (puṇya) during this engagement. Causes for these engagements are delusion (mithyātva), inadvertence (avirati), laziness (pramāda), passions (kaṣāya) and activities of mind, body and speech (yoga). The next two verities, i.e. stoppage of engagement (saṃvara) and dissociation (nivr̥tti) of soul from matter (nirjarā) are the state of detachment and spiritual purification respectively to attain the last stage called liberation of the soul or total dissociation of matter from the soul (mokṣa). Look at the table: Sr The verity Its relationship with Karma Its function 1 Soul (jīva) Acts with attachment and detachment with worldly materials to bind with karma in the empirical state Actor 2 Matter (pudgala) Acts as karma to bind the soul and allows it to wander in saṁsāra Actor 3 Influx (āsrava) Act of attracting karma due to the interaction between soul and matter Cause merit/pleasure (puṇya) or demerit/pain (pāpa) 4 Bondage (bandha) Act of binding of karma with the soul Cause merit/pleasure (puṇya) or demerit/pain (pāpa) 5 Stoppage of engagement (saṃvara) Act of karma stopping to attach with the soul Detach with the worldly pleasures to stop influx 6 Dissociation of soul from matter (nirjarā) Act of karma starting to shed from the soul Begin to spiritually purify the soul by stopping the bondage 7 Liberation (mokṣa) Total dissociation of karma from the soul Liberate the soul and situate it as a pure soul at the top of the world • A pure soul is with infinite intuition (anantadarśana), infinite knowledge (anantajñāna), infinite bliss (anantasukha) and infinite energy (anantavīrya) along with many other 5 “jīvā-jīvāsrava-bandha-saṃvara-nirjarā-mokṣāstattvaṃ” (ibid 1.4)

Uniqueness and Relevance of Jainism | 23 attributes. 6 An empirical soul also has these attributes but with limited derivations as it has the karmic veil on it. Similarly, there are other states or modes of soul and matter related to size, shape, movement etc. For example, the human state is the common mode of soul and matter altogether. • Doctrine of karma is perhaps one of the most vital concepts of Jain philosophy. All our acts and events in life are based on a cause-effect relationship as it is said as you sow, so shall you reap. Karma, subtle matter particles, are like the seeds of our activities to yield result at appropriate time. Their bondage with the soul is the cause of saṁsāra and the empirical soul becomes pure when it frees itself from karmic bondage. The holy Jain texts provide extremely detailed analysis of causes of bondage, types and nature of bondage, duration and path to destroy bondage of karma with the soul. The basic classification of karma according to Jain philosophy is shown here in the table: Sl. Karma Its types Its function 1 Dravya Karma Four destructive and four non-destructive karma To obscure the inherent attributes of the soul and to provide body, age, status and feelings 2 Bhāva Karma Attachment, aversion and delusion To allow the soul to indulge in worldly pains and pleasures 3 No Karma Body and bodily relations To allow the soul to engage with the body and bodily relations like father, mother, son etc. These are a few of the principles upon which the Jain philosophy is based. III The Three Cardinal Principles The Jain way of life believes in three cardinal principles which are: ahiṃsā or non-violence in conduct; aparigraha or non-possession in life and society; and anekānta or multiplicity of viewpoints in thoughts. • Ahiṃsā: The entire moral, ethical and spiritual postulation of Jain philosophy is based on ahiṃsā (non-violence). It is the supreme spiritual virtue that makes Jain philosophy unique. Ācārāṅga defines and describes the philosophy of ahiṃsā beautifully while Puruṣārthasidhyupāya by Amṛtacandra proves that all ethical tenets of Jainism are derived from ahiṃsā. In fact, an emotion of attachment (rāga) or aversion (dveṣa) actually hurts the soul. The true ahiṃsā is not to let attachment or aversion take place in the soul itself.7 Ahiṃsā is defined as an activity (of mind, body or speech); that refrains one from causing pain to self or others; not encourage others to perform such activities; or support or praise 6 daṁsaṇaṁ aṇaṁtaṇāṇaṁ aṇaṁtavīriya aṇaṁtasukkhāya | sāsayasukkha adehā mukkā kammaṭṭhabaṁdhehiṁ || (Bodhapāhuḍa 12) 7 aprādurbhāvaḥ-khalu-rāgādīnāṃ-bhavatya-hiṃseti | teṣāmevotpattir-hiṃseti jināgamasya saṃkṣepaḥ || (Puruṣārthasidhyupāya 44)

24 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 such activities of others. We see here the emphasis on self as all our violent activities ultimately cause pain to ourselves. We all know that Mahatma Gandhi was the greatest practitioner of social non-violence of our times and achieved independence for India using ahiṃsā as his weapon. In fact, he also used the concept of ahiṃsā to achieve social transformation in India. Also, Indian constitution recognizes ahiṃsā as its salient feature. • Aparigraha: Aparigraha (non-possession) is described as ‘absence of the feeling of mine’. First eight verses of Sūtrakṛtāṅga describe the concept of aparigraha and its importance in achieving the ultimate objective i.e., liberation. Parigraha is the feeling of possession/attachment/bondage, expectation, desire etc. Every day, we first spend our entire life in amassing material wealth; then in protecting it from leaving us before we realize such wealth is of no use and cannot give us happiness. Similarly, we do everything for our family even to the extent of living for them and realize ultimately the family is unable to give us happiness. In earlier times, Jains used to share their wealth in building temples, providing free hostels for travelers, serving the monks, setting up educational and health-service institutions and secretly supporting the needy members of the community. Aparigraha means to work hard to earn merit, but not to develop attachment to its benefits.8 The second richest man in the world, Warren Buffet, has donated more than half of his wealth, about $37 billion, to charities and described it as giving back to the society. It means that happiness is caused in renouncing, and not in collecting (Lamare). • Anekānta: Anekānta (multiplicity of viewpoints) is based on the principle that truth is infinite and it is not possible for ordinary people like us to know it completely. We always know a part of it as per our requirements or objectives while there are many more aspects to it than known to us. Therefore, we should not insist on our viewpoint as the only and complete truth. Examples of the seven blind men trying to define an elephant explain the concept of anekānta. The principle of anekānta is based on the doctrine that our knowledge is relative, opposite of what we know also exists and knowledge of others is also true from a particular point of view. IV Path of Purification Jains believe in the theory of reincarnation/transmigration of empirical soul. This transmigration is determined by the karma of the individual. Every soul has the capability to end its cycle of transmigration and attain liberation (mokṣa) which is the eternal state of bliss and infinite knowledge. Right faith-knowledge-conduct when practiced together is the path to attain liberation.9 These are also considered as the three gems (ratnatraya) in Jainism. Right faith (samyagdarśana) means the belief in the existence and attributes of soul and other five substances. Right belief causes spiritual awakening in the person. Knowledge is right (samyagjñāna) if it is without any 8 “...tato jñānadarśanacāritravato’pramattasya mohābhāvānna mūrcchāstīti niṣpragrahatvaṁ siddham”, (Sarvārthasiddhi 7.17) 9 “samyagdarśana-jñānacāritrāṇi-mokṣamārgaḥ” (Tattvārthasūtra 1.1)

Uniqueness and Relevance of Jainism | 25 doubts or oppositions or indecisiveness which comes only with the right faith. Right conduct (samyakcāritra) is the ethical practice as per the Jain code of conduct. • Samyagdarśana: There are eight limbs of right faith which are10: i. Freedom from doubt (niḥśaṃkita) ii. Freedom from anticipation (niḥkāṃkṣita) iii. Freedom from disgust (nirvicikitsā) iv. Freedom from delusive notions (amūḍhadṛṣṭi) v. Protecting others ‘shortcomings (upagūhana) vi. Promoting stability (sthitikaraṇa) vii. Illuminating or enhancing the Jain ideology (prabhāvanā) viii. Indifferent affection (vātsalya) The first four limbs are formulated with an aspect to remove the negative tendencies in a person. The last four are stated with a positive aspect designating new attributes to a new social nature or practice of the individual towards others. • Samyagjñāna: Right knowledge (samyagjñāna) is the true knowledge, which is free from doubt (saṃśaya), illusion (viparyaya) or non-ascertainment (anadhyavasāya) about the substances, their attributes and modes. Jains consider knowledge and soul to be inseparable, as knowledge cannot exist anywhere else but, in the soul, and a soul is all about knowledge. This fact can be verified through the classification of substances based on sentient and nonsentient features of beings. Knowledge is the nature of pure soul while empirical soul has this pure knowledge capability obscured by karma bonded with it. It is like the sun that shines and gives partial or full light depending on the quantum presence or absence between the sun and the earth. Empirical soul, though, needs the assistance of sensual organs to cognize objects; pure soul can cognize all objects with no restraints of space, time, size etc. Knowledge is right or valid if the owner of knowledge has the right faith. Knowledge is of five types: 11 i. Mind base (matijñāna) ii. Verbal testimony (srutjñāna) (these two are indirect as they are acquired by the soul with the aid of five senses and mind) iii. Clairvoyance (avadhijñāna) iv. Telepathy (manaḥparyayjñāna) (these two take place directly by soul but only of concrete objects) 10 nissaṅkiyanikkaṅkhiyanivvitigicchāamūḍhadiṭṭhiya | uvavūhathirīkaraṇevacchallapabhāvaṇeaṭṭha || (Uttarādhyayanasūtra 28.31) 11 “mati-śrutāvadhi-manaḥparyaya-kevalāni jñānaṃ” (Tattvārthasūtra 1.9)

26 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 v. Omniscience or knowledge without any constraints (kevaljñāna) (this is also direct and possesses the capacity to know everything in the past-present-future) Acquisition of right knowledge is possible through either the soul of the inquirer himself or through the sermons of others.12 • Samyakcāritra: Right conduct (samyakcāritra) is the practice to give up undesirable activities of mind, body and soul and to perform activities conducive to attain the ultimate objective – liberation (mokṣa). Right conduct can be practiced only when the practitioner has both right faith and right knowledge. Samyakcāritra is refraining from what is harmful for the soul and engagement in what is beneficial for the soul. Mahāvīra has bifurcated the practice of conduct in two categories namely, laity (śrāvakas) who are not able to devote 100% of their time on the path of purification but wish to practice it partially and monks (śramaṇa) who are 100% committed to the practice of the path of spiritual purification. Therefore, right conduct is divided in two categories namely śrāvakācāra for householders and śramaṇācāra for ascetics. According to Digambara ideology, the great jinas have described cāritra from practical point of view for both a monk (śramaṇa) and laity (śrāvaka). The five vows (vrata) when observed by laity are called minor vows (aṇuvrata); while the same are observed by monks are called major vows (mahāvrata) 13 . Apart from the five vows (vrata), monks also observe five attitudes of carefulness (samiti) and three attitudes of restraint (gupti). Therefore, cāritra is of 13 types. ❖ The five vows are: 1. Non-violence (ahiṃsā) 2. Truthfulness (satya) 3. Non-stealing (asteya) 4. Celibacy (brahmacarya) 5. Non-possession (aprigruha). 14 ❖ The five attitudes of carefulness are: 15 i. Not cause harm to any living being while walking (īrya) ii. Talk gently and beneficially (bhāṣā) iii. Be careful in receiving alms (aiṣaṇā) iv. Receive and keep things for religious purpose carefully (ādāna-nikṣepaṇa) v. Attend to the calls of nature in unfrequented places and not caus harm to any living being (vyutsarga). ❖ The three attitudes of restraint are: 16 i. Controlling the activities of mind (mana) ii. Controlling the activities of speech (vacana) iii. Controlling the activities of body (kāya) 12 “tannisargādadhigamādvā” (ibid 1.3) 13 “deśa-sarvato-aṇu-mahatī” (ibid 7.2) 14 “hiṃsā’nṛtasteyā-brahma-parigrahebhyo viratir-vrataṃ”(Ibid 7.1) 15 “īryābhāṣaiṣaṇādānanikṣepotsargāḥ samitayaḥ” (ibid 9.5) 16 “samyagyoganigraho guptiḥ…….. sā tritayī kāyaguptirvāgguptirmanoguptiriti” (Sarvārthasiddhi 9.4)

Uniqueness and Relevance of Jainism | 27 For a lay person (śrāvaka), a schedule of basic virtues and six essential (āvaśyakas) duties to be performed daily are given so that the practitioner while performing worldly duties keeps the basic Jain principles in mind and avoids harmful activities. ❖ According to Digambara tradition, these six essential duties are: 17 i. Worshipping the deity (deva pūjā) ii. Worshipping the monks (guru upāsanā) iii. Reading the scriptures (svādhyāya) iv. Observing self-discipline (saṇyama) v. Observing the penance (tapa) vi. Donating the alms (dāna) ❖ The Śvetāmbara tradition also refers to six essential duties for both monks and laity: 18 i. Staying indifferent (sāmāyika) ii. Worshipping 24 tīrthaṁkara (caturvinśatistava) iii. Paying respect to religious teachers (vandana) iv. Regretting past deeds (pratikramaṇa) v. Resigning from the body (kāyotsarga) vi. Renouncing the undoable (pratyākhyāna) Both types of six essential duties focus on reverence towards God and teachers as well as self-discipline and altruism. The progress of spiritual purification is indicated by 14 stages or gūṇasthānas showing primarily the status of deluding (mohanīya) karma up to the 12th stage and then of nonobscuring karma in the 13th stage, obscuring karma in the 14th stage whereas total absence of all karma after the 14th stage. A beautiful part of this mysticism of Jain philosophy is that even from the 11th stage, the mendicant can fall down to the first stage if he is not able to practice annihilation of karma from the beginning. Another peculiarity of Jain conduct is to celebrate death as a festival as it is an event when the soul leaves the old body to take up a new body (depending on its karma and mental state at the time of death). Five types of death are discussed with the highest one being of an omniscient, which after leaving his present body does not take any new body and hence gets out of the transmigration cycle.19 As with any old religion, over a period of time, certain amount of laxity in ethical practices crept in Jainism as well, giving rise to different sects. These improvisations keep the religion 17 deva-pūjā-gurūpāsti svādhyāyaḥ paramaṃ tapaḥ | dānaṇceti gṛhasthānāṃ ṣaṭ karmāṇi dine dine || (Padmanandi Pancaviṃśatikā 6.7) 18 Uttarādhyayanasūtra 29.8-14 19 paṇḍidapaṇḍidamaraṇaṃ pṇḍidayaṃ bālapaṇḍidaṃ ceva | bālamaraṇaṃ cautthaṃ pañcamayaṃ bālabālaṃ ca || (Bhagavatī Ārādhanā 26)

28 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 alive while the practicing principles, like to perform daily essentials or adherence to vows get adjusted to suit the changing times and environment. The two main sects that developed with time are Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras with further subdivisions in each. V Jain Arts and Pilgrimages Jains have contributed significantly to the construction of idols in different poses and materials, from carving in the hills and caves, temples with intricate artwork to the vast temple like Ranakpura. It can be said that the oldest temples and idols in India are of Jain religion. Dilwara temple at Abu; Bahubali monolith at Shravanabelgola; temples and idols at Deogarha, Khajuraho and Gwalior; Ellora in Maharashtra; and caves at Udaygiri-Khandgiri are worth visiting. Similarly, Jains have built a large number of pilgrim places associated with the attainment of salvation by tīrthaṁkaras or other siddhas; and places where some divine activity took place or places where the other four auspicious events (kalyāṇakas) of the tīrthaṁkaras took place etc. There are a number of them, which are frequented by Jains as a part of their spiritual and religious activity. VI Relevance of Jainism Today Although Jainism is considered or argued as one of the ancient religions, it is yet modern and scientific. Several features of Jain philosophy never go out of date. • Science in Jainism: It is amazing to see how Mahāvīra could visualize the structure of the universe from micro to macro levels without the aid of any modern-day instruments. Some examples are given to support this fact: ❖ Periodic table in science shows the number of basic elements found to date to be 102 (now gone up to 118). The table also shows some blank positions and the possibility of more basic elements that are yet to be found. Jains talk of a possibility of 4 (8/2 touch) *5 (colors) *5 (taste) *2 (odours) = 200 possible elements in which paramāṇu or atoms can combine to give different elements. ❖ Concept of paramāṇu being the smallest indivisible part of matter is given by Jains as established by Bohr in his atomic theory. ❖ Water should be boiled and strained before drinking. Absence of this shows over 4000 persons dying every day by drinking impure water. ❖ Mahāvīra’s principle of sat-jīvanikāya talks of air, water, fire, earth and plant bodied living beings and the living beings with moving bodies with more than one sense. Jainism is extremely useful in analyzing and propagating the basis and essentiality of environmental protection practices. ❖ Matter emits light (Sir CV Raman), Sound is matter (Galileo and Newton) and plants have life (JC Bose) are the principles which have been accepted by scientific research so far. Detailed description of matter as atomic cluster (skandha) and atom (paramāṇu)

Uniqueness and Relevance of Jainism | 29 is indeed getting established by scientific research now. Similarly, we find a number of other concerns proved by science about the constituents of universe. ❖ The properties of matter such as ability of many atoms to co-exist in the same space point, conversion of matter into energy etc. as given in Jain texts have been proved by scientific discoveries. There are a number of significant factors concerning cosmos, matter etc. other than the soul as experienced and preached by omniscient lords that can be verified through scientific experiments. • Social Issues: The recent economic theory of consumerism says increased demand for goods and services brings economic prosperity. This has led to rampant indulgence in using natural resources (hydrocarbons extraction, deforestation) and discharging effluents in air, water to cause environmental imbalance and a threat to our very existence. Along with this, growing demand for material wealth, there is use of unfair means to amass wealth and greater unhappiness in people. Lifestyle diseases like hypertension, diabetes, hearing impairment, air pollution related diseases like asthma etc. are rapidly increasing. Jain doctrine of strenuous efforts to achieve our objectives but practicing self-restraint (saṇyam) in consuming resources based on the practice of five minor vows ahiṃsā, satya, asteya, brahmacarya and aparigraha along with the practice of anekānta to maintain social harmony can provide solutions to all the issues. • Ecology: Mahāvīra talked of six types of living beings namely air bodied, water bodied, fire bodied, earth bodied, plant based and moving living beings. Thus, he talks of life in all these vital life support elements. Ācārāṅga talks in detail about all these and equates soul in them to that of ours. Mahāvīra also talks of non-violence as the fundamental doctrine to achieve liberation and eternal happiness. If we practice ahiṁsā towards these environmental elements and do not kill the living beings at all, along with self-restraint by limiting our needs (aparigraha), we can expect the environment to rejuvenate itself and stay healthy. • Vegetarianism: Eating meat or animal products cause us to kill living beings, thereby causing pain to them and enhancing our karma bondage. On the practical front, it has now been proved that vegetarian diet is healthier (physically as well as mentally) and results in a peaceful attitude and freedom from deadly diseases. On economic front, vegetarian diet is more economical as (more agriculture products, water and land are required to procure meat than to produce cereals. We also know that our planet does not have enough resources to satisfy the meat-eating habits of all. We see that vegetarian diet is becoming fast a diet by choice by millions all over the world. In fact, many people choose to turn vegan these days. • Terrorism: Violence begets violence. Nobody can win lasting peace by use of force. Mahatma Gandhi used ahiṁsā, aparigraha and anekānta to win freedom for India. To end terrorism, we need to first become self-reliant and confident having faith in equality so that we can defend ourselves in all situations, understand the viewpoints of all and use education and dialogue to resolve differences. Ahiṁsā (not causing harm to others) and anekānta (understanding others’ perspectives) may bring us closer to solving this problem of terrorism.

30 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 Conclusion Jain philosophy talks primarily of improving the self, in worldly and spiritual matters, rather than make others improve first. By improving yourself, the family improves, by improving the family, the community improves, by improving the community the state and then the country and finally the world improves. Jains place the individual at the center of all activities to achieve the worldly and spiritual goals. For the Jain community, one should learn from history and see that excessive display of prosperity, feeling of well-being and not sharing our wealth and way of life with others have to be given up. The example of a fruit laden mango tree bending down so that the people can enjoy its fruits and the shade teaches us how to prosper and share. The distinctive Jain theories have proven to be applicable in everyday lives. References: Amṛtacandrasūri. Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya. Trans. Vijay K. Jain. Dehradun: Vikalp Printers, 2012. Divākara, Siddhasena. Sanmati Tarka. Ed. Dalsukh Malvania. Bombay: Shri Jain Shwetambar Education Board, 1939. Jain, K. C. History of Jainism Vol. 1. New Delhi: D. K. Printworld, 2010. Jain, Prakash C. Jain in India and Abroad: A Sociological Introduction. Pune/Delhi: International School for Jain Studies and D. K. Printworld, 2022. Kundakunda, Ācārya. "Bodhapāhuḍa." Kundakunda, Ācārya. Aṣṭapāhuḍa. Sagar: Bharatavarshiya Anekant Vidvat Parishad, VN 2516. Lamare, Amy. "Waren Buffet Has Donated More Than $ 37 Billion To Charity Since 2006." July 15 2020. Celebrity Net Worth. 6 December 2021. <https://www.celebritynetworth.com/articles/billionairenews/warren-buffett-has-donated-more-than-37-billion-to-charity-since2006/#:~:text=Warren%20Buffett%20Has%20Donated%20More%20Than%20%2437%20Billion%20 To%20Charity%20Since%202006,-Home&text=Warren%20B>. Muni, Madhukar, ed. Ācārāṅgasūtra. Beawar: Shri Agam Prakashan Samiti, 2010. —. Uttarādhyayansūtra. Ed. Madhukar Muni. Beawar: Shri Agam Prakashan Samiti, 2012. Nemicandra, Ācārya. Dravyasaṁgraha. Trans. Nalini Balbir. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalaya, 2010. Pūjyapāda. Sarvārthasiddhi. Ed. Phoolchandra Shastri. New Delhi: Bharatiya jnanpith, 1998. Shastri, Balchandraji, ed. Padmanandi Pañcaviṁśati. Trans. Balchandraji Shastri. Solapur: Jain Sanskriti Samrakshak Sangh, 2001. Śivārya. Bhagavatī Ārādhanā. Ed. Kailashchandra Shastri. Trans. Kailashchandra Shastri. Vol. 1. Solapur, 2015. Svami, Vidyanand. Āptaparīkṣā-Svopajña Ṭīkā. Ed. Darbarilal Kothia. Saharanpur: Vira Seva Mandir, 1949. Umāsvāmī. Tattvārthasūtra. Ed. Vijay K. Jain. Dehradun: Vikalp Printers, 2011.

YOGA IN JAIN TRADITION Priyadarshana Jain Abstract Yoga – the term and the theory – has many connotations in different traditions. Jain tradition is not untouched from the fascinating theory of yoga and provides its own understanding of both theory and practice of yoga. Myriad of texts are available discussing the same where yoga is approached from the perspective of spirituality, karma theory, path of liberation, mental practices, etc. in Jainism. Moreover, the term yoga itself has a specific meaning in Jainism incorporating the vibrations of mind-speech-body. This paper throws light upon the specific undertone of yoga in Jainism and its place in a soul’s spiritual journey from mundane to transcendental based on multiple Jain texts. Introduction India is a spiritual land. It is the birthplace of many spiritual, philosophical and religious traditions. Unlike the west, the eastern philosophical schools developed simultaneously, be it Brāhmaṇic or Śramaṇic. But in both the traditions and in almost every Indian school of philosophical thought, the terms yoga and dhyāna find an important place. According to Vedic tradition, the originator of the concept of yoga was Hiraṇyagarbha, the personified form of God or the Ultimate Energy (Frawley). According to the Jains, it is the first tīrthaṁkara Ŗṣabhadeva. In India, philosophy and yoga have not developed independent of each other, as they are not separate entities. termed, every system of philosophy has a corresponding yoga technique for practical application of the doctrines; yoga was a way of life in ancient India; spiritual and religious exercises, which lead towards liberation, are termed as yoga. References of yoga in Atharvaveda, Upaniṣads, Mahābhārata, Bhagavadgītā, Smṛtis, Purāṇas, Yogavāsiṣṭha, etc. prove the popularity of yoga in the Brāhmaṇic tradition. However, it was Mahaṛṣi Patañjali who systematically presented the eight-fold yoga in his Yogasūtra. The yoga-styled naked monuments in the kāyotsarga posture in Mohenjo-Daro too are a pointer to this fact, besides we find references of avadhūta and tāpasas. The Bauddha path of purification is spelt through śīla (conduct) samādhi (peace) and prajñā (enlightenment) and its practical yoga philosophy is the popular vipassanā meditation. The Jain path of purification is a synthesis of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct1 i.e., ātmadarśana, ātmajñāna and ātmaramaṇa. In other words, faith in the ayoga transcendental state of the soul, knowledge of transcending the mundane conditioning of mind, body and speech is the right faith. The way of transcending materialism and manifestation of the spiritual personality within is termed as mokṣa-mārga (path of liberation). Whether it is the yoga-mārga of Sāṁkhya, viśuddhi-mārga of Buddhism or mokṣa-mārga of Jainism, all are intimately related and have influenced each other. It is worthwhile seeing the unity of their expositions. The four basic doctrines acceptable to all these systems of yoga are (Desai 12): • The existence of soul or consciousness is an independent entity. Prof. and Head, Department of Jainology, University of Madras, Chennai, Email: [email protected] 1 ‘samyagdarśanajñānacāritrāṇi mokṣamārgaḥ’ (Tattvārthasūtra 1.1)

32 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 • The soul or conscious entity is pure but is covered by a curtain of ignorance or kleśas or karmas. • The origin of such ignorance is unknowable, still there is a possibility of removing it by human efforts and lastly, • Self-stabilization of the soul or consciousness after getting rid of ignorance. Although the four basic principles are the same, they are termed and named differently in each system. The following table summarizes the above four principles: 2 Details Jain Buddhist Sāṁkhya Nyāya -Vaiśeṣika Subject independent existence of consciousness named jīva or ātmā independent consciousness named citta pure consciousness named puruṣa consciousness named ātman or jīva Cause of Bondage veiled by perverse attitude, delusion and karmas ignorance named samudāya and tṛṣṇā i.e., desire avidyā or ignorance false knowledge, veil of māyā Path of Liberation right faith, knowledge & Conduct eight-fold path śīla, samādhi, prajñā saṁvara, etc. discrimination and eight-fold yoga-mārga right knowledge and yoga-mārga State of Liberation mokṣa nirvāṇa, kaivalya videha mukti mukti or niḥśreyas The above table enumerates the reflections based on the subject, cause of bondage, path of liberation and state of liberation that expresses yoga in the four different traditions. Earlier, the term ‘tapa’ was more in vogue than yoga as the ascetics performed austerity to purify their souls. The term śramaṇa is indicative of śrama i.e., effort śama i.e., subduing of passions or sama i.e., balance of mind. The śramaṇas as well as tapasas and yogis saw the limitation of physical penance like fasting, mortification of the flesh, etc., and realized that conquering of senses and inner passions was important for liberation. The term tapa fell short of positive connotation; hence the term yoga became popular. The term yoga became indicative of the realization of the ultimate reality. Meaning of the Word Yoga The word yoga is derived from the root word ‘yuj’ which means ‘to join’ and it also means stability of mind. The aim of all Indian philosophies, except Cārvāka, is liberation and this is possible by conquering the mind and transcending it beyond the levels of empirical knowledge. According to Patañjali, yoga means ‘giving up the activities of the citta’ 3 i.e., consciousness is yoga. Gītā says, ‘equanimity is yoga’ 4 . In Jainism it indicates the activities of body, speech and mind. 5 The vibrations of the soul are termed yoga. Haribhadhra says that what leads one to emancipation is yoga. 6 2 The table is adapted from (Desai 12-13) 3 yogaścittavṛttinirodhaḥ (Yogasūtra 1.2) 4 “samatvam yoga ucyate” (Gītā 2.48) 5 “kāyavāṅmaṇaḥkarma yogaḥ’’ (Tattvārthasūtra 6.1) 6 “mokṣeṇa yojanād yoga eṣa śreṣṭho yathottarm” (Yogabindu 31) “mokkheṇa joyaṇāo jogo savvo vi dhammavāvāro” (Yogaviṅśikā 1)

Yoga in Jain Tradition | 33 As Tattvārtha-sūtra says the three-fold activity causes influx of karma and when it is auspicious it is puṇya i.e., merit or virtue and when it is inauspicious it is pāpa i.e., demerit or sin. 7 One has to first give up all inauspicious activities (aśubha-yoga) like violence, theft, jealousy, etc.; substitute them with auspicious activity (śubha-yoga like prayer, donation, compassion, etc.) and then learn the art of pure contemplation (śuddha- upayoga) to be emancipated. The soul that is engrossed in aśubha-yoga is the external self (bahirātmā), the one in śubha-yoga is the internal self (antarātmā) and the one absorbed in śuddha-yoga is the transcendental or pure self (paramātmā). In other words, one must check all the activities of the mind, body and speech for spiritual welfare, and this is termed as saṁvara (stoppage of influx of karma). Just as water flows into a pond through the inlets, karmic influx takes place through the three channels of activity called yoga (i.e., mind, speech and body). Hence the purpose of Jaina Yoga is to transcend all mundane activities and reach the ayoga state which is the state of soul without activities of mind, speech and body, also called transcendental state of enlightenment and bliss. Capability to attain this state is inherent in all jīvtas and those who pursue and exert in the right direction eventually become paramātmā or supreme self. In Jainism, the term cāritra (right conduct) is the exact equivalent of the general term yoga (Tatia 262). It is said that influx is the cause of bondage and stoppage of influx is the cause of emancipation. This is Jainism in a nutshell. The five-fold regulations (samitis), the three-fold self-control (guptis), ten-fold virtues (yatidharma), twelve-fold contemplations (anuprekṣās), conquest of twenty-two afflictions (pariṣahas) and five-fold conduct (cāritra) constitute the stoppage of influx of karma (saṁvara). Besides the above 57 divisions, the twelve-fold austerities constitute annihilation of karmas (nirjarā). Fasting (anaśana), regulated diet (ūnodarya), taking alms (bhikṣācari), giving up of tasty diet (rasparityāga), physical postures (kāyakleśa) and control of senses (pratisaṁlīnatā) are the six-fold external austerities. 8 The six-fold internal austerities are9 : • Nine-fold expiation (prāyaścitta) i.e., confession, repentance, penitential retreat etc. • Four-fold reverences (vinaya) of faith, knowledge, conduct etc. • Respectful service (vaiyāvṛttya) to ten supreme personalities. • Five-fold study (svādhyāya) i.e., teaching, enquiry, revising, contemplation and preaching. • Concentration (dhyāna) i.e., meditation. • Detachment (vyutsarga) i.e., renunciation. Besides practicing the above divisions of saṁvara and nirjarā which are the essential constituents of Jaina yoga i.e., giving up the activities of mind, body and speech, perverse attitude, vow-less-ness, non-vigilance and passions which bind the soul, have to be substituted with right attitude, taking to complete or partial vows, vigilance and conquering of passions respectively. It helps in conquering inauspicious yoga and the objective of yoga i.e. emancipation or freedom from afflictions is achieved. The above happens gradually as the soul advances on the 14 stages of spiritual development (guṇasthāna). The journey begins with the right attitude (samyak-darśana), passes through right knowledge (samyak-jñāna) and 7 śubhaḥ puṇyasya | aśubhaḥ pāpasya | (Tattvārthasūtra 6.3-4) 8 aṇasaṇamūṇoyariyā bhikkhāyariyā ya rasapariccāo | kāyakileso saṁlīṇayā ya bajjho tavo hoi || (Uttarādhyayana 30.8) 9 pāyacchitaṁ viṇao veyāvaccaṁ taheva sajjhāo | jhāṇaṁ ca viussaggo eso abbhintaro tavo || (ibid 30.30)

34 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 right conduct (samyak-cāritra) and culminates in manifestations of infinite knowledge, vision, bliss and power. The Three Karmas and Guṇasthānas Even though the soul has inherent capacity for emancipation, spiritual progress is not possible until the love for truth becomes a conscious pursuit. There is a tendency in the soul to run away from the circle of worldly existence. But this centrifugal tendency is thwarted by a centripetal force that keeps the soul tracing the circumference of the world process. The centripetal force consists in the passion of attraction and aversion rooted in perverse attitude. (Tatia 269) To conquer this centripetal force is the purpose of yoga. The centripetal force is due to perversity and passions and must be replaced by the centrifugal force which is love for the pure self and a deep spiritual insight. The object of Jain yoga is the self, the purpose of it is the purification of the self and the means of purification is the establishment of supremacy and full control by the self on its manifestation that has hitherto been conditioned by the senses and the mind. When the soul is ignorant of its pure state, it suffers from the gordian knot of intense attachment and aversion. When it comes face to face with this gordian knot of mithyātva (delusion), it is termed as yathāpravṛttikaraṇa (degree of suitable purity). When it breaks the knot and experiences spiritual purification it is termed as apūrvakaraṇa (unprecedented degree of purity). The soul awakens and becomes self-conscious, and this is the state of anivṛttikaraṇa (degree of purity where certain deluding karma are suppressed or destructed). The soul then enjoys the first dawn of enlightenment or spiritual insight (samyak-darśana). The journey that begins in the 4th guṇasthāna culminates in the 13th guṇasthāna that is sayoga-kevalī-guṇasthāna, where the soul has become omniscient, perfect, enlightened and awakened and is accompanied by mind-speech-body at the same time. The yoga of mind body, and speech are then transcended and the soul passes through the 14th guṇasthāna which is the ayoga-kevalī-guṇasthāna to reach mokṣa which is the state of complete freedom from birth, death, old-age, disease, fear, sorrow, poverty, karma, body, delusion, perversion, ignorance, passion etc. 10 Thus, we see that the journey which begins with the right faith is nourished through saṁvara and nirjarā and culminates in the ayoga state. Yoga, according to Hemacandra, is the cause of final emancipation and consists of the three-fold jewels of right knowledge, right attitude and right conduct.11 It is the comprehension of the self in the self by the self on account of disappearance of the eternal delusion.12 Āgamic References of Yoga Jain tradition is an ascetic tradition and has stressed upon self-control and self-conquering for spiritual welfare. Mahāvīra, the 24th tīrthaṁkara, underwent rigorous austere and yogic practices for twelve and a half years and exercised complete silence, stillness, equanimity, compassion, renunciation, inward looking, contemplation, detachment with right attitude and right knowledge. The purpose of his yogic practices was to discover the peace within, which he eventually did after steadfast faith and total absorption of the self in the self. The 10 “jiṇāṇaṁ jāvayāṇaṁ tiṇṇāṇaṁ tārayāṇaṁ buddhāṇaṁ bohayāṇaṁ muttāṇaṁ moyagāṇaṁ” (Āvaśyakasūtra 4 - Praṇipāta Sūtra- 8) 11 caturvarge’agraṇīrmokṣo, yogastasya ca kāraṇam | jñāna-śraddhāna-cāritrarūpaṁ ratnatrayaṁ ca saḥ || (Yoga Śāstra 1.15) 12 ātmānamātmanā vetti, mohatyāgād ya ātmani | tadeva tasya cāritram, tajjñānaṁ tacca darśanam || (Ibid 4.2)

Yoga in Jain Tradition | 35 Ācārāṅga-sūtra gives detailed information of the dhyana-yoga of Mahāvīra wherein he has been called as āyatayogī whose mind, senses, intellect, feelings and subtle dispositions were all directed towards the discovery of the self. 13 The values that he propounded after becoming enlightened are, non-violence, compassion, spirituality, self-esteem, steadfastness, equanimity, tolerance, multi-dimensional viewpoint, detachment etc. His teachings emphasized the physiological, psychological, sociological, environmental, emotional and spiritual well-being of a person. The Samavayāṅga-sūtra (32.1-5) enumerates the 32 aspects of yoga that are as follows: • To confess one’s sins before the spiritual master • Not to reveal the confessions of others • To be steadfast in righteousness/dharma • To take to austere practices with detachment • To be well versed in scriptural knowledge and put the same to practice • Not to adorn the body • Taking to austere practices and not publicizing them • Giving up greed • To practice tolerance • To be efficient in practicing self-control • To be simple, simplicity is an important trait of a yogī • Purification of right faith • Being calm and poised • To be straightforward in practicing the vows • Being devoted to arihantas and other spiritual personages • To be firm and enduring • Fear of transmigration and desire for freedom • Giving up deceitfulness • Being dedicated to the path so taken • Giving up influx of karma • Purification of sins and blemishes • Complete renunciation of pleasures • Steadfast practice of the vows • Steadfast practice of other disciplinary regulations • Complete bodily detachment • Giving up non-vigilance • To be alert and aware • Taking to virtuous and pure contemplations • Giving up the fear of death • Being alone in the company of the self • To expiate for one’s sins and shortcomings • To be constantly engaged in the study of the self and scriptures, even at the time of death Thus, we see that in Jain scriptures, the term yoga connotes different meanings: • Meditation (dhyāna) • Tapa (austerity) • Cāritra (conduct) • Saṁvara (stoppage of influx of karma) • Nirjarā (annihilation of karma) 13 sayameva abhisamāgamma āyatajogamāyasohīe | abhiṇivvuḍe amāille āvakahaṁ bhagavaṁ samitāsī || (Ācāraṅga-sūtra I / 9.4, 322)

36 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 • Adhyātma (spirituality) • Bhāvanā (contemplation) • Samatā (equanimity) etc. Meditation (Dhyāna) The Jain scriptures give a detailed description of dhyāna, which is the 7th aṅga of the eightfold Pātañjala-yoga. Dhyāna may be inauspicious and auspicious. Ārta Dhyāna and Raudra Dhyāna are mournful and cruel concentrations, which are inauspicious, and Dharma Dhyāna and Śukla Dhyāna are virtuous and pure concentrations, which are auspicious. Each has been further subdivided into four and the aspirant is cautioned and advised to give up the former and pursue the latter (Umāsvāti 9.31-39). Some contemplations during the four kinds of dhyāna are explained in the following table: Four divisions of mournful contemplation (Ārta Dhyāna) • Contact with undesirable and unpleasant things and people • Separation from the loved ones and dear things • Anxiety about health and illness • Craving for sensual pleasures Four divisions of cruel contemplation (Raudra Dhyāna) • Thoughts of violence • Thoughts of falsehood • Thoughts of theft • Thoughts of protecting material possessions and people Four divisions of virtuous contemplation (Dharma Dhyāna) • Reflections on the teachings of the Jinas • Reflections on the shortcomings of passion • Reflections on the fruit of karma • Reflections on the universe Four divisions of pure contemplation (Śukla Dhyāna) • Contemplation on different aspects of a • Contemplation on one aspect of a substance • Cessation of the yoga of a mind and speech • Cessation of the yoga of subtle bodily activities The first two types of dhyāna are inauspicious dhyāna or yoga and the last two are auspicious. Both of them are used as synonyms and convey the same meaning in this context. Thus, the system of yoga in Jain scriptures has been discussed through the triple jewels (ratnatraya), nine elements (tattvas), two types of conduct (cāritra), fourteen stages of spiritual development (guṇasthāna), twelve-fold austerity (tapa), advanced spiritual practices (pratimās), practice of peaceful dying (sallekhanā) etc. The following table gives a list of some important post-scriptural (post-āgamic) yoga works: Century Author Text 1 st Ācārya Kundakunda Samayasāra, Pravacanasāra 2 nd and 3rd Ācārya Umāsvāti Tattvārtha-sūtra 4 th and 5th Bhadrabāhu II Āvaśyaka Niryukti 4 th and 5th Pūjyapāda Devanandi Samādhi Tantra, Iṣtopadeśa 6 th Jinabhadragaṇi Dhyāna Śataka 6 th Ācārya Yogīndu Paramātma Prakāśa, Yogasāra 8 th Ācārya Haribhadra Yoga Grantha Catuṣṭaya

Yoga in Jain Tradition | 37 9 th Ācārya Jinasena Mahāpurāṇa 11th Ācārya Rāmasena Tattvānuśasana 11th Ācārya Śubhacandra Jñānārṇava 11th Somadeva Sūri Yogamārga 12th Ācārya Hemacandra Yogaśāstra 13th Pandita Āśādharaji Adhyātma Rahasya 15th Sundarasūri Adhyātma Kalpadruma 18th Vinayavijayji Śāntasudhārasa 18th Upādhyaya Yaśovijayaji Adhyātmopanişad, etc. 20th and 21st Acharya Tulsi and Mahaprajña Manonuśāsanam, 60 books on Prekṣā Dhyāna In the spiritual tradition of India, yoga occupies an important place and in the yogic tradition, dhyāna (meditation) occupies an important place, and the Jain scriptures are confined to the discussion of yoga as dhyāna. But the above table speaks at great length of the various yogic traditions of Jainism, enumerated and discussed by the illustrious ascetics from time to time. Based on the available āgamic and post-āgamic literature, we can broadly classify the Jaina dhyāna-yoga-sādhanā practices in four periods: Period Prominent Personalities Century 1. From Mahāvīra to Kundakunda 6 thBCE to 1st CE 2. From Kundakunda to Haribhadra 1 st CE to 8th CE 3. From Haribhadra to Yaśovijaya 8 thCE to 18th CE 4. From Yaśovijaya till date 18th CE till date In the first period relaxed posture of meditation (kāyotsarga), reflections (bhāvanā), meditational practices (vipassanā) and contemplation (vicaya) were important. People practiced meditation, contemplation not for days but for months and years together to accomplish self-realization and emancipation. Mahāvīra himself meditated for 12.5 years, so did his 50,000 monks, nuns, and other lay followers.14 After the 1st century CE, philosophical speculation paved the way for scriptural study and spiritual meditational practices took a backseat. In the 8 th century, Ācārya Haribhadra and others made a comparative study of Jain-yoga and Pātañjala-yoga and numerous texts on yoga were written during this period. In the 18th century works, we can see the impact of devotion (bhakti) on yoga as many yoga works were written based on bhakti. The modern age is an age of scientific research and speculation; hence yoga and meditation practices have been scientifically interpreted and thus we have modern meditational practices like Prekṣā Dhyāna, Aṇųpehā Dhyāna that are deep rooted in society for spiritual health and welfare. 14 “samaṇe bhagavaṁ mahāvīre sāiregāhaṁ duvālasa-vāsāiṁ niccaṁ vosaṭṭhakāe ciyatta-dehe......” (Kalpsūtra 116)

38 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 Eight Dṛṣṭis of Haribhadra’s Yoga Haribhadra made a valuable contribution to the comparative study of yoga by composing several works on the subject. He wrote Yogabindu and Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya in Sanskrit and Yogaśataka and Yogaviṁśikā in Prakrit. In Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya, Haribhadra talks of two types of attitudes towards truth viz. ogha-dṛṣṭi and yoga-dṛṣṭi. Ogha-dṛṣṭi is the attitude of the souls, which have not cut the knot of delusion or ignorance, and yoga-dṛṣṭi is the attitude of the spiritually advanced souls.15 The first four dṛṣṭis (mitrā, tārā, balā, dīprā) are unsteady and fallible. The last four (sthirā kāntā prabhā parā) are steady and infallible. In the first dṛṣṭi called mitrā, the soul has indistinct enlightenment like a flash. In this stage, it accumulates the seeds of yoga. It is noble in character. In the second dṛṣṭi called tārā, the soul exercises a bit of self control and becomes steady in spirituality. It desires to get rid of worldly existence. In the third dṛṣṭi called balā, the desire deepens and the soul gains control over posture and in the fourth dṛṣṭi called dīprā, it gets control over breath. Although the real spiritual progress has not yet set in, the soul tries to capture the image of the truth instead of the truth itself (Tatia 302-4). When the soul cultivates the right faith and cuts the knot it is said to reach the fifth stage of sthirā and enlightenment has now dawned on it. In the sixth stage called kāntā, the soul is engrossed in spiritual contemplation and the worldly pleasures do not allure him any longer. The seventh dṛṣṭi is prabhā where the soul has developed concentration and is free from mental disturbances and the eighth dṛṣṭi called parā is the consummation of dhyāna where the soul experiences spiritual joy and ecstasy (samādhi). It is pure, blemish-free and perfect. This is the perfection of yoga through which the soul achieves emancipation. 16 By this, all the knots are cut, karma annihilated, mission accomplished, vision and knowledge are clear, and nothing more remains to be achieved. Haribhadra also discusses the three names of yoga viz. icchā-yoga i.e., yoga by intention, śāstra-yoga i.e., yoga by scripture and sāmarthya-yoga i.e., yoga by exertion. 17 He mentions four types of yogīs – gotrayogī, kulayogī, pravṛttacakrayogī, nişpannayogī (Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya 208-222). Yogabindu (358-367) discusses about the preparation for perfection through spirituality (adhyātma), contemplation (bhāvanā), concentration (dhyāna), equanimity (samatā) and annihilation of residual karmas (vṛttisamkṣaya). He discusses two forms of yoga – niścaya-yoga and vyavahāra-yoga in his Yogaśataka (2-5) and four categories of sādhaka i.e., aspirants, viz. i. apunarbandhaka, ii. samyagdṛṣṭi, iii. Deśavirati, iv. sarvavirati (Yogaśataka 15-20). Undoubtedly, Haribhadra is influenced by Patañjali but through his works he has neatly interwoven the Jain beliefs and practices for the common man to understand and relate with. Haribhadra compares yoga to a kalpataru (wish-fulfilling tree) and says that whosoever turns inward and searches the truth shall find it and eventually be liberated. 15 mitrā tārā balā dīprā sthirā kāntā prabhā parā | nāmāni yogadṛṣṭīnāṁ lakṣaṇaṁ ca nibodhata || sameghamigharātryadau sagrahādyarbhakādivat | oghadṛṣṭiriha jñeyā mithyādṛṣṭītarāśrayā || (Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya 13-14) 16 kṣīṇadoṣo’tha sarvajñaḥ sarvalabdhiphalānvitaḥ | paraṁ parārtha sampādya tato yogāntamaśnute || tatra drāgeva bhagavānayogād yogasattamāt | bhavavyādhikṣayaṁ kṛtvā nirvāṇaṁ labhate param || (ibid 185-6) 17 kartumicchoḥ śrutārthasya jñānino’pi pramādataḥ | vikalo dharmayogo yaḥ, sa icchāyoga ucyate || śāstrayogastviha jñeyo, yathāśaktyapramādinaḥ | śrāddhasya tīvrabodhane, vacasā’vikalastathā || śāstrasandarśitopāyastadatikrāntagocaraḥ | śaktyudrekādviśeṣeṇa, sāmārthyākhyo’yamuttamaḥ || (ibid 3-5)

Yoga in Jain Tradition | 39 Jñānārṇava of Śubhacandra is another beautiful thought-provoking text, which discusses the 16-fold contemplations and reveals that when one wakes up from the slumber of delusion and practices the virtues, supreme ecstasy sets in, and truth then reveals itself. He draws a beautiful picture of a yogī engrossed in spirituality. A spiritual yogī dives deep into the ocean of compassion and kindness and is absolutely free from attachment and aversion. He discusses four types of dhyāna viz. piṇḍastha, padastha, rūpastha and rūpātīta. 18 According to Hemacandra, yoga is the cause of final emancipation, and he has discussed yoga through right character and distinguishes four kinds of mental states viz. scattered (vikṣipta), scattered cum collected (yātāyāta), collected (śliṣṭa) and merged (sulīna) that, if practiced again and again, help the meditator reach the state of meditation without any object. 19 S. M. Desai (18-19) lays down the parallels and benefits of yoga. His broad conclusions are noteworthy: • Yoga renders a great service both to philosophy and psychology and is a psychophilosophic system having dynamics of its own. • It provides a technique for the search of reality by all psychic means. • It is an exercise of consciousness on consciousness itself and attempts to find keys to peep into the recesses of the consciousness too. Yoga heightens consciousness and tries to get rid of avidyā (ignorance). • Yoga unfolds the human psyche, enlivens it, expands it, strengthens it, makes it dynamic and thereby transforms it completely by means of meditation, spiritual ethics and special inner processes. • It provides the highest goal of life and prepares the practitioner sādhaka for its quickest achievement. Yoga is not satisfied with a smaller goal nor is it content with higher accomplishment (siddhi) in the form of spiritual powers. It rests content only with the achievement of the highest of the high, the supreme goal of self-realization. • Yoga provides the shortest cut to reach this goal, but this is possible only for the sādhaka with very intense efforts. But even a sādhaka with mild efforts uplifts his life. Every effort in yoga is comparatively speedier in enabling the upliftment of the sādhaka’s life. • Such potency of yoga is due to its empirical and operational character. Its operation is more psychic than physical. • Yoga is an art as well as a science. It is an art because it teaches the art of living on higher levels of consciousness. It is a science as it teaches ways to research the truths of life and how to consciously practice by experiencing them. • Yoga is a spiritual science of human psyche and human life and reality itself. • Yoga-works and processes need a constant approach of synthesis, as general human tendency is to fragment everything. Yoga requires a holistic approach as needed in the present times. Summary The entire study of yoga can be summed up as follows in the words of Swami Chinmayananda: “Through steady devotion of the supreme consciousness, complete 18 piṇḍasthaṁ ca padasthaṁ ca rūpasthaṁ rūpavarjitam | caturdhā dhyānamāmnātaṁ bhavyarājīvabhāskaraiḥ || (jñānārṇava 37.1) 19 iha vikṣiptaṁ yātāyāṁ śliṣṭaṁ tathā sulīnaṁ ca | cetaścatuḥprakāraṁ tajjñ-camatkārakāri bhavet || (Yogaśāstra 12.2)

40 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 detachment is possible, through detachment delusion is dissolved, and then complete stability in the supreme consciousness can be attained, which eventually leads to emancipation.” 20 Yoga has been one of the most discussed subjects in Indian philosophy. Multiple traditions have explained yoga through the lens of their own philosophies. Jain tradition also has its own interpretation of yoga which scholars have explained through centuries. Jain texts demonstrate meditation practices and their being instrumental in self-realization, which in turn, results in attaining emancipation. In modern times meditation on the namaskāra-sūtra, navapada-ārādhanā through colors, prekṣā meditation etc. seem to be commonly practiced by Jains worldwide. But all Jain ācāryas stress the need for right understanding and right knowledge for the right practice of yoga. The attitude is of prime importance for it is the right attitude that makes yoga right and leads to realizing the ayoga state of emancipation. For a thorough study of Jain yoga, it is recommended to acquire a thorough knowledge of the fundamentals of Jainism, which includes Jaina metaphysics, ethics, karma theory, etc. References: Bhagavad-gītā As It Is. Mumbai: The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 2011. Chinmayananda. Bhaja Govindam. Bombay: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, 1993. Desai, S.M. Haribhadra's Yoga Works and Psychosynthesis. Ahmedabad: L.D. Institute of Indology, 1983. Frawley, David. "Yoga: The original teachings from Patanjali back to Hiranyagarbha." n.d. www.sanskritimagazine.com. 05 April 2023. <https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/yoga-original-teachingspatanjali-back-hiranyagarbha/>. Haribhadra. The Yogabindu. Trans. K. K. Dixit. Ahmedabad: Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandir, 1968. —. Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya. Ed. L. Sueli. Mumbai: Devacanda lalbhai Jain Pustakoddhar Vyavasthapatra, 1912. —. Yogaviṁśikā. Trans. Dhirajlal Dahyalal Mehta. Surat: Jain Dharma Trust, 1993. Hemacandra. Yogaśāstra. Trans. Padma Vijaya. Meerut: Shri Nirgranth Sahitya Prakashan Sangh, 1990. Muni, Amar, ed. Illustrated Kalpsūtra. Delhi: Padma Prakashan, 2008. Muni, Madhukar, ed. Ācārāṅga-sūtra - I. Beawar: Shri Agam Prakashan Samiti, 2010. —. Āvaśyakasūtra. Ed. Madhukar Muni. Beawar: Shri Agam Prakashan Samiti, 2013. —. Samavāyāṅga-sūtra. Ed. Madhukar Muni. Beawar: Shri Agamprakashan Samiti, 2013. —. Uttarādhyayana-sūtra. Ed. Madhukar Muni. Beawar: Shri Agam Prakashan Samiti, 2012. Patañjali. Yogadarśānam. Sagpur: Darshan Yog Mahavidyalaya, 2003. Śubhacandra. Jñānārṇava. Agaas: Shri Paramshrut Prabhavak Mandal Shrimad Rajchandra Ashram, 1998. Tatia, Nathmal. Studies in Jaina Philosophy . Varanasi: P.V. Research Institute, 1951. Umāsvāti. Tattvārthasūtra. Varanasi: Parshvanath Shodh Sansthan, 1993. Yogindudeva. Paramātmaprakāśa and Yogasāra. Ed. A.N. Upadhye. Agas: Shrimad Rajachandra Ashrama, 1973. 20 satsaṅgatve nissaṅgatvam, nissaṅgatve nirmohatvaṁ | nirmohatve niścalitatvaṁ, niścalitatve jīvanamuktiḥ || (Bhaja Govindam 9)

DERRIDEAN PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW VIS- À-VIS JAIN VIEW OF ANEKĀNTA Samani Shashi Prajna Abstract The inter-cultural dialogues under the umbrella of doctrine of anekānta, the diverse views get recognition from the respective viewpoints. This article is an endeavour in understanding the points of agreements and points of disagreements between the Mahāvira’s philosophy of anekānta and Western Post-modern Analytic philosopher Jacques Derridean view of non-stable meaning of the word, contextual change of meaning of the same word, endless deferral of signifier and signified, and the relativity of word-meaning. Moreover, parallel acceptance of the impossibility of exhaustive cognition as well as expression of any object by an empirical human being as accepted by Jain philosophers and Jacques Derrida. In simple terminology, it can be said that anekānta teaches the process of formation of holistic outlook and syādvāda acts as the medium of exchange of the viewpoints and expression of intended meaning. Relativity of Language and Jain Doctrine of Anekānta An object has innumerable number of characteristics. Every object possesses innumerable characters. It is not possible for an ordinary person to know all of them. We know only some qualities of a substance. To know all the aspects of a substance is to become omniscient. We are all imperfect human beings; we cannot comprehend an object in its totality because our perception is limited. Human knowledge at its best is, after all, partial knowledge and it is not free from error and illusion. To view a thing not only from a single point of view, but to examine it from all possible points of view is the real meaning of the doctrine of anekāntavāda. Anekānta is a scientific analysis of many sidedness of truth and its multiple dimensions and perspectives. Anekānta means multi-sided views and its expression is known as syādvāda. Syādvāda is composed of two words: 'syāt' means from a certain point of view or from a certain angle of vision and the word 'vāda' denotes the system of thought. Emphasizing the limits of ordinary knowledge, Jain philosophy presents the theory that truth is relative to the perspective (naya) from which it is known. Furthermore, because Reality is many sided and our knowledge is true only from a limited perspective, all knowledge claims are only relative. In simple terminology, it can be said that anekānta teaches the process of formation of holistic outlook and syādvāda acts as the medium of exchange of the viewpoints and expression of intended meaning. As per my view, the anekāntic perspective of holistic understanding of objective and subjective worlds needs to undergo four steps: 1. Dispassionate perception of phenomenal world 2. Understanding of an object from multi-dimensional viewpoints 3. Correct usage of linguistic tools of expression to avoid ambiguities and inconsistencies. 4. Understanding the intention of the speaker and the use of words and statements in a certain context Nayavāda is a significant contribution of Jain logic and epistemology. It helps in understanding the nature of an object in a comprehensive way. It is the basis of the principle of anekānta as Associate Professor in Department of Jainology and Comparative Religion and Philosophy, Jaina Vishva Bharati Institute (Deemed University), Ladnun, India. Email: [email protected]

42 | ISJS-Transactions, Vol.6, No. 3&4, July-December, 2022 mentioned by Siddhasena Divākara in his work.1 Māilla Dhavala in his Nayacakra affirms the same statement with addition to an illustration: as the origin of all scriptures is alphabet, right world-view (samyaktva) is vital for the monk performing penances, lead is the most important of all metals, likewise naya is the basis of anekānta. 2 Reality is multifaceted, any absolute assertion about reality will not cover all the aspects simultaneously. In the words of Siddhasena, since everything has infinite characters, it is comprehended only by the omniscient. But a thing becomes the subject matter of a naya, when it is conceived from one particular standpoint.3 Therefore, to comprehend the true nature of reality, this doctrine of anekānta sparked a revolution in the thoughts of contemporary philosophical schools prevailing even during the period of Mahāvīra. Mahāvīra applied the linguistic tool of ‘syāt’ and perceived and understood each statement with dispassionate outlook and arrived at the conclusion that without taking into consideration various nayas (viewpoints of substance, space, time and modes), one cannot arrive at the certain contextual truth. This epistemological and logical theory of Jain-s is called ‘anekāntavāda’. As a matter of fact, both anekāntavāda and syādvāda are two aspects of the realistic and relativistic pluralism. The metaphysical side that Reality has innumerable characters is called anekāntavāda, while the epistemological and logical side that we can know only some aspects of Reality and therefore, all our judgments are necessarily relative, is called syādvāda. Syādvāda can be explained with a simple example. A Jain thinker, in explaining syādvāda, raised his little finger and the ring finger and asked which one was bigger? The ring finger is bigger, no doubt was the answer. He then raised the ring and middle fingers and then asked, which is smaller? The answer was the ring finger. He then said, it is syādvāda. The same finger is bigger and smaller both. Thus, there is nothing absolutely bigger or smaller. Everything is relatively smaller or bigger. This is the Jain theory of relativity. In this context, it is relevant to say that there is misconception regarding anekānta theory, that it expresses only relative truth and there is nothing like an absolute truth in Jain philosophy. To this Ācārya Mahāprajña said, the existence of basic five substances (medium of motion, medium of rest, space, matter, and soul) are absolute (nirpekṣa) truths. Moreover, he says that, bereft of absolute, how can relative truth exist? (Mahāprajña, Jain Darśana aura Anekānta 29) This question was raised against anekānta but anekānta is also anekāntic as per Ācārya Samantabhadra.4 As per the view of the Indian philosophy writer, C.D. Sharma, who has marked a comment on the Jain concept of naya: ‘the difficulty is that the nayas have not been woven together.’ (Sharma 57) Such type of comments is made due to misunderstanding of the nature of the theory of Anekanta. The non-absolutism is the only thread, which can weave them together. In the absence of absolute, this synthesis is impossible for Jainism. 1 tithayaravayaṇasaṁgaha – visesapatthāramūlavāgaraṇī | davvaṭṭhao ya pañjavaṇāo ya sesā viyappā siṁ || (Sanmati Tarka 1.3) 2 jaha satthāṇaṃ māī sammattaṃ jaha tavāi-guṇaṇilae | dhāuvāe raso taha ṇayamūlaṃ aṇeyaṃte || (Nayacakra 175) 3 anekāntātmakaṁ vastu gocaraḥ sarvasaṁvidām | ekadeśaviśiṣṭo’rtho nayasya viṣayo mataḥ || (ibid 29) 4 anekānto’pyanekāntaḥ pramāṇanayasādhanaḥ | anekāntaḥ pramāṇātte tadekānto’rpitānnayāt || (Svayambhūstotra 18.18)