Love, Language, and Emergent Literacy: Pathways to Emotional Development of the Very Young Author(s): Debby Zambo and Cory Cooper Hansen Source: YC Young Children , May 2007, Vol. 62, No. 3 (May 2007), pp. 32-37 Published by: National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42730015 JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to YC Young Children This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Sun, 06 Feb 2022 10:31:43 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
'ÔÕ c 0) C/5 CÛ C jU S © ¿ove, /Language, and ffmergent /Literacy Debby Zambo and Cory Cooper Hansen Kelsey heard her first stories while still in her mother's womb. Her dad would curl up close and tell her about the family anxiously waiting for her and the love they already felt for her. Oral stories continued after Kelsey was born, and they became an important part of her life, along with other forms of language and literacy: floppy fabric books, chunky board books, quiet lullabies, favorite nursery rhymes, and a vinyl sleeve of family photos. Kelsey experienced language and literacy with all her consistent care- givers - her parents, a sibling, relatives, a neighbor, and child care pro- viders. She began to associate language and literacy experiences with her growing feelings of love and happiness. When tired and irritable, she signaled her need to be wrapped up with language and literacy, press- ing a favorite book against the leg of the person caring for her. To Kelsey, books became a way to communicate her need to be held, soothed with a familiar voice, and comforted with love and a story or lullaby. Pathways to Emotional Development of the Very Young HOW CAN LANGUAGE AND LITERACY enhance emotional development in the very young (birth to three years)? Although all children begin to understand their world through language and social interaction, literacy differs from culture to culture. It can range from oral stories of personal and cultural relevance to songs of ethnic pride and includes a variety of ways to record language and experiences. Our purpose in this article is to explain the language/ literacy connection to emotional development and to focus particularly on young children's experiences with various Debby Zambo, PhD, is an assistant professor at Arizona State University in Phoenix. Before coming to the university, Debby worked as a special education teacher of primary age children. She can be reached at [email protected]. Debby and Cory collaborate to explore children's literature within child develop- ment issues. Cory Cooper Hansen, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Early Childhood Department at the west campus of Arizona State University. Cory is an early childhood reading specialist and cur- rently teaches language and literacy methods. Illustrations © Sylvie Wickstrom. à forms of picture books. Emotional competence, however, can develop through virtually any form of literacy, whether it is a magazine, a cereal box, or an electronic story on a computer. Developing emotional competence, or the ability to con- trol one's emotions in an age-appropriate way, hinges on the quality of children's attachment established in the first three years of life. Attachment is the strong emotional bond developed between young children and their caregiv- ers (Honig 2002). Children use the attachments they form as a secure base from which they explore the world (Siegel 1999). A part of the important development of attach- ment happens in read-aloud times, as storybook sharing becomes an occasion through which children learn lan- guage, play with ideas, and build trust and understanding. Emotions: The foundation of learning Babies who do not develop strong attachments often fail to learn how to control their emotions and organize their world. Language can be difficult to master, and children may feel emotionally distraught (Greenspan & Shanker naeyc ias 32 Young Children • May 2007 This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Sun, 06 Feb 2022 10:31:43 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
2004). If this happens repeatedly, they come to judge the world as a place without caring and develop feelings of mis- trust and doubt (Erikson [1950] 1993). Emotions are the feelings, both psychological and physi- ological, that people have in response to events that are per- sonally meaningful to their needs and wants (Goleman 1995; Saarni 1998). A century ago, however, when William James ([1890] 1950) published The Principles of Psychology, he believed the minds and hearts of young children possessed few emotions. His notion held for a very long time. Infants were thought to be simple-minded creatures able to express only primitive emotions like anger, happiness, and sadness. In the time since 1890, scientists have used new method- ologies to discover a much different picture of young children, one that shows how innately emotional babies are (Greenspan & Shanker 2004). Now we know that newborns begin life with basic emo- tions (fear, anger, and joy) and begin Ifc to experience complex feelings in (jealousy, frustration, empathy) gDs. early on in their development. Learning through sensory experiences: Birth through 18 months The very young feel sensations, respond with emotions, and look to caregivers to help them understand and interpret the things they feel. They draw on these caregiving experiences to cope with intense feelings or emotions that are uncomfortable some- times. Through experiences of loving care, infants begin to regulate and modulate the new emotions they feel. Voice. Hearing is one of the early senses through which infants create a bond with their mothers, and this happens even before birth. DeCasper and Fifer (1980) had preg- nant women read a Dr. Seuss book to their babies. After they were born, the babies sucked harder on special paci- fiers when listening to the same familiar voice and soothing rhythm. Other researchers note that comfort also can come from the voices of fathers, siblings, relatives, and child care providers (Howes 1998). This universal occurrence explains why caregivers from all cultures use songs and lullabies to soothe infants (Honig 2005). Sight. At one month, infants tend to gaze longer at faces than at objects (Ludeman 1991). By four months, they recognize emotions in facial expressions, and this ability becomes a key to social development (Nelson & Collins 1991). By six months, babies are imitating facial expressions associ- ated with emotions, and they react to the emotional state viewed ¿ (Montague & Walker-Andrews 2001). Games such as Peekaboo and I'm Gonna Get You help infants see emotions on our faces, feel intense emotions themselves, and regulate their feelings. Playing games with facial expressions becomes instructive as well as fun, helping infants learn how to react to situations that may be out of the ordinary or confus- ing (Waiden & Baxter 1989). This ability, called social refer- encing, is one of the most important learning experiences young children encounter in their bridging an understand- ing between the self, others, and the world (Greenspan & Shanker 2004). Touch and taste. Infants' mouths and hands are highly sensitive areas (Owens 2002). All over the world, babies explore new objects by reaching for and putting them in their mouths. Sensations arising from skin-to-skin or skin- to-fabric contact become coded with emotional responses, like happiness, comfort, and love (Greenspan & Shanker 2004). The soothing from a gentle massage promotes bond- ing and security between caregiver and child. Cuddling with a soft, snuggly blanket or with one's caregiver can make any child feel loved. Multisensory exploration of the envi- ronment, with loving support from those who care, helps children experience the sensory integration they need to get ready to learn. Babies who have had responsive, consistent experiences with caregivers develop self-soothing behaviors like thumb sucking or touching a favorite blanket or toys (McDevitt & Ormrod 2004). These behaviors help them regulate or cope with stressful emotions in age-appropriate ways or when caregivers cannot respond immediately. Read-aiouds with infants Most infants find out about books the same way they dis- cover the rest of the world - tasting the pages, smelling the book, rubbing the cover, banging it against a surface, and imitating what the important people in their lives do with books. From birth to three months, read-alouds are purely an emotional connection between infant and caregiver. Being held, feeling good, and hearing a familiar, comforting voice are more important than the kind of book or the content of the story. Lullabies, singsong stories, and other repetitive, rhythmic experiences bring joy and comfort to infants and establish a special time together for child and caregiver. Young Children • May 2007 33 This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Sun, 06 Feb 2022 10:31:43 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
*S£ 'S D CO CQ G JÍŽ 3 © Brightly colored illustrations and a single object on a page invite babies to reach for the picture. The way a book is made becomes more important when reading to four- to six-month-olds. Cloth and vinyl books are appropriate because they are easy to grasp and will not hurt babies when they try to explore them with their mouths. These first books are often washable and will not disintegrate when being gummed. Brightly colored illus- trations and a single object on a page invite babies to reach for the picture. Combined with a familiar voice and simple text, babies can begin the important act of interact- ing with books. By seven to nine months, the developed pincer grip allows infants to handle board books, which are made to fit little hands and sturdy enough to withstand repeated readings. Books with stiff pages are easily turned by chubby fingers and attractive enough to briefly capture a baby's fleeting attention. Bright, colorful illustrations encourage the reader to name objects and invite babies to point to the pictures, further promoting interaction with the book and developing emerging language skills (Green, Lilly, & Barrett 2002). Babies approaching one year show strong involve- ment when being read to. They babble along in tones that sound like reading and take turns in turning the pages (Schickedanz 1999). The reader's exaggerated facial expressions capture babies' attention and help them develop social referencing skills (Greenspan & Shanker 2004). Voice tone and rhythm too continue to be impor- tant stimulation. Infants further associate the contact, comfort, and security that reading brings with their grow- ing feelings of attachment. Stories begin to capture the one-year-old's attention and interest, and more give-and-take occurs in the reading expe- rience. Traditional favorites, like Pat the Bunny , by Dorothy Kunhardt, have interactive pages that allow for sensory stimulation. For example, the child can stroke a page with soft fur like that of a bunny or touch scratchy sandpaper that feels like daddy's beard. Well-chosen picture books can open up conversations about fears and allow care- givers and toddlers both to address the issue. Learning through social experiences: 18 months to three years Children have developed a range of emotions by toddler- hood, along with a sense of self, language skill, and physical independence. Sense of self. By two years of age most children recog- nize themselves in a mirror, and with this recognition they develop a new self-consciousness and emotions like guilt, envy, embarrassment, and pride. They feel proud when they accomplish a task that once seemed insurmountable and embarrassed when they violate a social norm (Kagan & Snidman 2004). As children begin to know themselves, they begin to understand how other people feel. Toddlers can show empathy and caring, especially toward others who are hurt or in distress (Wardle 2003). Not all emotions are positive, and fear also emerges in toddlerhood. In a toddler's mind, fear is often connected to unknown situations. Many are afraid of the dark and of imaginary creatures. Such worries are common but of little continuing concern for most children (Wardle 2003). Read- alouds with a sensitive caregiver help address these stress- ful emotions. Well-chosen picture books can open up con- versations about fears and allow caregivers and toddlers both to address the issue (see examples in "Appropriate Books for Infants and Toddlers," p. 37). Language. With growing language skills, toddlers begin to talk about their emotions and develop a vocabulary of emotional words, such as mad , happy , and yucky. As early as two to three years of age, children can talk about emotions they and oth- Â ers feel, and they realize M that emotions connect I with desires and needs V (Wellman et al. 1995). ■ Read-alouds are one way to promote the use of vocabulary to describe emotions and to encourage 34 This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Sun, 06 Feb 2022 10:31:43 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
empathy and caring. Talking about a character's feelings can allow toddlers to vicariously experience emotions and consider how others might feel. Physical development. Toddlers begin to assert a grow- ing independence that is now possible because of their developing physical and motor skills. Asserting themselves often involves the word no and their refusal to do things they once did happily. Emotions correlated with their grow- ing independence can sometimes get the best of toddlers, such as when they do not get their own way. Caregivers need to model appropriate ways to handle strong emotions and can lower the frustration levels of toddlers by being attuned and responsive to their needs. Many read-aloud books are avail- able to help toddlers and their caregivers explore appropriate emotional responses. Read-alouds with toddlers In settings where story reading is con- nected with feelings of comfort, safety, and love, toddlers come to associate the lan- guage and social interaction as being as much a part of the experience as the book itself (Barrera & Bauer 2003). For many toddlers, the read-aloud is an active experi- ence. For example, Kelsey's mother (intro- duced in this article's opening vignette) often found herself reading aloud while her two-year-old played in the bathtub or in her high chair. Most toddlers who have grown up with the established routine of read-alouds will themselves initiate times for reading together. They will choose sto- rybooks and plead to hear their favorites repeatedly By age 18 months children begin to recognize story characters and enjoy books about familiar, beloved friends. Most toddlers love books containing ani- mal characters and books about chil- dren who look like them and experience everyday events, like taking a bath, eat- ing, getting dressed, and learning to use the potty (Schickedanz 1999). Books for toddlers are typically orga- nized by child development topics, such as learning the ABCs, 123s, colors, and shapes, along with categories such as touch-and-feel books or topics like toi- let training or dealing with new expe- riences. Some of today's publishers offer well-illustrated infant and toddler books featuring a wide diversity of cul- tures and ethnicities. Toddlers who are encouraged to play with books and lis- ten to stories develop book-handling skills (where to open a book, how to hold it, and where to look for pictures and the story), and they have an easier time learning to read (Morrow 2004). Pointing to pictures, asking questions, and gesturing to key elements promote children's vocabulary Young Children • May 2007 35 This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Sun, 06 Feb 2022 10:31:43 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
<L> -G u CS <L> CL ctí -v § ë © development, sense of gaining mastery over the environment and their emotions, and development of important emergent literacy skills (Schickedanz 1999). Most 18-month-olds become inter- ested in words and picture books because of their usefulness. Playing the name game has caregivers asking, "What's that?" with toddlers looking closely before announcing the names of objects. Before long, children who have had this experience ask, "Wa dat?" and the conversation goes back and forth. An adult's enthusi- astic responses can contribute to toddlers' language devel- opment, their play with ideas, and a growing confidence as they learn about their families and life outside their homes. Phonemic awareness (of the sounds that make up words) is an important emergent literacy skill developed by chil- dren as they talk with caregivers and respond to books. This auditory skill developed through play with language is a powerful predictor for early reading success (Adams 1990). For example, after hearing a favorite Dr. Seuss book many times, Nick (27 months old) chanted "lalla la lee lo" while he played (Green, Lilly, & Barrett 2002). Books with songlike features, repetitive parts, and rhymes invite children to join in the play with language and to experiment with the sounds of words. Increasingly, board book publishers have recognized authors skilled at providing these kinds of literary experiences and are pub- lishing books that pro- mote language skills and emotional development. As a result, caregivers and their toddlers can have fun with language, use it in play experiences, and together create shared lit- eracy experiences. Conclusion Babies come into the world as emotional beings, but still they have much emotional growth to accomplish. The real work in infancy is estab- lishing a strong emotional attachment between the child and at least one per- son who returns a compa- rable depth of emotion. Two identified character- istics of parenting that Reading to babies is a sensory experience; reading with toddlers is an active, joyous challenge contributing to cognitive growth. lead to secure attachment are respon- siveness and warm physical contact (Greenspan & Shanker 2004). Engaging in read-alouds with infants addresses both characteristics. The comforting sound of the caregiver's voice, touch, and emotional attunement to a baby's needs demonstrates responsiveness. Being held, feeling safe, gazing into a caregiver's face, and experiencing love exemplify warm physical contact. Reading to babies is a sensory experience; reading with toddlers is an active, joyous chal- lenge contributing to cognitive growth. Regular read-alouds establish times for toddlers and caregivers to connect socially, emotionally, cognitively, and physically. New expe- riences, scary thoughts, everyday events, and the whole world outside can all be explored through the pages of a book and the reassurances of a caregiver. References Adams, M. 1990. Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Barrera, R.B., & E.B. Bauer. 2003. Storybook reading and young bilin- gual children: A review of the literature. In On reading books to chil- dren : Parents and teachers, eds. A. van Kleeck, S.A. Stahl, & E.B. Bauer, 253-70. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. DeCasper, A.J., & W.P. Fifer. 1980. Of human bonding: Newborns prefer their mother's voice. Science 208: 1174-76. Erikson, E.H. [1950] 1993. Childhood and society. New York: Norton. Goleman, D. 1995. Emotional intelli- gence. New York: Bantam. Green, C.R., E. Lilly, & T.M. Barrett. 2002. Families reading together: Connecting literature and life. Journal of Research in Childhood Education 16 (2): 248-61. Greenspan, S.G., & S. Shanker. 2004. The first idea: How symbols, lan- guage and intelligence evolved from our primate ancestors to mod- ern humans. Cambridge, MA: DaCapo. Honig, A.S. 2002. Secure relation- ships: Nurturing infant/toddler attachment in early care settings. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Honig, AS. 2005. The language of lullabies. Young Children 60 (5): 30-36. Howes, C. 1998. The earliest friend- ships. In The company they keep: Friendships in childhood and ado- lescence, eds. W.M. Bukowski, A.F. Newcomb, & W.W. Hartup, 66-86. New York: Cambridge Uni- versity Press. James, W. [1890] 1950. The principles of psychology. New York: Dover. Kagan, J., & N. Snidman. 2004. The long arm of temperament. Cam- bridge, MA: Belknap of Harvard University Press. 36 |H| Young Children* May 2007 This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Sun, 06 Feb 2022 10:31:43 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Ludeman, P.M. 1991. Generalized discrimination of positive facial expressions by 7- and 10-month-old infants. Child Development 62: 55-67. McDevitt, T.M., & J.E. Ormrod. 2004. Child development: Educating am working with children and adolescents. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Montague, D.P.F., & A.S. Walker-Andrews. 2001. Peekaboo: A new look at infants' perceptions of emotion expression. Developmental Psy- chology 37: 826-38. Morrow, L. 2004. Literacy development in the early years: Helping chil- dren read and write. 5th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Nelson, C.A., &P.E. Collins. 1991. Event-related potential and looking- time analysis of infants' responses to familiar and novel events: Implications for visual recognition memory. Developmental Psychol ogy 27: 50-58. Owens, K.B. 2002. Child and adolescent development: An integrated approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. Saarni, C. 1998. The development of emotional competence. New York: Guilford. Schickedanz, J. A. 1999. Much more than the ABCs: The early stages of i reading and writing. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Siegel, D.J. 1999. The developing mind. New York: Guilford. Waiden, T.A., & A. Baxter. 1989. The effect of context and age on social referencing. Child Development 60: 151 1-18. Wardle, F. 2003. Introduction to early childhood education : A multidi- mensional approach to child-centered care and learning. New York: Allyn & Bacon. Wellman, H.M., P.L. Harris, M. Banerjee, &A. Sinclair. 1995. Early understanding of emotion: Evidence from natural language. Cogni- tion and Emotion 9:11 7-49. Copyright© 2007 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. See Per- missions and Reprints online atwww.journal.naeyc.org/about/permissions.asp. Appropriate Books for Infants and Toddlers The following are books that can help foster conversations with children and promote emotional development. To build an engaging library, search out book publishers and authors who understand the needs and interests of babies and toddlers. Fears and new situations Albee, S. 2003. Blue's checkup. New York: Simon and Schuster. Frankel, A. 1979. Once upon a potty. New York: Harper Festival. Gomi, T. 1997. Everyone poops. La Joila, CA: Kane/Miller. Johnson, M. 1987. Caillou: What's that noise? Montreal, Quebec, Can- ada: Chouette Publishing. Emotional understandings and expression Agassi, M. 2002. Hands are not for hitting. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. Parr, T. 2000. The feelings book. New York: Little, Brown. Shannon, D. 2005. David smells! New York: Blue Sky. Play with language, repetitive or predictable parts, and rhythm Books by Sandra Boynton, Margaret Wise Brown, Eric Carle, Bill Martin Jr., Dr. Seuss, and Peter Sis. Cloth, bathtub, and touch-and-feel book series Innovative Kids. 2005. My giant 123 bath book. Norwalk, CT. Priddy Books. 2004. Touch colors. New York: St. Martin's Press. Taggies. 2004. Sweet dreams. New York: Scholastic. Concept and vocabulary ^ development Baby Einstein Series. New York: Hyperion Books for Children. Dorling Kindersley Board Book Series. London, England. Katz, K. 2000. Where is baby's belly button? New York: Little Simon. Diverse illustrations and experiences Acredolo, L., & S. Goodwyn. 2002. My first baby signs. New York: Harper Festival. Bauer, M.D. 2003. Toes , ear, and nose. New York: Little Simon. Newcome, Z. 2002. Head, shoulders, knees, and toes. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press. Interaction with book features and the reader Aigner-Clark, J. 2005. Baby da Vinci: My body. New York: Hyperion. (Mir- rors focus attention.) Kunhardt, D. 1940. Pat the bunny. New York: Golden Books Publishing. (Touching and playing peekaboo.) My happy baby. 2004. New York: Scho- lastic. (Cloth books attach to crib, stroller, or car seat.) Young Children • May 2007 37 This content downloaded from 202.43.95.117 on Sun, 06 Feb 2022 10:31:43 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms