morphology

MORPHOLOGY AIMAN SHAHMIE 2023 OF KINGDOM PLANTAE AND KINGDOM ANIMALIA

in biology, morphology means study of the structures and form of organisms. As example, their sizes, shapes, coloration, and appendages. Morphology also study about internal structures, such as organs, tissues and cells. morphology is important because we can study about organisms' evolutionary history, ecological niche, and relationship with other organisms. Scientists can understand more about organisms function and interacts with their environment by understanding the morphology of organisms. Automatically, it will improve the implications for many fields such as medicine, agriculture, and conservation. Kingdom plantae is also known as plant kingdom. it is a taxonomic group of eukaryotic organisms that includes all plants. kingdom plantae is characterized by some unique features. They have cell walls that are made of cellulose , the ability to carry out photosynthesis process and the production of reproductive cells in specialized structures like flowers and cones. 2 I N T R O D U C T I O N I N T R O D U C T I O N KINGDOM PLANTAE WHAT IS MORPHOLOGY?

Kingdom Animalia, also known as the Animal Kingdom, is a taxonomic group of eukaryotic organisms that includes all animals. This kingdom is characterized by several unique features, including the absence of cell walls, the ability to move in some form during at least some stages of life, and the capacity to respond to stimuli. Animals are incredibly diverse and can range in size from tiny invertebrates like insects and worms to massive mammals like whales and elephants. They play a crucial role in the ecosystem by serving as a food source for other organisms, helping to control populations of other organisms, and serving as pollinators or seed dispersers for plants. The Animal Kingdom is divided into several subgroups, including invertebrates (animals without a backbone) and vertebrates (animals with a backbone), which includes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Each subgroup has unique characteristics and adaptations that allow them to survive and thrive in their environments. 3 I N T R O D U C T I O N I N T R O D U C T I O N KINGDOM ANIMALIA

Specimen collection: Collecting specimens of interest, such as plants, animals, or tissues, is the first step in studying morphology. This may involve collecting live specimens, preserved specimens, or tissue samples. Preparation: Once specimens are collected, they must be prepared for analysis. This may involve dissection, staining, or embedding in a medium such as paraffin or resin. Observation: The prepared specimens are then observed under a microscope or other imaging device to study their structure and form. This may involve using different magnifications or imaging techniques, such as electron microscopy or confocal microscopy. Description: The observed structures and forms are then described and documented. This may involve using specialized terminology to describe specific structures and their functions. Analysis: The observed structures and forms are analyzed to better understand their function and relationship to the organism as a whole. This may involve comparing the structures across different species, or analyzing their development over time. Interpretation: Finally, the results of the analysis are interpreted to draw conclusions about the morphology of th organism or tissue of interest. This may involve generating hypotheses or proposing new research questions for further investigation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Specimen collection: Collecting specimens of interest, such as plants, animals, or tissues, is the first step in studying morphology. This may involve collecting live specimens, preserved specimens, or tissue samples. 1. 3 P R O C E D U R E P R O C E D U R E GENERAL PROCEDURE OF MORPHOLOGY 2. Preparation: Once specimens are collected, they must be prepared for analysis. This may involve dissection, staining, or embedding in a medium such as paraffin or resin. 3. Observation: The prepared specimens are then observed under a microscope or other imaging device to study their structure and form. This may involve using different magnifications or imaging techniques, such as electron microscopy or confocal microscopy. 4. Description: The observed structures and forms are then described and documented. This may involve using specialized terminology to describe specific structures and their functions. 5. Analysis: The observed structures and forms are analyzed to better understand their function and relationship to the organism as a whole. This may involve comparing the structures across different species, or analyzing their development over time. 6. Interpretation: Finally, the results of the analysis are interpreted to draw conclusions about the morphology of the organism or tissue of interest. This may involve generating hypotheses or proposing new research questions for further investigation.

PHYLUM MOLLUSCA PHYLUM MOLLUSCA M I L K S N A I L K i n g d o m : A n i m a l i a ( a n i m a l s ) P h y l u m : M o l l u s c a ( m o l l u s k s ) C l a s s : G a s t r o p o d a ( s n a i l s a n d s l u g s ) O r d e r : S t y l o m m a t o p h o r a ( a i r - b r e a t h i n g l a n d s n a i l s a n d s l u g s ) F a m i l y : H e l i c i d a e ( t y p i c a l s n a i l s ) G e n u s : O t a l a S p e c i e s : O t a l a l a c t e a D I E T M i l k s n a i l s ( O t a l a l a c t e a ) a r e h e r b i v o r e s a n d m a i n l y f e e d o n a v a r i e t y o f p l a n t s , i n c l u d i n g l e a v e s , f l o w e r s , a n d s t e m s . T h e i r d i e t c a n v a r y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p l a n t s i n t h e i r h a b i t a t , a n d t h e y m a y a l s o f e e d o n a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s a n d g a r d e n p l a n t s . S o m e o f t h e p l a n t s p e c i e s t h a t m i l k s n a i l s h a v e b e e n k n o w n t o f e e d o n i n c l u d e l e t t u c e , c l o v e r , d a n d e l i o n s , a l f a l f a , a n d v a r i o u s g r a s s e s . T h e y a r e a l s o k n o w n t o b e a t t r a c t e d t o d e c o m p o s i n g p l a n t m a t t e r , w h i c h t h e y m a y c o n s u m e a l o n g w i t h f r e s h p l a n t m a t e r i a l .

MILK SNAIL HABITAT Milk snails (Otala lactea) are native to the Mediterranean region, but they have been introduced to other parts of the world, including North America, South America, and Australia. In their native range, they are found in a variety of habitats, including fields, gardens, forests, and rocky areas. Milk snails are terrestrial snails that live on land, rather than in aquatic environments. They require moist soil and vegetation to survive, and are often found in areas with high humidity, such as near streams or in areas with morning dew. P H Y L U M M O L L U S C A P H Y L U M M O L L U S C A

MILK SNAIL unique characteristic One unique characteristic of milk snails (Otala lactea) is their ability to aestivate, which is a form of hibernation that they enter during hot and dry periods. During aestivation, the snail seals itself inside its shell with a layer of mucus to reduce water loss and protect itself from the hot and dry conditions. During aestivation, the snail's metabolism slows down significantly, and it may go without food or water for months. When conditions become more favorable, the snail will emerge from its shell and resume its normal activities. STRUCTURE P H Y L U M M O L L U S C A P H Y L U M M O L L U S C A Shell: The shell is a hard, protective structure that covers the snail's body. Milk snails have a spiral-shaped shell that is typically brownish-yellow in color and can reach a length of up to 2 cm. The shell is made of calcium carbonate and provides protection from predators and environmental hazards. Mantle: The mantle is a thin layer of tissue that covers the snail's body and produces the shell. It secretes calcium carbonate and other materials that harden to form the shell. Foot: The foot is a muscular structure that the snail uses to move across surfaces. It is located on the underside of the snail's body and is used for crawling, climbing, and burrowing. Head: The head is located at the anterior end of the snail's body and contains several important structures, including a pair of tentacles, eyes, and a mouth. The tentacles are sensory organs that the snail uses to detect its environment, and the eyes are located at the tips of the tentacles. Radula: The radula is a ribbon-like feeding structure that is covered in small, sharp teeth that the snail uses to scrape and tear its food. The radula is a unique and important adaptation that allows mollusks to consume a wide variety of plant and animal material 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

MILK SNAIL P H Y L U M M O L L U S C A P H Y L U M M O L L U S C A LIFE CYCLE Egg: Milk snails lay their eggs in small clusters in moist soil or vegetation. The eggs are typically small and white in color, and hatch within a few weeks. Juvenile stage: After hatching, the snail enters the juvenile stage and begins to feed and grow. During this stage, the snail's shell undergoes rapid growth and takes on its spiral shape. Subadult stage: As the snail continues to grow, it enters the subadult stage, during which it becomes sexually mature but is not yet fully grown. Snails in this stage may mate and lay eggs, but they will continue to grow and develop. Adult stage: Once the snail reaches its full size, it enters the adult stage and can reproduce regularly. Milk snails can live for several years in the wild, and may continue to grow and develop throughout their lives.

EARTHWORM P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A Kingdom: Animalia (animals) Phylum: Annelida (segmented worms) Class: Clitellata (includes earthworms, leeches, and their relatives) Subclass: Oligochaeta (includes earthworms and their relatives) Order: Haplotaxida (includes most of the common earthworms) Family: Lumbricidae (includes the common earthworms) Genus: Lumbricus (includes the well-known Lumbricus terrestris, also known as the common earthworm) Species: Lumbricus terrestris (the common earthworm) The taxonomy hierarchy of earthworms can be described as follows: It is worth noting that there are many different species of earthworms, and the taxonomy hierarchy can vary depending on the specific species in question. However, the above hierarchy generally applies to the common earthworm species found in many parts of the world.

Fallen leaves: Earthworms consume a significant amount of fallen leaves, which provide them with a source of carbon and other nutrients. Decomposing plant material: As plants die and decompose, earthworms feed on the decaying material, breaking it down further and releasing nutrients into the soil. Microorganisms: Earthworms consume a variety of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, which are also involved in the decomposition process. Soil: Earthworms ingest soil particles as they feed on organic matter, which helps to break down and process the material they consume. DIET Earthworms are primarily detritivores, which means that they feed on dead and decaying organic matter in the soil. Their diet includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. Overall, earthworms play a vital role in soil health by processing and recycling organic matter, improving soil structure, and releasing nutrients into the soil that are essential for plant growth. Without earthworms, the soil ecosystem would be significantly altered, and many plants and other organisms would struggle to survive. EARTHWORM P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A

E A R T H W O R M PHYLUM ANNELIDA PHYLUM ANNELIDA S oil: E a r t h w o r m s a r e p rim a ril y s oil - d w e l lin g c r e a t u r e s a n d c a n b e f o u n d in a l m o s t a n y t y p e o f s oil. H o w e v e r, t h e y t e n d t o p r e f e r s oil s t h a t a r e m ois t a n d ric h in o r g a nic m a t t e r. Forests: Earthw o r m s a r e important decomposers in f o r e s t e c o s y s t e m s a n d c a n b e f o u n d in t h e l e a f lit t e r a n d s oil l a y e r s o f f o r e s t e d a r e a s. Grasslands: Ear t h w o r m s c a n a l s o b e f o u n d in g r a s s l a n d e c o s y s t e m s, w h e r e t h e y h e l p t o m ain t ain s oil h e a l t h a n d n u t rie n t c y c lin g.. Agricult u r a l fie l d s: E a r t h w o r m s c a n p l a y a n im p o r t a n t r o l e in a g ric u l t u r a l e c o s y s t e m s, h e l pin g t o im p r o v e s oil h e a l t h a n d increase crop yields H A BIT A T E a r t h w o r m s c a n b e f o u n d in a v a rie t y o f h a bit a t s, f r o m f o r e s t s t o g r a s s l a n d s t o a g ric u l t u r a l fie l d s. S o m e c o m m o n h a bit a t s w h e r e e a r t h w o r m s c a n b e f o u n d in c l u d e: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Segmentation: Earthworms are composed of multiple segments, each of which contains its own set of muscles and nerves. This segmentation allows earthworms to move in a coordinated fashion, and also makes them highly resistant to predation, as they can break off segments and regenerate them if necessary. Lack of lungs: Unlike many other organisms, earthworms do not have lungs. Instead, they breathe through their skin, which is highly permeable to gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. Cast production: Earthworms are known for their ability to produce casts, which are small, nutrient-rich soil aggregates that are produced as they digest organic matter. These casts help to improve soil structure and fertility, and are an important component of healthy soil ecosystems. Regeneration: Earthworms have the ability to regenerate lost segments, as long as a portion of the head or tail remains intact. This allows them to recover from injuries and also helps to ensure that they can continue to reproduce and maintain their populations over time. unique characteristic Earthworms have several unique characteristics that distinguish them from other organisms: 1. 2. 3. 4. EARTHWORM P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A

EARTHWORM P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A structure earthworms have a long, cylindrical body that is divided into multiple segments, each of which contains its own set of muscles and nerves. The segments are separated by thin, permeable membranes called septa. The body of an earthworm can range in size from just a few centimeters to more than a meter in length, depending on the species. At the anterior end of the earthworm's body, there is a small, flattened head that contains the mouth and several sensory structures, including light-sensitive cells and chemoreceptors. Earthworms do not have eyes or ears, but they are able to sense light and vibrations in their environment. Internally, earthworms have a relatively simple digestive system that consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, intestine, and anus. They also have a closed circulatory system that consists of a dorsal vessel and a series of smaller vessels that distribute blood throughout the body.

EARTHWORM P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A P H Y L U M A N N E L I D A life cycle The life cycle of an earthworm can be divided into several stages: Egg: Earthworms reproduce sexually and lay eggs in cocoons, which are secreted by the earthworm and deposited in the soil. The eggs develop within the cocoon and hatch after several weeks. Juvenile: After hatching, the young earthworms, known as juveniles or hatchlings, emerge from the cocoon and begin to feed on soil and organic matter. They are small and have not yet developed their characteristic segmentation. Adult: As the earthworms grow and mature, they begin to develop their segmented body plan and become sexually mature. The time it takes for earthworms to reach sexual maturity varies depending on the species and environmental conditions. Mating: Earthworms are hermaphrodites, meaning that each individual has both male and female reproductive organs. During mating, two earthworms will come together and exchange sperm packets, which are then stored in sacs called spermathecae. Cocoon formation: After mating, the earthworms will secrete a cocoon, which contains fertilized eggs. The cocoon is buried in the soil, where it will develop over a period of several weeks. Hatching: After several weeks, the eggs within the cocoon will hatch, releasing the juvenile earthworms into the soil. The exact length of the life cycle of an earthworm can vary depending on the species, as well as environmental factors such as temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability. Some earthworms can live for several years, while others may only live for a few months

EARTHWORM P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A Internally, earthworms have a relatively simple digestive system that consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, intestine, and anus. They also have a closed circulatory system that consists of a dorsal vessel and a series of smaller vessels that distribute blood throughout the body. life cycle

MEALWORM P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A taxonomy hierarchy Mealworms are the larval form of darkling beetles, which belong to the phylum Arthropoda. The taxonomy hierarchy of mealworms, as a representative of darkling beetles, is as follows: Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta Order: Coleoptera Family: Tenebrionidae Genus: Tenebrio Species: Tenebrio molitor

MEALWORM P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A unique characteristic Body shape: Mealworms have a long, cylindrical body shape that is divided into distinct segments. They have six small legs near the head and are covered with tiny hairs that help them move through soil and other substrates. Digestive system: Mealworms have a unique digestive system that allows them to break down tough plant materials. They have a crop and a gizzard that work together to grind and process food before it moves into the intestine for absorption. Molting: Like other insects, mealworms undergo a process of molting where they shed their exoskeleton to grow and develop. During this process, the old exoskeleton splits and the new one emerges. Ability to survive without water: Mealworms have adapted to living in dry environments and can survive for long periods without access to water. Biodegradation: Mealworms are important decomposers, feeding on decaying organic matter such as dead plants and animals. They can also break down polystyrene and other plastic materials, making them potentially useful for waste management. Mealworms are the larval form of darkling beetles and have several unique characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

MEALWORM P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A habitat Mealworms are found throughout the world, but they are native to temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and North America. They are most commonly found in habitats that provide access to decaying organic matter, which they feed on. Mealworms are often found in dark, moist environments such as soil, leaf litter, and compost piles. They can also be found in animal bedding, such as hay or sawdust, where they feed on food scraps and other organic matter. In some cases, mealworms can become pests in stored grain or other food products. Mealworms can also be found in nature as a food source for birds, reptiles, and other small predators. In captivity, mealworms are often raised as a food source for pets such as birds, reptiles, and fish

MEALWORM P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A structure Body shape: Mealworms have a long, cylindrical body that is segmented, with distinct head, thorax, and abdomen regions. The body is covered with tiny hairs that help the mealworm move through soil and other substrates. Head: The head is small and contains the mealworm's mouthparts, which are adapted for chewing and grinding tough plant material. The head also contains the mealworm's simple eyes, which can detect light and movement. Legs: Mealworms have six small legs near the head that are used for crawling and gripping surfaces. Antennae: Mealworms have two small antennae on their head that are used for sensing their environment. Exoskeleton: Like all insects, mealworms have an exoskeleton that provides protection and support for their body. The exoskeleton is made of a tough material called chitin. Molting: As mealworms grow, they periodically shed their exoskeleton and form a new one. This process is called molting, and allows the mealworm to increase in size and develop new features. Internal organs: Mealworms have a simple digestive system that includes a crop and gizzard for grinding and processing food. They also have a nervous system that includes a brain and a ventral nerve cord, and a circulatory system that transports nutrients and oxygen to the body tissues. Mealworms have a distinctive body structure that is typical of the larvae of beetles. Here are some of their key structural features: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Egg: The life cycle of a mealworm begins when a female darkling beetle lays an egg in a suitable location, such as soil or animal bedding. Larva: When the egg hatches, a small, white mealworm larva emerges. The larva is cylindrical in shape and has a soft, pale body. Over the course of several weeks, the larva will grow and molt its exoskeleton several times. Pupa: After several weeks, the mealworm larva will enter the pupal stage. During this stage, the mealworm will transform into an adult beetle. The pupal stage lasts for several weeks, during which time the mealworm will be inactive and undergo significant changes in its body structure. Adult: When the pupal stage is complete, an adult darkling beetle emerges from the pupa. Adult beetles are typically dark brown or black in color and have a hard exoskeleton. They have wings and are capable of flight. The life cycle of mealworms goes through several stages of development, each with its own distinct features. Here are the typical stages in the life cycle of a mealworm: 1. 2. 3. 4. MEALWORM P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A life cycle

Food source: Mealworms are an important source of food for many predators, including birds, reptiles, and small mammals. By serving as a food source, mealworms help to support the health and survival of many different species in the ecosystem. Decomposers: Mealworms are important decomposers, feeding on decaying organic matter such as dead plants and animals. By breaking down organic matter, mealworms help to recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem and contribute to the overall health of the ecosystem. 1. 2. MEALWORM P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A P H Y L U M A R T H R O P O D A why are they important to diversity 3. Indicator species: Changes in the population of mealworms can be an indicator of changes in the ecosystem. For example, if the population of mealworms decreases, it may be an indication of changes in food availability or changes in habitat. 4. Research: Mealworms are commonly used in scientific research to study a wide range of topics, including genetics, behavior, and physiology. By providing a model organism for research, mealworms contribute to the advancement of scientific knowledge and understanding

K I N G D O M P L A N T A E MORPHOLOGY MORPHOLOGY

Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Bryophyta Class: Bryopsida Order: Hypnales Family: Leucobryaceae Genus: Leucobryum Species: albidum PINCUSHION MOSS P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A taxonomy hierarchy Morphology: The plant forms dense, cushion-like clumps or mats, giving it the name "pin cushion." The shoots are erect and unbranched, with leaves arranged spirally around the stem. Leaf structure: The leaves are long and narrow, with a pointed tip and no midrib. They are translucent, with a whitish color, which gives the plant a distinct appearance. Water storage: Pinchusion moss has the ability to absorb and store large amounts of water, allowing it to survive in dry environments. Reproduction: The plant reproduces asexually by forming gemmae cups at the tips of the leaves. These cups contain small, multicellular structures called gemmae, which are released and can grow into new plants. Habitat: Pinchusion moss is found in a variety of habitats, including rocky outcrops, talus slopes, and forest floors. It is often found in dry, exposed environments, but can also grow in wetter areas. unique characteristic 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

PINCUSHION MOSS P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A Rocky outcrops: Pinchusion moss is commonly found growing on rocky outcrops, where it can form dense mats or cushions that cover the surface. Talus slopes: Pinchusion moss is also found on talus slopes, which are piles of loose rock and debris that accumulate at the base of cliffs or mountains. Forest floors: Pinchusion moss can grow on the forest floor, particularly in areas with dappled sunlight and moderate to high levels of moisture. Tundra: Pinchusion moss is adapted to cold and dry conditions and can be found growing in arctic and alpine tundra regions. Dry, exposed environments: Pinchusion moss is able to survive in dry, exposed environments such as deserts, where it can absorb and store water in order to survive periods of drought habitats 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

PINCUSHION MOSS P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A Shoots: Pinchusion moss has erect, unbranched shoots that can grow up to 10 cm tall. The shoots are covered in long, narrow leaves that are arranged spirally around the stem. Leaves: The leaves of pinchusion moss are the most distinctive feature of the plant. They are long and narrow, with a pointed tip and no midrib. The leaves are also translucent, giving the plant a whitish appearance. This allows more light to penetrate the plant and reach the lower leaves. Rhizoids: Pinchusion moss has rhizoids, which are thread-like structures that anchor the plant to the substrate. Rhizoids also absorb water and nutrients from the soil. Gemmae cups: Pinchusion moss reproduces asexually by forming gemmae cups at the tips of the leaves. These cups contain small, multicellular structures called gemmae, which are released and can grow into new plants. Capsules: In some species of Leucobryum, including L. albidum, the plant produces small, cylindrical capsules that contain spores. These spores can be dispersed by the wind and can grow into new plants structure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

PINCUSHION MOSS P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A Gametophyte generation: The life cycle begins with the haploid gametophyte generation. The gametophyte is the dominant phase of the life cycle and is the part of the plant that we recognize as the "moss. " The gametophyte produces male and female reproductive organs called antheridia and archegonia, respectively. Fertilization: When the antheridia and archegonia are mature, they release sperm and eggs, respectively. When the sperm swims to the egg and fertilizes it, a diploid zygote is formed. Sporophyte generation: The zygote then develops into the diploid sporophyte generation. The sporophyte is a small stalk-like structure that grows out of the gametophyte. At the top of the sporophyte is a capsule that contains spores. Spore dispersal: When the capsule is mature, it opens and releases the spores. The spores can be carried by the wind and dispersed over a wide area. Spore germination: When a spore lands in a suitable environment, it germinates and grows into a new haploid gametophyte, starting the life cycle anew life cycle 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Habitat: Mosses like pinchusion moss provide important habitat for a wide variety of organisms. The dense, spongy growth of moss cushions can provide shelter and nesting sites for insects, small mammals, and birds. Mosses can also provide an important substrate for other plant species to grow on. Soil health: Mosses can play a key role in maintaining soil health. Their ability to absorb and retain moisture can help prevent soil erosion, while their decomposition can contribute to the nutrient content of the soil. Carbon storage: Mosses can sequester carbon in their tissues, helping to mitigate the effects of climate change. Indicator species: Mosses can be used as indicators of ecosystem health, as they are sensitive to changes in their environment. For example, mosses that are sensitive to pollution can indicate areas where air or water quality may be compromised. Medicinal uses: Some mosses, including pinchusion moss, have been used for medicinal purposes for centuries. They contain compounds with antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antifungal properties. why are they important to the diversity 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. PINCUSHION MOSS P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A P H Y L U M B R Y O P H Y T A

Kingdom: Plantae (plants) Clade: Tracheophytes (vascular plants) Clade: Euphyllophytes Class: Polypodiopsida Order: Polypodiales Family: Dennstaedtiaceae Genus: Pteridium Species: Pteridium aquilinum taxonomy hierarchy BRACKEN FERN P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A habitat Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) is an introduced species in Malaysia and can be found in various parts of the country. It is a widespread and common species in many parts of the world, and has the ability to adapt to a range of habitats, from open grasslands to forests. In Malaysia, bracken ferns are most commonly found in disturbed areas, such as abandoned agricultural lands, logging sites, and along roadsides. They can also be found in natural habitats, including forest edges and gaps, as well as on hillsides and rocky outcrops.

Aggressive growth: Bracken fern has a thick, black, underground rhizome that can spread rapidly. This allows the fern to form dense colonies and outcompete other plant species. Tolerance to environmental stress: Bracken fern is able to tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions, including drought, poor soil quality, and full sun. This allows it to grow in a variety of habitats. Chemical defenses: Bracken fern contains a variety of chemicals that help to deter herbivores from feeding on it. However, these same chemicals can be harmful to livestock and wildlife if consumed in large quantities. Historical uses: Bracken fern has been used by humans for a variety of purposes throughout history, including as a source of food, medicine, and fiber. However, it is no longer widely used for these purposes due to its potential toxicity and the availability of safer alternatives. 1. 2. 3. 4. BRACKEN FERN P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A BRACKEN FERN (PTERIDIUM AQUILINUM) IS A COMMON FERN WITH SEVERAL UNIQUE CHARACTERISTI CS. HERE ARE A FEW:

BRACKEN FERN P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A Rhizome: Bracken fern has a thick, black, underground rhizome that can grow up to several meters long. The rhizome is the main way that the plant spreads and can produce new fronds. Fronds: The fronds of bracken fern are large and divided into three sections. Each section is further divided into smaller leaflets, giving the frond a triangular shape. The fronds grow directly from the rhizome and can reach up to 2 meters in length. Fiddlehead: The fiddlehead is the tightly coiled tip of a new frond before it unfurls. In bracken fern, the fiddlehead is covered in brown, papery scales. Sori: The sori are the reproductive structures of the fern, located on the undersides of the leaflets. They are small, brown or black, and round or kidneyshaped. Spores: The sori contain spores, which are released into the air and can be dispersed by wind. The spores germinate to form new gametophytes, which can grow into new fern plants. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

porophyte stage: This is the dominant stage in the life cycle of bracken fern. The sporophyte is the familiar fern plant that produces the large, triangular fronds. It is also the stage that produces the spores that are responsible for reproduction. The spores are produced in structures called sori, which are located on the undersides of the fronds. When conditions are right, the spores are released from the sori and can be carried by the wind to new locations. Gametophyte stage: Once a spore lands in a suitable location, it can germinate and grow into a small, heart-shaped structure called a gametophyte. The gametophyte is the stage in which sexual reproduction occurs. The gametophyte produces both male and female reproductive structures. The male structure is called an antheridium and produces sperm, while the female structure is called an archegonium and produces eggs. When the sperm swim to the egg and fertilization occurs, a new sporophyte begins to grow. 1. 2. BRACKEN FERN P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A life cycle

Habitat: Bracken ferns provide habitat for a variety of organisms, including insects, birds, and mammals. The dense stands of ferns can provide cover, food, and nesting sites for these animals. Soil health: Bracken ferns are known for their ability to grow in poor soils and can help to improve soil health by fixing nitrogen and other nutrients. This can benefit other plant species in the area and contribute to overall ecosystem health. Succession: Bracken ferns are often one of the first plant species to colonize disturbed areas, such as after a fire or logging operation. Their aggressive growth and ability to tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions can help to stabilize the soil and prevent erosion. As other plant species begin to establish, the ferns may gradually be replaced, contributing to the natural process of succession. Cultural significance: Bracken ferns have cultural significance in many parts of the world and have been used by humans for food, medicine, and other purposes throughout history. Maintaining healthy populations of the ferns can help to preserve cultural traditions and practices. why are they important to the diversity 1. 2. 3. 4. BRACKEN FERN P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A P H Y L U M P T E R Y D O P H Y T A

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