I. AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION OF 17-18TH CENTURIES A. GENERAL ...

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION

I. AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION OF 17-18TH CENTURIES
A. GENERAL REMARKS
1. SERIES OF INNOVATIONS IN FARM PRODUCTION
2. ENABLED FEWER FARMERS TO PRODUCE MORE CROPS
3. INVESTMENT OF EXCESS CAPITAL IN AGRICULTURE
4. LED TO GREATER PROSPERITY & BETTER FOOD & INCREASED POPULATION
5. BEGAN FIRST IN LOW COUNTRIES & THEN TO ENGLAND
6. IT WOULD TAKE SEVERAL CENTURIES FOR SAME INNOVATIONS TO SPREAD TO REST OF
CONTINENT
B. BACKGROUND TO AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
1. ON EVE OF AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
a. 80% OF PEOPLE EARNED LIVING FROM AGRICULTURE
b. IN EASTERN EUROPE EVEN HIGHER
2. BUT YIELDS POOR BY MODERN STANDARDS
3. PO VALLEY
a. 1 OF RICHEST
b. EVERY BUSHEL WHEAT SOWN 1-5 BUSHELS RETURNED
4. FRANCE
a. YIELD EVEN LESS
5. TODAY'S YIELDS AMERICA OR FRANCE 1:40 OR GREATER
6. OTHER PROBLEMS HARVEST
a. FAILURE EVERY 8-9 YEARS
b. TOO MUCH RAIN ROTTED SEED
c. OR DROUGHT WITHERED YOUNG STALKS
7. GRAIN SUPPLIES EXHAUSTED & PRICES SOARED
8. DISEASES MORE DEADLY AS PEOPLE WEAK FROM STARVATION
9. OPEN-FIELD SYSTEM FROM EARLY MEDIEVAL TIMES STILL OPERATIVE
10. NOT ENOUGH MANURE OR FERTILIZER TO RESTORE SOIL FOR CROPS EVERY YEAR
11. WHAT WAS NEW & REVOLUTIONARY IN 18TH C?
a. FASTER ADVANCE IN FARMING TECHNIQUES
C. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH SOCIETY CIRCA AGRICULTURE REV.
1. POPULATION STILL ALMOST ENTIRELY RURAL
2. TOWNS FEW & SPARSELY POPULATED EXCEPT FOR
a. LONDON - 1/2 MILLION
b. BRISTOL, YORK, NORWICH
(1) EACH 25,000 OR SO
3. MOST ENGLISH PEOPLE LIVED IN SOUTHERN & SOUTHEASTERN ENGLAND
a. ENGLAND - 5 MILLION
b. SCOTLAND & IRELAND - 1 MILLION EACH
4. DIFFERENT CLASSES ENGLAND
a. ENGLISH SOCIETY DIVIDED BY DANIEL DEFOE INTO 7 CLASSES
(1) TOUR THROUGH THE WHOLE ISLAND OF GB
(2) GREAT WHO LIVED PROFUSELY
(3) RICH WHO LIVED PLENTIFULLY
(4) MIDDLE SORT WHO LIVED WELL
(5) WORKING TRADES WHO LABORED HARD & FELT NO WANT
(6) COUNTRY PEOPLE WHO FARED INDIFFERENTLY
(7) POOR WHO FARED HARD
(8) MISERABLE WHO REALLY SUFFERED WANT
5. MOBILITY POSSIBLE FROM LOWER TO HIGHER CLASSES
6. ALTHOUGH MUCH PREJUDICE BY HIGHER TO LOWER CLASSES
a. PHYSICIANS REGARDED THEMSELVES SUPERIOR TO SURGEONS
b. GOVERNESSES TO HOUSEKEEPERS

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c. HOUSEKEEPERS TO COOKS
d. COOKS TO GARDENERS
7. EASIER IN ENGLAND THAN REST OF EUROPE TO MOVE UP
8. GENTRY
a. DUKES, EARLS, ETC.
b. SQUIRES

(1) NB MAGISTRATE - JUSTICE OF PEACE
c. BUILDERS OF VAST ESTATES

(1) WHAT WE SEE TODAY IN ENGLAND
9. YEOMEN OR FREEHOLDERS

a. NUMEROUS & INFLUENTIAL CLASS
b. 18TH C STANDARD OF LIVING OF YEOMEN W/SMALL HOLDINGS BEGAN TO DECLINE
10. TENANT FARMERS
a. BY END 18TH C 3/4 ALL FARMERS IN ENGLAND
11. HIRED LABORERS, SERVANTS, PAUPERS
a. REST

II. FACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
A. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF DUTCH
1. PRESSURES OF GROWING POPULATION & SHORTAGE OF LAND REQUIRED CHANGES IN
CULTIVATION
2. DUTCH LANDLORDS & FARMERS DEVISED BETTER WAYS TO BUILD DIKES & DRAIN
LAND
a. SO THEY COULD FARM MORE EXTENSIVE AREAS
b. DUTCH DRAINAGE ENGINEER - CORNELIUS VERMUYDEN
c. ENG HIRED TO DRAIN FENS OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE & YORKSHIRE
3. DUTCH PIONEERED IN CULTURE OF NEW CROPS
a. POTATOES, TURNIPS, CLOVER, ALFALFA
B. JETHRO TULL 1674-1741
1. STUDIED FRENCH TRUCK GARDENS, VINEYARDS
a. WHERE FARMERS OBTAINED HEAVY YIELDS FROM SMALL PLOTS
b. BY PLANTING SEEDS INDIVIDUALLY
c. & BY CAREFULLY HOEING SOIL AROUND EACH PLANT & VINE
2. PLANTED WHEAT USING A DRILL MACHINE
a. PULLED BY A HORSE RATHER THAN BY CASTING BY HAND
3. USED IRON PLOW TO OVERTURN EARTH MORE DEEPLY
4. HIS METHODS ALONG WITH TOWNSEND'S PERMITTED LAND TO BE CULTIVATED FOR
LONGER PERIODS W/O HAVING TO BE LEFT FALLOW
C. NEW CROP - TURNIPS
1. TURNIPS HAD BEEN AROUND FOR CENTURIES
2. CHARLES TURNIP TOWNSEND 1674-1738
a. ENCOURAGED EVEN MORE & NB INNOVATIONS
3. LEARNED FROM DUTCH HOW TO CULTIVATE SANDY SOIL W/ USE OF FERTILIZERS
4. INSTITUTED 4 YEAR CROP ROTATION
a. USING WHEAT, TURNIPS, BARLEY & CLOVER
5. NEW SYSTEM OF ROTATION ABOLISHED FALLOW FIELD
6. REPLACED IT W/FIELD SOWN IN TURNIPS
a. CROP THAT BOTH REPLACED SOIL NUTRIENTS
(1) & SUPPLIED ANIMAL FODDER
7. TOWNSEND INTRODUCED NEW VARIETIES TURNIPS
8. TURNIPS FURNISHED FEED FOR LIVESTOCK UNTIL SPRING PASTURING SEASON BEGAN
a. ELIMINATED NEED FOR MASSIVE SLAUGHTERING OF STOCK AT ONSET OF WINTER
9. ADDITIONAL FODDER MEANT MORE LIVESTOCK COULD BE RAISED
10. LARGER NUMBER OF ANIMALS INCREASED QUANTITY OF MANURE AVAILABLE AS
FERTILIZER FOR GAIN CROPS

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11. CONSEQUENTLY IN LONG RUN MORE FOOD FOR BOTH ANIMALS & HUMAN BEINGS
D. NEW CROPS - ALFALFA & CLOVER

1. CLOVER & ALFALFA BY FIXING NITROGEN IN SOIL
a. INCREASED FERTILITY OF LAND

E. NEW CROPS - POTATO
1. TOLERANT OF WIDE RANGE OF TEMPERATURES & SOIL CONDITIONS
2. FULL OF PROTEIN, STARCHES & CARBOHYDRATES
3. GROWN IN SMALL PLOTS OR HUGE FIELDS
4. LOTS OF RESISTANCE TO POTATO
5. SPAIN & ITALY FIRST ACCEPTORS OF POTATO
6. PEASANTS THOUGHT IT CAUSED IMPOTENCY & OTHER ILLNESSES
7. GENTLEMEN CONSIDERED IT FIT ONLY FOR PEASANTS & CATTLE
8. BANNED IN FRANCE UNTIL WELL INTO 18TH & 19TH CENTURIES AS CAUSED LEPROSY
9. KING LOUIS XVI OF FRANCE POPULARIZED POTATO BY WEARING POTATO FLOWERS IN
HIS BUTTONHOLE
10. & PLANTING 50 ACRES, HEAVILY GUARDED TO ENCOURAGE PEASANTS TO STEAL THEM
11. RUSSIAN PEASANTS AS LATE AS 19TH C RIOTED WHEN GIVEN POTATOES TO EAT IN TIME
OF FAMINE
a. THEY THOUGHT POTATOES DEVIL'S BALLS
b. BELIEVED THEY WOULD GO TO HELL IF ATE THEM
c. AS POTATOES NOT MENTIONED IN BIBLE
12. BY LATE 17TH C. POTATOES BECAME STAPLE FOOD OF IRISH
a. SO ENGLISH RESISTED IT AS SAID FIT FOR ONLY IRISH & CLOWNS

F. NEW CROPS - RAPE
1. A BRASSICACEOUS PLANT, BRASSICA NAPUS
a. LEAVES FOOD FOR HOGS, SHEEP, ETC.
b. SEEDS YIELD RAPE OIL
(1) PAINTS, ETC.

G. ROBERT BAKEWELL 1725-1795
1. PIONEERED NEW METHODS OF ANIMAL BREEDING
2. IN MIDDLE AGES & UP TO THIS PERIOD
a. ANIMALS PASTURED TOGETHER
b. SO BREEDING RANDOM
3. ONCE FIELDS ENCLOSED
4. THEN FARMERS COULD BREED FOR DESIRABLE TRAITS
a. WOOLLINESS
b. MEATINESS
5. PRODUCED MORE & BETTER ANIMALS &
a. MORE MILK & MEAT
6. BAKEWELL'S EXPERIMENTS IN BREEDING LED TO BETWEEN 1710 & HIS DEATH IN 1795
a. AVERAGE WEIGHT IN SHEEP TRIPLED
b. AVERAGE WEIGHT OF CATTLE DOUBLED

H. ARTHUR YOUNG 1741-1820
1. ABOVE IDEAS, PLUS OTHER INNOVATIONS RECEIVED WIDE-SPREAD DISCUSSION IN HIS
WRITINGS
2. BY MID 18TH C. STRONG INTEREST FOR AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENTS HAD SWEPT
COUNTRY
3. MORE THAN 1000 BOOKS, PAMPHLETS & JOURNALS ON AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS
PUBLISHED BY END OF 18TH C.
4. 250 OF THEM ALONE BY ARTHUR YOUNG
5. EDITED ANNALS OF AGRICULTURE
6. 1793 BECAME SEC OF BRITISH BOARD OF AGRICULTURE
7. TRAVELED WIDELY EUROPE
8. HIS BOOKS NB DOCUMENTS OF FARM LIFE 18TH C ENG, CONTINENT
9. WON INTERNATIONAL FOLLOWING THAT INCLUDED

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a. CATHERINE THE GREAT
b. GEORGE WASHINGTON,
c. KING GEORGE III OF ENGLAND

(1) REJOICED IN THE TITLE OF `FARMER GEORGE'
10. ARISTOCRACY, CLERGY, EVEN POLITICAL LANDOWNERS & INDUSTRIALIST

LANDOWNERS
a. PASSIONATELY CONCERNED FOR AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT

III. CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURE REVOLUTION
A. TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEMENTS
1. UP TO 18TH C. ROADS IN ENGLAND ABOMINABLE
2. ONLY DECENT ONES BUILT 1500 YRS BEFORE BY ROMAN ARMIES
a. WATLING STREET, IKNIELD WAY
(1) IN BAD SHAPE
3. 18TH C. HEAVY CAPITAL INVESTMENT
a. TOLL ROADS
b. TOLL BRIDGES
c. PRIVATE IMPROVEMENTS DESIGNED FOR PROFIT
4. NEW ROADS, ETC. HELPED DISTRIBUTE AGRICULTURE PRODUCTS TO GROWING CITIES
a. SO PROFITS INCREASED
5. ANOTHER TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEMENT
a. BUILDING OF CANALS
6. DURING 18TH C ALL OF CENTRAL ENGLAND CRISS-CROSSED BY NEW CANALS
a. CARRIED FARMERS' CROPS TO BIG CONSUMER MARKETS OF LONDON, ETC.
b. LONDON LARGEST CITY IN EUROPE BY NOW
B. ENCLOSURES OF 18TH C
1. ENCLOSURE PROCESS OF APPROPRIATING PORTION OF VILLAGE COMMONS
a. USUALLY BY MANORIAL LORD OR CHIEF LOCAL LANDOWNER
b. BY ERECTING HEDGE OR FENCE
2. ENCLOSURE REMOVED PASTURE LAND & SOMETIMES PLOWLAND FROM COMMUNITY
3. RESISTANCE OFTEN VIOLENT TO THIS BY PEASANTS
4. MOST ENCLOSURE BEFORE 17TH C FOR PASTURING SHEEP
a. GENTRY RAISED FOR MARKET
5. THEREAFTER INCREASINGLY JUSTIFIED AS MEANS OF RAISING AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTIVITY
a. TO FEED GROWING POPULATION
b. THROUGH INTRODUCTION OF NEW CROPS & FERTILIZERS
c. ON LAND PEASANTS LACKED EITHER MEANS OR DESIRE TO IMPROVE
6. AGRARIAN CAPITALISM
a. REPLACEMENT OF SMALL SCALE FARMING FOR SUBSISTENCE
b. BY LARGE SCALE FARMING FOR MARKET
c. HAD BEGUN TO TRANSFORM TRADITIONAL VILLAGE
7. BUT 18TH C BEGAN PROCESS OF ENCLOSURES IN EARNEST
8. BECAME INTEGRAL PART OF AGRICULTURE REVOLUTION
9. FIELDS NOW NEEDED TO BE ENCLOSED TO PRODUCE CROPS OTHER THAN WHEAT OR
RYE
10. BY 2ND HALF CENTURY RISING PRICE OF WHEAT DUE TO INCREASED POPULATION
11. WHICH ENCOURAGED LANDLORDS TO CONSOLIDATE OR ENCLOSE THEIR LANDS EVEN
MORE TO INCREASE PRODUCTION
12. OPPOSITION TO THIS BY SMALL LANDHOLDERS & PEASANTS
a. WHO HAD USED COMMONS AREA FOR GRAZING THEIR GEESE & GATHERING WOOD,
ETC.
13. PROCESS INVOLVED FENCING COMMON LANDS
14. RECLAMATION OF PREVIOUSLY UNTILLED WASTE
15. TRANSFORMATION OF STRIPS INTO BLOCK FIELDS

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16. WHILE THESE PROCEDURES BROUGHT TURMOIL TO ECONOMIC & SOCIAL LIFE OF
COUNTRYSIDE -

17. PEOPLE AFTER AGRIC REV BETTER OFF
a. LIVED LONGER
b. BETTER DIET
c. HIGHER STANDARD OF LIVING

18. BUT ENCLOSURES VERY CONTROVERSIAL TOPIC AMONG HISTORIANS
a. AS SOME CLAIM HARMFUL TO PEASANTS

19. ENCLOSURES RESULTED IN MORE, NOT LESS, AGRICULTURAL EMPLOYMENT FOR WAGE
WORKERS

20. BY 1840 COMMUNALLY FARMED OPEN FIELD HAD CEASED TO EXIST
21. WHAT EMERGED WAS SYSTEM OF GREAT ESTATES

a. WORKED BY TENANT FARMERS & HIRED LABORERS
b. NO LONGER PEASANTRY BUT AGRICULTURAL WORK FORCE
c. THIS SYSTEM WITH ITS VASTLY GREATER PRODUCTIVITY & EFFICIENCY
d. ENABLED BRITAIN TO FEED A POPULATION THAT HAD GROWN TO UNPRECEDENTED

RATE
22. RURAL ENGLAND ASSUMED ITS MODERN ASPECT OF LARGE FIELDS FENCED BY

HEDGEROWS
a. TODAY THAT IS WHAT YOU SEE IN ENGLAND
C. CONCLUDING REMARKS AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
1. MARKED NB STAGE IN LONG, GRADUAL SHIFT FROM LARGELY SELF-SUFFICIENT MANOR
OF MA
a. TO MODERN CAPITALIST FARM PRODUCING SPECIALIZED CROPS
2. BUT TOOK LONG TIME
3. EVEN AS LATE AS 1840'S AS MANY ACRES UNDER FALLOW AS TURNIPS
4. BUT WITHIN 100 YRS ENG FARMERS PRODUCED 300% MORE FOOD
5. ALTHOUGH NUMBER PEOPLE WORKING ON LAND HAD ONLY SLIGHTLY INCREASED
6. AGRIC INDUSTRY PROVIDED PART OF CAPITAL REQUIRED FOR INDUSTRIALIZATION OF
ENGLAND
7. IN PRUSSIA, AUSTRIA, POLAND & RUSSIA
a. ONLY VERY LIMITED AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT TOOK PLACE
b. IN EASTERN EUROPE CHIEF METHOD OF INCREASING PRODUCTION

(1) TO EXTEND FARMING TO PREVIOUSLY UNTILLED LANDS
8. AS IN WEST GOAL INCREASED PROFITS FOR LANDLORDS
9. BUT ON WHOLE EASTERN EUROPEAN LANDLORDS MUCH LESS AMBITIOUS &

SUCCESSFUL

IV. BEGINNING OF POPULATION EXPLOSION
A. GENERAL REMARKS
1. POPULATION EXPLOSION SEEMS TO HAVE ITS ORIGINS IN 18TH C.
2. BEFORE THIS TIME EUROPE'S POPULATION HAD EXPERIENCED PERIODS OF INCREASES
3. BUT PLAGUES, WARS OR HARVEST FAILURES HAD IN TIME DECIMATED ANY INCREASE
4. BEGINNING IN SECOND QUARTER OF 18TH C
a. POPULATION BEGAN TO GROW W/O ANY IMPEDIMENTS
B. POPULATION FIGURES
1. EXACT FIGURES LACKING
2. BEST ESTIMATES SUGGEST IN 1700 EUROPE'S POP
a. EXCLUDING EUROPEAN PROVINCES OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
b. BETWEEN 100 MILLION & 120 MILLION PEOPLE
3. BY 1800 - 190 MILLION
4. BY 1850 - 260 MILLION
5. ENGLAND & WALES
a. 1750 - 6 MILLION
b. 1800 - 10 MILLION

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6. FRANCE
a. 1715 - 18 MILLION
b. 1789 - 26 MILLION

7. RUSSIA
a. 1722 - 19 MILLION
b. 1766 - 29 MILLION

C. WHY DID POPULATION GROW
1. LIMITED CONSENSUS WHY
2. REASONS OFFERED
a. CLEAR DECLINE DEATH RATE
b. LESS FAMINE
c. FEWER WARS
d. FEWER EPIDEMICS
(1) PLAGUE DISAPPEARED
e. CHANGES IN FOOD SUPPLY
(1) RE AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
f. W/CERTAIN FOOD SUPPLY MORE CHILDREN COULD BE REARED & MORE COULD
SURVIVE

D. THOMAS MALTHUS 1766-1834
1. HIS ESSAY ON THE PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION 1798
2. HE DREW CONNECTION BETWEEN FOOD PRODUCTION & POPULATION
3. HE SAID INCREASE IN FOOD PRODUCTION CREATED INCREASE IN POPULATION
4. FOOD PRODUCTION INCREASED SLOWLY, ARITHMETICALLY
5. BUT POPULATION INCREASED GEOMETRICALLY
6. SINCE LIMIT TO AMOUNT OF FOOD THAT COULD BE PRODUCED BY GIVEN TERRITORY
7. POPULATION WOULD ALWAYS INCREASE TO POINT AT WHICH NO LONGER ENOUGH
FOOD TO GO AROUND
8. AT THAT POINT NATURE WOULD STEP IN AND CAUSE BIG DIE-OFF
9. MALTHUS LISTED 4 SO-CALLED NATURAL CHECKS ON OVER-POPULATION
a. FAMINE, PLAGUE, WAR & VICE
10. ONE OF CONCLUSIONS ECONOMISTS DREW FROM HIS WORK ON POPULATION
a. NO POINT TO RAISE WAGES
b. IF WORKING PEOPLE MADE MORE MONEY THEY WOULD JUST HAVE MORE CHILDREN
c. & COMPETITION AMONG THOSE EXTRA PEOPLE WOULD JUST LOWER WAGES AGAIN

E. IMPACT OF POPULATION EXPLOSION GREAT
1. CREATED NEW DEMANDS FOR
a. FOODS, GOODS, JOBS, SERVICES
2. PROVIDED NEW POOL OF LABOR
3. TRADITIONAL MODES OF PRODUCTION & LIVING HAD TO BE REVISED
4. MIGRATION INCREASED
5. LABOR POOL FOR UPCOMING INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION