Encyclopedia of Earth Science

484 Index

Barringer Meteor Crater, Arizona Bertrand, Marcel 91 Bright Angel Shale, Grand Canyon
228 beta decay 348 181
beta particles 348
basalt metamorphism 273 Betsimisiraka suture, Madagascar brittle deformation 110, 111–112,
basalts, flood 153–154, 154, 301 149, 159, 409
255
Deccan flood basalts, India 68, B-horizon sequences 442 Bronson Hill anticlinorium,
109, 153, 261 B-horizon soil profiles 396, 397 Appalachians 14
Big Bang Theory 47–49
Siberian 317 Big Crunch 48 Bronze Age 211–212
basic rocks 41 biofacies 147 Brooks Range, Alaska 54, 297
basin and dome fold interference biogenic sediments 49 Brown, John S. 5
biological weathering 456 brown ochre (limonite) 250
patterns 156, 158 biomass, carbon cycle and 63–64 bryozoa 54–55
Basin and Range Province, United biosphere 49–50, 130 Buhwa greenstone belt, Zimbabwe
biotite 50
States 41–42, 358 bioturbation 49 craton 470
basins 41 Bi’r Umq suture zone, Arabian shield Burbidge, Geoff and Margaret 48
batholiths 42 Burgess Shale, Canada 60, 60, 61
bauxite 42 19, 20 burial metamorphism 273–274
beaches 42–44, 43, 147–148 Bishah-Rimmah orogeny, Arabian Burke, Kevin C. 55
Bushveld complex, Kaapvaal craton
barrier beaches 40–41 shield 18
benthic environments 46–47, Bishop Tuff 253 238
Bitlis suture 417, 418
49, 50 bituminous coal 85 C
groins 198 black smoker chimneys 50, 50–52, Cairo-Sinai fold belt, Syrian arc 417
littoral zones 251 Calaveras fault, California 364
sand dunes 365, 366 51, 71, 125, 249, 307 calcareous oozes 1, 46–47
storm surges and 400–401 blockfields 441 calcite 56, 62
terraces 421 Blue Nile 293 calderas 56, 57, 452
waves and 455, 455–456, 456 body forces 404
beach terraces 213, 214 body waves (earthquakes) 132–133 Crater Lake, Oregon 56, 57
Beaufort Gyre 300 bog iron ore (limonite) 250 Krakatau eruption 436–437,
Beaumont, Leonce Elie de 91 Boil Mountain ophiolite, Maine
bedding 44 See also stratigraphy 439
cross-bedding 44, 105, 106 321–325, 323, 324 Long Valley caldera, California
sedimentary structures 380 Bolivia
bed load 251, 355 252–253
Beechy Lake, Canada 393 Altiplano 10 Yellowstone National
Beekmantown Group, Appalachians Lake Titicaca 246
13 Border Ranges ultramafic-mafic Park/Yellowstone Valley 56,
Bekily block, Madagascar 256, 257 complex (BRUMC), Alaska 75 227, 261, 452, 464, 464–465,
belemnite fossil 402 bores 439 465
Belingwe greenstone belt, Zimbabwe Borneo Caledonian orogen 58, 373,
44–46, 45, 46, 189, 236, 470 Sarawak Chamber 68 415–416
Belomorian mobile belt, Baltic shield bornite 411 Caledonides 58
38 boudinage 52, 52–53 California
Bemarivo block, Madagascar 255, boudins 52–53 alluvial fans 9, 9
256 Bouguer gravity anomalies 183 Death Valley 8, 8, 143, 144,
bench marks 46 Bouma sequences 183–184, 442 337
Benguela current 391 Bowen, Norman Levi 53, 227 fog 155
Benioff, Hugo 336 brachiopods 53 Loma Prieta earthquake 132
Benioff Zone 336 Bradley, Dwight 92 Long Valley caldera 252–253
benthic environments 46–47, 49, 50 braid-deltas 113 Mount Whitney 287
benthos organisms 46–47, 50, 136 braided streams 53, 54, 154–155 mudflows 269
Bergeron, Tor 79–80 breakup basalts 153 northers 369
Bering land bridge 421–422 breccias 53–54, 150 San Andreas Fault 130–131,
Bermuda triangle 359 132, 364–365, 365, 421, 431
Santa Ana winds 369

Index 485

urbanization and flash flooding carbonatite 62–63 Chain Lakes massif, Maine
447 carbon cycle 63–64, 64 321–325, 323

Yosemite Valley and National life’s origins and 249 chalcopyrite 411
Park 465, 465–466 Siberian Taiga Forest and Global chalk 104–105
Challenger, H.M.S. 70, 259, 299,
Callisto 234 Carbon Sink 385
calving 176, 222 carbon dioxide 302
Cambrian period 58–61, 59, 60 Challenger Deep 261
Cambrian system 58 carbon cycle 63 Challenger Mission 41-G 371
Cameron River greenstone belt 394 greenhouse effect 32, 34, 186, Charon (moon) 339, 339
Canada chemical sediments 70, 380
377 chemical weathering 140, 456, 457
Acasta gneisses 22, 100, 392, life’s origins and 248–249 chemosynthesis 51–52, 71
394 stored in oceans 379 chert 70, 71
Carboniferous period 64–66, 66 Chicxulub crater, Yucatan Peninsula,
banded iron formation, Ungava Carboniferous System 64–65
Peninsula 40 carbon sink 385 Mexico 30, 68, 71, 440
Caribbean Ocean 318 Chile
Burgess Shale 60, 60, 61 Caribbean oceanic plateau 153–154
esker 142 Carlsbad Cavern 68 Atacama Desert 30–31
Great Lakes 184 Carrol Cave, Missouri 398 Patagonia 320–321
Great Slave Lake, Nunavet 185, Caspian Sea 66–67 Chilimanzi suite, Zimbabwe craton
Cassini spacecraft 233 471
185 cataclasis 54, 67 China
Grenville province 3–5, cataclasites 67 chromite 73, 74
catazonal plutons 42 Dabie Shan ultra-high pressure
192–198, 196, 197 cathodoluminescence 67
Hoffman, Paul Felix 195, 211 Catskill Mountains 14 metamorphic belt 71
Hudson Bay 213, 213–214 caves 67–68 Dongwanzi ophiolite 71–73,
Huronian Supergroup 344–345 karst terrains 238–240
Penobscottian orogeny speleothems 398, 398 296–297, 307
subsidence and 410, 411 Ediacaran fossils 449
321–325, 323, 324 cavitation 141–142 encroaching sand dunes 367
permafrost 325–326 C-band 416 fracture/joint 159
Slave craton 391–396, 394, 395 CCD (carbonate compensation Gobi Desert 179, 367
Slave Province 101, 187, 189 depth) 299 loess, Shanxii Province 252
taiga 419 CCT (computer compatible tapes) Ming Dynasty ocean exploration
Ungava Peninsula banded iron 369
Cenozoic era 68–70, 69 302
formation 40 Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) North China craton 71–72,
Yellowknife greenstone belt 25,
extinction 68, 105, 109, 101, 295–297, 307
329, 392, 394 264–265 Shaanxi Province earthquake
Canadian Rockies 12, 357 ice age (Late Cenozoic) 221
Canadian shield 192, 214, 385, 391 Neogene period 289–290, 421 128
Cancer, tropic of 436 Quaternary period 347 Sinian era 391
capacity, river 355 Tertiary period 69, 421–422, Sinian fauna 73
Cape Cod, Massachusetts 61 422 Wutal Shan slump 267
Cape Horn and the Strait of Central Rand group, Witwatersrand Yellow River 248
basin 459, 460–461 Chinook winds 73
Magellan 61 centrifugal forces 429–430 chlorite 281–282
Capricorn, tropic of 436 Ceres (asteroid) 30 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 32,
carbon-14 dating 61, 165–166 cerussite 62 313, 377
carbonate compensation depth CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) 32, chocolate block boudins 53
313, 377 chondrite 276
(CCD) 299 chondrule 276
carbonate iron formations 39 C-horizon sequences 442
carbonate minerals 62 C-horizon soil profiles 396, 397
carbonate mounds 62 chromite 73, 73–74
carbonate platforms 62, 320, 351 chromitite 73
carbonate ramps 62
carbonates 62, 282

diagenesis 120
dolomite 126

486 Index

chrysotile 28, 385 climate change 80–83 Colorado River 181, 340
Chugach accretionary wedge, Alaska carbon cycle and 64 Columbia, Nevado del Ruiz lahars
desertification 116
75 El Niño and the Southern 245, 266
Chugach Mountains, Alaska 74–76, Oscillation (ENSO) 138 Columbia River flood basalts 153
Gaia hypothesis 82 columnar joints 160
75, 77, 207, 286, 442 glaciers and 175 Comet Encke 441
Chugach-Prince William greenhouse effect 185–187, 186 Comet Halley 85, 86
ice ages 220–222 comets 29–30, 85, 85–86, 276–277,
superterrane, Alaska 74 loess and 252
cinder cones 452 Milankovitch cycles 278–280, 441
circumdenudation 229 279 compaction 411
cirques 76–77, 77, 177 paleoclimatology 314–315 compasses 86, 258
cirrocumulus clouds 84 Panama isthmus and 318 competence, stream 355
cirrostratus clouds 84 permafrost and 326 compression 404–405, 432
cirrus clouds 84 Sahara Desert, Africa 116, 361 compressional arcs 96
classical stratigraphy 384, 403 Sahel, Africa 116, 117, compressional bends 432
classification of species 479 362–363 compressional waves (primary
clastic rocks 77 sea-level rise and fall See sea-
level rise and fall waves, P-waves) 132–133, 260,
conglomerates 87 383, 384
flysch 155 climatology 79 computer compatible tapes (CCT)
clastic sediments 380 clinometers 83 369
clathrates (gas hydrates) 63, 164, Cloos, Hans 83 concentric folds 157
440 closed universe model 48 concordant plutons 42, 339
clay 77–78, 238, 281–282 closing salts 144 concordia curve 167, 167
cleavage 78, 79, 282, 397 Cloud, Preston 83 concretions 86
climate 78–80 See also climate clouds 83–84 condensation 155
change condensation theory (origin of the
atmosphere and 34–35 fog 155 solar system) 203, 204
carbon cycle and 63–64 Neptune 291, 292 condensation trails (contrails) 84
classification of 79–80 precipitation 342 conduction 208, 424
climatology 79 thunderstorms 424–426, 426 cones of depression 86, 87
clouds and 84 tornado 430 Coney, Peter 415
dendrochronology 114 Venus 450 confined aquifers 17, 27
dust storms and 128 coal 85 conglomerates 87
El Niño and the Southern biogenic rocks 49
Carboniferous period and 65 flysch 155
Oscillation (ENSO) 138, 285, diagenesis 120 gravel 183
295, 377 coastal deserts 118 molasse 284
monsoons 428 coastal downwelling 85 conjugate joints 160, 160
paleoclimatology 314–315 coastal subsidence 410 Connecticut Valley–Gaspe trough,
precipitation 342 coastal upwelling 85 Appalachians 14, 15, 16
seasons 378 coaxial deformation 402 conodonts 87–88
soils and 396–397 coccoliths 104–105 consequent steams 126
steppe 399 Coconino Sandstone, Grand Canyon contact metamorphism 273
Tibetan Plateau and 428 181 continental crust 88, 88–89, 106
tropical 42, 396–397, 435–436, cold bottom waters 80–82 See also crust
458 collapse structures 239–240 cratons 99–103, 102
collisional foreland basins 158–159 hypsometric curve (hypsographic
bauxite 42 collision zones 86, 94, 96, 98–99
Everglades, Florida 145 Colorado, Southern Rockies curve) 407–408, 408
sea breezes 375 356–357 continental divide 122
soil of 396–397 Colorado Plateau 358 continental drift 89–91, 412, 458
weathering and 458 continental drift and plate tectonics:
tundra 441
weathering and 458 historical development of theories
91–92

Index 487

continental freeboard 408 subduction zones 1–3, 94–96, Crete, Santorin eruption and tsunami
continental interior deserts 117 333, 409–410 437, 439
continental margins 93
volcanic eruptions and 452 crinoids 65, 105
continental shelves 88, 93, 147 coral reefs 99, 351 cross-bedding 44, 105, 106
convergent plate margin cross-lamination 105
atolls 35 cross sections 105
processes 93, 94–99, 97, 98, benthic environment 47 cross-stratification 105
333 Great Barrier Reef 184 crust 105–106, 129 See also
corals 99, 108
accretionary wedges 1–3, 2 Cordillera, North America 357, continental crust; oceanic crust
foreland basins 158–159 415, 421 See also Rocky formation of 89, 202–203,
Mount Whitney/Sierra Mountains 309–310
Cordilleran orogeny 357 hypsometric curve (hypsographic
Nevada mountain ranges core 129 curve) 219, 219, 407–408,
287 core-mantle boundary 383–384 408
subduction zones 409–410 Coriolis effect 80, 99, 299–300 measuring 383–384
volcanic eruptions and 452 coronae 451 Mohorovicic discontinuity (the
divergent or extensional correlation of rocks 404 Moho) 250, 284, 383, 384
boundaries 93, 122–125, 123, cosmic background radiation Venus 450–451
124, 333 48–49
passive margins 93, 319, cosmology 49 crustaceans 106, 108, 330
319–320, 320, 327 country rocks 42 crustal heat flow 208
transform plate margin processes cover-collapse sinkholes 240 cryptobauxites 42
93, 333, 346, 431, 431–433, cover-subsidence sinkholes 240 crystals 106–107
432 Cox, Allan 337
continental rifts 23, 122–124, 124 cracks See fractures cleavage 78
continental shelves 88, 93, 147 Crater Lake, Oregon 56, 57 geodes 168
continental shields See shields craters See impact craters mineralogy 282
continent-continent collisions cratonic basins 25–26 weathering and 456
98–99, 414 cratonization 103 ctenophores 330
continuum mechanics 407 cratons 99–103, 102 See also C-type asteroids 29
contour currents 174 greenstone belts; shields cuestas 211
contrails (condensation trails) 84 Archean era and 22–23, 38, cumulonimbus clouds 84, 424, 425
Contwoyto terrane, Slave craton cumulus clouds 84, 425, 426
392, 393, 394, 395 99–103, 419 currents See ocean currents
convection and the Earth’s mantle Baltic shield 38 cyanobacteria 405, 405
93–94, 94 continental crust and 88–89 cyclones 214, 217 See also
Archean era 23 deformation of rocks and 111 hurricanes
asthenosphere 30 epeirogeny 140 cyclothems 65
heat flow 208 Kaapvaal craton, South Africa
Holmes, Arthur 90–91 D
mantle plumes 260–261, 261 25, 45, 46, 100, 101, Dabie Shan ultra-high pressure
supercontinent cycles 412 236–238, 237
convergent plate margin processes North China craton 71–72 metamorphic belt, China 71
94–99, 97, 98, 333 Precambrian (Archean and dacite 108
accretionary wedges 1–3, 2 Proterozoic) 341 Dactyl 29
andesite 12 Slave craton 391–396, 394, 395 daily tides 428
collisions 86, 98–99 tectosphere 419 Dalradian Supergroup, Scottish
collision zones 86, 94, 96, world distribution 341
98–99 Zimbabwe craton See Highlands 373
continental margins 93 Zimbabwe craton Dalziel, Ian 195
foreland basins 158–159 creep 103, 103–104, 169, 441 Dana, James Dwight 91, 108
Mount Whitney/Sierra Nevada Cretaceous period 104, 104–105 Daraina-Milanoa Group,
mountain ranges 287 Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) extinction
68, 71, 105, 109, 264–265 Madagascar 255
Darcy (measure of permeability) 326
Darcy’s Law 108

488 Index

Darwin, Charles 108–109 deformation path 402 trade wind (Hadley cell) deserts
on atolls 35 Degree Angular Scale Interferometer 117
evolution 145, 166
on Lyell, Charles 253 (DASI) experiment 48–49 tropical climates and 435–436
on Patagonia 320–321 deltas 113, 147, 352 urbanization and flash flooding
DEMs (digital elevation models)
Das Antlitz der Erde (Suess) 91, 312 446–447
DASI (Degree Angular Scale 121–122 wadis 386–387, 389, 454, 454
Denali (Mount McKinley) 286, yardangs 139–140, 464
Interferometer) experiment 48–49 desiccation cracks 160
dating systems See geochronology 286–287 deviatoric stress 404
daughter elements 444 dendrite 113 Devonian Period 119
Dead Sea 109 dendritic drainage 1 dewatering 120
Dead Sea transform 417 dendrochronology 114 Dewey, John F. 55, 119–120
Death Valley, California 143, 144, dendroclimatology 114 de Wit, Maarten 101, 189
density 282 Dharwar craton 228–229
337 Der Bau der Erde (Kober) 91 D-horizon sequence 442
debris avalanche 217, 269–270 derecho 425 diachronous boundaries 403–404
debris falls 269 desalination 114–115 diagenesis 120, 272
debris flows 245, 268–269 Descent of Man (Darwin) 145 diamond anvil press 121
debris slides 269 desertification 115–117, 138, 171, diamonds 120–121, 241
decay series 349 diapirism 226
Deccan flood basalts, India 68, 109, 362–363 diapirs 121
desert pavements 140 diatoms 121
153, 261 deserts 115–119 diatremes 241
declination 109, 172 Dibdibba arch, Kuwait 243
decollement 110, 110 alluvial fans 9, 9 Die Entstehung der Alpen (Suess)
deep marine facies 148 Atacama Desert 30–31 91, 312
deep-sea oozes 1, 46–47 coastal 118 Die Entstehung der Kontinente
deep-sea trenches See trenches continental interior/mid-latitude (Wegener) 91, 312
deflation 140 Die Entstehung der Kontinente und
deflation basins 140 deserts 117 Ozeane (The Origin of the
deformation of rocks 110–113 See Dry Valleys, Antarctica 127 Continents and Oceans, Wegener)
dust devils 127 91, 312, 458
also mass wasting dust storms 127, 127–128 digital elevation models (DEMs)
boudinage 52, 52–53 El-Baz, Farouk 137 121–122
brittle 110, 111–112, 149, 159, eolian sediments 139, 139–140 dike injection extension model 122
409 Gobi Desert 179, 252, 367 dikes 184, 225, 308–309, 310, 339
cataclasis 67 horse latitudes 212 dilational bends 432
cleavage 78, 79 inselbergs 229 dinosaurs 68, 234–235, 264–265
ductile 110, 409 Kuwait 242 dip 407
fault-block mountains 89, 111, map of 118 dip-slip faults 148, 149, 433
312 monsoon 118 discharge areas 200
faults See faults pediments 321, 321 disconfomities 443
fold and thrust mountain ranges playas 242, 337 discordant plutons 42, 339
89, 111, 312 polar 119, 127 discordia curve 167
folds See folds rainshadow 117–118 dissolution 238–239
fractures 159, 159–161 Sahara Desert 116, 360–362, dissolved load 251, 355
orogeny 88–89, 312 diurnal tides 428
regional 112 367 divergent or extensional boundaries
strain 110, 401, 401–403, 402, sand dunes 115, 139, 139, 242, 93, 122–125, 123, 124, 333
451 divides 122
stress 110, 404, 451 360, 365–367, 366, 367, 368, D” layer 260
structural geology 406–407 368, 391 dogtooth spar 56
viscosity 451 sand seas 367–367, 368
volcanic mountain ranges 89, Santa Ana winds 369
111–112, 312 Sinai Peninsula, Egypt 386,
386–390, 390, 417–418
Skeleton Coast, Namibia 391

Index 489

doldrums 125–126 Indian Ocean earthquake. See electromagnetic spectrum 348
dolomite 62, 126 Sumatra earthquake infrared radiation 229
dolostone 70, 126 remote sensing and 352–353,
Dominion group, Witwatersrand Loma Prieta earthquake, 353, 369–371
California 132
basin 459, 461 electron microprobes 137
Dongwanzi ophiolite, China 71–73, magnitude 135–136 electron microscopes 137–138
origins of 132–134 El Egma plateau, Egypt 387, 389,
296–297, 307 Richter scale 135, 353–354
Doppler radar 126 San Andreas Fault, California 390, 391
downbursts 425 elements
downdrafts 425 130–131, 132, 364–365, 365
downslope currents 174 seismic waves 132 daughter 444
downwelling, coastal 85 seismographs 134, 134–135, electron microprobes 137
drainage basins 41, 126–127 isotopes of 230–231
381–382 mineral forming 280, 281
alluvial fans 9 subsidence and 411 periodic table 477–478
Amazon River 10 surface waves 133–134 radioactive decay 348–349
dendritic drainage 113–114 tsunami 436, 439 in seawater 378, 379
floods and 151–153 warning systems 131 elevations 46
stream categories 126 worst in history 131 El Niño and the Southern Oscillation
draperies 398 Zagros and Makran Mountains (ENSO) 138, 285, 295, 377
dripstone 398 Elsasser, Walter M. 172–173
drizzle 342 467 Elsinore fault, California 364
dropstones 177 earthquake warning systems 131, 437 El Tih plateau, Egypt 387, 389, 390,
droughts Earth Resources Technology Satellite 3931
deserts and 115, 116, 117 Elzevir terrane, Grenville province
El Niño and the Southern (ERTS-1) 369 193, 195
Earth’s orbit 378 energy 424
Oscillation (ENSO) and 138 East African orogen 59, 343 ENSO (El Niño and the Southern
as geological hazard 171 East African rift system 6, 7, 62, 355 Oscillation) 138, 138, 285, 295,
Hadley cells and 206 Eastern and Western Ghats, India 377
Sahel 362–363 Environmental Protection Agency,
Dry Valleys, Antarctica 127 228–229 asbestos regulation 28
ductile deformation 110, 409 East Pacific Rise 51, 94, 278 Eocene epoch 139, 421, 422, 422
dunes See sand dunes echinoderms 105, 136 eolian sediments 139–140
dunites 127 ecliptic plane 378 eons 140
Durness sequence, Scottish eclogites 136, 164 Archean (Archaean) 22–27, 26
Highlands 373 economic geology 353 Hadean 23, 202–205
dust devils 127 economic resource assessments 353 Phanerozoic 328
dust storms 127, 127–128 ecosystems 136 Proterozoic 342–345, 344
Du Toit, Alexander L. 90, 91, 128, Ediacara epoch 276, 345, 391, 449 epeirogeny 140, 377
247, 335 Egypt epicenters 132, 133
epicontinental seas 140
E Abu Hamth 388, 389 epifauna 47
early Mesozoic truncation event 358 dust storm 127 epizonal plutons 42
Earth 129–130, 130, 202–205 Nile River 293–294, 294 epochs 140
earthflows 269 Sinai Peninsula 386–390, 390, equilibrium theory of tides 429,
earthquakes 130–136, 169 429, 430
417–418 eras 140
Bam, Iran 467 E-horizon sequence 442 Erastothenes 168
body waves 132–133 Einstein, Albert 48, 49, 424 erathems (time stratigraphy) 140,
elastic rebound theory 131 Ekman spirals 85, 136 403
epicenter 132, 133 elasticas 157 ergs 367
Faiyum-Cairo region 418 elastic behavior 451 Eriksson, Leif 302
focus 132 elastic deformation 110
elastic rebound theory 131
El-Baz, Farouk 136–137
Eldredge, Niles 145–146
electrodialysis 114–115

490 Index

erosion 140–142, 141 extensional foreland basins 159 fertilization effect 64
alluvial fans 8–9, 9 extension joints 160 Filabusi greenstone belt, Zimbabwe
badlands 37, 37–38 extinctions See mass extinctions
beach 42–43 extratropical cyclones 146 craton 471
pediments and 321, 321 extratropical lows 399–400 Finger Lakes, New York 150
waves and 454–455 extrusive rocks See volcanic rocks fiords 150, 151
fireballs See meteors/meteorites
erratics, glacial 177 F First Law of Thermodynamics 423
eskers 142, 142 facies 147–148 firths 373
Eskola, Pentti 142–143, 274 Falkland Islands 148 fish 289
Espenschied, Lloyd 10 Falkland Plateau 148 fission 151
estuaries 143, 147 falls (mass movements) 267 fission track dating technique 168
Ethiopia fan-deltas 113 flash distillation 114
fault-block mountains 89, 111, 312 flash floods 151, 446–447
Afar Depression 6, 7, 124–125 fault blocks 212–213 flood basalts 153–154, 154, 301
Nile River 293, 294 faults 148, 148–150, 149
Ethiopian rift 6, 7 Deccan flood basalts, India 68,
eukaryotes 250, 275, 345 Alpine fault, New Zealand 109, 153, 261
Euler’s theorem 332 292–293
Europa 234 Siberian 317
Europe Basin and Range Province, floodplains 152, 154
Alps 9–10 United States 41–42 floods 151–153, 354–355
Caspian Sea 66–67
little ice age 220 decollement 110, 110 erosion 141
Ural Mountains 444 deformation of rocks general floodplains 154
eustatic (global) sea-level rise 377 as geological hazards 169
eutrophication 143 111–112, 112 hurricanes and 151, 217
euxinic basins 143 dip-slip faults 148, 149, 433 levees and 247–248
euxinic environments 143 earthquakes and 132 urbanization and flash flooding
evaporation fog 155–156 horsts 212–213
evaporites 143, 143–144, 144 San Andreas Fault, California 446–447
Messinian salt crisis 290 Florida
playas 337 130–131, 132, 364–365, 365,
sediments 70 421 artesian system 27
speleothems 398 strike-slip faults 111, 148, 149, Everglades 145
Everglades, Florida 145 190, 404–405, 431, 432 Hurricane Andrew 217
evolution 145–146 See also fossils; structural (tectonic) breccias 54 sinkholes 239, 411
life, origins and evolution of thrust faults 2, 2–3, 149, flower structures 432
Cloud, Preston 83 189–190 flows 267
Darwin, Charles 108–109 transform faults 277–278, 331, flowstone 398
faunal succession 150 333, 337, 431–433 fluorite 207
Lyell, Charles 253 fault scarps 149, 149 flute marks 381
The Evolution of Igneous Rocks fault zone aquifers 161 fluvial sediments 8–9, 154–155
(Bowen) 53 fault zones 150 fluvial systems 147, 154
Ewing, Maurice 336 faunal succession 150 Flynn diagrams 401, 402–403
exfoliation 146, 457 Federal Emergency Management flysch 155
exfoliation domes 146 Agency (FEMA) 150 focus 132
expansive clays 78 feedback mechanisms 82, 138 Foehn winds 73
explosion tubes 314 feldspar 150, 282 fog 155–156, 342
extension 401 felsic rocks 226 fold and thrust mountain ranges 89,
extensional back arcs 96 FEMA (Federal Emergency 111, 312
extensional bends 404–405, 431–432 Management Agency) 150 fold axial surfaces 12
extensional boundaries See divergent Ferrel cells 206 fold facing 157
or extensional boundaries ferricrete 42 fold generations 157
ferro-carbonatites 62 fold hinges 12, 111
Fertile Crescent 290, 291 fold interference patterns 156,
157–158, 158, 374

Index 491

folds 111, 111, 156, 156–158, 158 Fox Islands, Alaska 8 Ganymede 234
Adirondack Mountains 4, 5 fracture porosity 340 Garlock fault, California 364
anticlines 12, 12–13 fractures 159, 159–161 garnet 164, 281, 373
cleavage and 78 fracture zone aquifers 161–162 gas, natural 218, 289, 458
greenstone belts 189–190 fracture zones 433 gas hydrates (clathrates) 63, 164,
Syrian arc fold belt 417–418 France, Système pour l’Observation
440
fold trains 156 de la Terre (SPOT) 370 gas law 8
foliation 78, 79, 273 franklinite 474 Gaspra (asteroid) 29
footwalls 149 Fredrickton trough, Appalachians gastropods 164
foraminifera 65, 345 Gebel Arief El-Naqa 388
forearc basins 94, 96 15 Gebel Halal 388, 417
foreland basins 41, 158–159 free-air gravity anomalies 183 Gebel Maghara 387, 388, 389
freeboard, continental 408 Gebel Yelleg 417
Indo-Gangetic Plain 229 freeze-thaw cycles 104, 268, 457 Geiger counters 164–165
Witwatersrand 459–462, 460, freezing drizzle 342 general circulation models 165
freezing rain 342 General Theory of Relativity 48
461 freshwater 114, 363, 363–364 generations (folds) 157
foreshocks See earthquakes frictional sliding 159 geobarometry 165
foreshore 43 Friesland orogeny 415–416 geochemistry 165
formations 159, 404 fringing reefs 351
fossil fuels 168, 218, 289, 327–328 Frontenac terrane, Grenville province Goldschmidt, Victor Moritz
179–180
See also coal; petroleum/petroleum 193, 195
industry frost heaving 104, 268, 441 X-ray fluorescence 463
fossils 159 Fujita Tornado Scale 430 geochronology 165–168
fumaroles 162, 162, 465
amber 10–11 carbon-14 dating 61, 165–166
Archean 26–27 geysers 174–175, 464, 464, 465 ion microprobes 230
belemnite 402 hydrothermal vents 47, 50, 125, zircon and 475
brachiopods 53 geodes 168
bryozoa 54–55 307 geodesy 168–169
Cambrian 61 black smoker chimneys 50, geodynamics 169
carbon-14 dating 61 50–52, 51, 71, 125, 249, geodynamo theory 172–173
conodonts 87–88 307 Geographic Information Systems
corals 99, 108 white smoker chimneys 50, (GIS) 169
crinoids 65, 105 51 geoid 168–169, 169, 412, 413
diatoms 121 geological hazards 169–172
echinoderms 105, 136 Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes Geological Society of America (GSA)
evolution and 145 448–449 172
faunal succession 150 geologic timescale 479
gastropods 164 Yellowstone National Park 464, geologists
graptolites 182, 182 464, 465 Bowen, Norman Levi 53, 227
ichnofossils (trace fossils) 49, Cloos, Hans 83
funnel clouds 430 Cloud, Preston 83
61, 225 fusion 162 Dana, James Dwight 91, 108
index fossils 121, 136, 182, fusulinid foraminifera 65 Darwin, Charles 35, 108–109,

182, 228, 404 G 145, 166, 320–321
Metazoa 275–276, 345, 449 gabbro 163 Du Toit, Alexander L. 90, 91,
nektons 289 Gabel Maghara, Syrian arc fold belt
paleontology 315 128, 247, 335
Protozoa 345 417 El-Baz, Farouk 136–137
sedimentary rocks 381 Gaia hypothesis 82, 163–164 Eskola, Pentti 142–143, 274
Sinian fauna, China 73 Galileo (spacecraft) 29, 130 Gilbert, Grove Karl 113, 140,
Smith, William H. 396 Galveston Island, Texas 40–41, 151,
Steno, Nicolas 399 175, 321
strain and 402, 402 164, 164, 214 Grabau, Amadeus William
Fowler, William 48 gamma rays 348
Gamow, George 48 180–181
Ganges River 229

492 Index

geologists (continued) glacial striations 176–177 Gondwana (Gondwanaland) 58,
Hess, Harry Hammond glaciers/glaciation 175–177, 176 180
209–210, 336 Cambrian period 59
Hoffman, Paul Felix 195, 211 calving 176 Carboniferous period 65, 66
Hutton, James 166, 217–218, Cenozoic 69 ice ages and 220
443 cirques 76–77, 77 Proterozoic era 343
Lawson, Andrew Cowper 247 erosion and 142 Tethys ocean 422–423
Lyell, Charles 166, 212, 253, eskers 142, 142
289, 443 Finger Lakes, New York 150 Gould, Steven J. 145–146
Pettijohn, Francis John 328 fiords 150, 151 GPS (global positioning systems)
Powell, John Wesley 340–341 formation of 175–176
Sedgwick, Adam 379–380 as geologic hazard 171 168, 169, 177–179
Smith, William H. 396 hanging valley 207, 207 Grabau, Amadeus William 180–181
Sorby, Henry Clifton 397–398 ice ages 175, 220–222, graben 181
Stille, Wilhem Hans 399 graded bedding 44
Werner, Abraham Gottlob 458 249–250 graded streams 175
icebergs 176, 177, 222, Grand Canyon 181, 340, 403
geomagnetic reversals 173 granite 181–182
geomagnetism 172–173, 173 222–223, 359, 375, 376 granite-anorthosite association 345
ice caps 223 granite-gneiss terranes 24–25, 26
auroras and 35–36, 36 ice sheets 175, 223, 278, 337 granite-greenstone terranes 23–24,
compasses 86, 258 ice shelves 359
declination 109 kames 238 100, 103, 190, 469
magnetosphere 258–259 landforms 176–177 granite tectonics 83
geomorphology 173–174 load 252 granitic magma 227
Gilbert, Grove Karl 175 Milankovitch cycles 278–279 granular flows 269
Strahler, Arthur N. 401 moraines 177, 285, 285, 285, granulite 182, 182
geophysics 174 graptolites 182, 182
geodynamics 169 285 gravel 183
techniques 352 movement of 176 gravimeters 183
Wegener, Alfred Lothar 458 Pangean 318–319 gravity
geostrophic currents 174 Pleistocene 337–338
geosynchronous satellite orbit 178 sea ice 376 anomalies 183
geothermal energy 174 sea-level rise and fall 376–377 geoid 168–169, 169, 412, 413
fumaroles 162, 162, 448, 464, transport and deposit 177 mass wasting 266
types of 175 Mercury 271
464, 465 Global Carbon Sink, Siberia 385 tides and 428–429
geysers 174–175, 464, 464, 465 global positioning systems (GPS) gravity unit (g.u.) 183
hot springs 213, 464–465, 465 168, 169, 177–179 graywacke 183–184
geothermal gradient 226, 227 gneiss 179 Great Barrier Reef 184
geothermal wells 174 gneiss terranes Great Bitter Lake, Egypt 387
Germany Archean 24–25, 26 Great Dark Spot (GDS) 292
Reis crater 420 central gneiss belt, Grenville Great Dike, Zimbabwe 184
Stille, Wilhem Hans 399 Great Glen fault, Scottish Highlands
geyser cones 174 province 192–193 373
geysers 174–175, 464, 464, 465 greenstone belts and 188–189 Great Lakes, North America 184
Ghats, Eastern and Western, India Tokwe terrane, Zimbabwe Great Red Spot, Jupiter 233, 234
228–229 Great Salt Lake, Utah 185
Giddi-Yelleq-Halal, Egypt 388 craton 469–470, 471–473 Great Sandy Desert, Australia 367
Gilbert, Grove Karl 113, 140, 175, Gobi Desert 179, 252, 367 Great Slave Lake, Nunavet, Canada
321 Golconda allochthon 357 185, 185
GIS (Geographic Information gold 179 greenhouse effect 185–187, 186
Systems) 169 gases contributing to 32, 34–35
glacial erratics 177 Patagonia 321 Late Paleocene global hothouse
glacial marine drift 177 placer 329
Witwatersrand basin, South 221
life’s origins and 248, 249
Africa 461
Goldschmidt, Victor Moritz

179–180

Index 493

sea-level rise and 376–377 saltwater intrusion of 363, harmonite 469
Siberian Taiga Forest and Global 363–364 hartzburgite 207–208, 308
Hawaii 208, 377–378, 439
Carbon Sink 385 speleothems 398, 398
thermohaline circulation and subsidence and 410, 411 aa lava 1
water table 17, 86, 200, pahoehoe lava 314
81–82 tsunami 436, 437, 439
Venus 450 454–455 volcanoes 208, 451, 452
Greenland groundwater basins 41 Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain
Caledonides 58 growth habit 282 208, 260, 261, 377–378
ice sheet 175, 223, 376–377 GSA (Geological Society of America) Hawasina nappes, Oman Mountains
Isua belt 22, 26, 38 304
thermohaline circulation 424 172 Hayward fault, California 364
Wegener, Alfred Lothar 458 g.u. (gravity unit) 183 heat flow 208, 407, 424 See also
greenschist 187 Gulf of Aden 6 convection and the Earth’s mantle
greenstone belts 187–192, 191 Gulf of Aqaba 386, 387 heavy minerals 208–209
Archean era and 23–24, 25, Gulf of Suez 386, 387, 390 Heezen, Bruce 336
gust fronts 425 Heinrich Events 81
100–101, 103 Guth, Alan 48, 49 helictite 398
Belingwe greenstone belt, guyots 35, 209, 299, 377 heliotropism 209
Gwanda greenstone belt, Zimbabwe hemimorphite 474
Zimbabwe 44–46, 45, 46, Hengshan high-pressure granulite
189, 236, 470 craton 471 belt, North China craton 295–296
geometry of 187–188, 191 gypsum 398 Hermit Shale, Grand Canyon 181
gneiss terrains and 188–189 Hess, Harry Hammond 209–210,
Kaapvaal craton, South Africa H 336
236–238 Hackett River arc, Slave craton Hess Rise 301
Slave craton 391, 394 heterogeneous strain 401
structural elements of 189–191 392–393, 394, 395 heterosphere 31, 34
structural vs. stratigraphic Hadean era 23, 202–205 heulandite 469
thickness of 188 Hadhramaut Group, Oman high-constructive deltas 113
Zimbabwe craton 469–474, high-destructive deltas 113
472 Mountains 304 high-grade metamorphism 272
Greenville plutonic belt, Hadley, George 80 Highland Boundary fault, Scottish
Appalachians 14 Hadley cell deserts 117 Highlands 373
Grenville province, Canada 3–5, Hadley cells 31, 33, 80, 205–206, high-pressure regions 8
192–198, 196, 197 Al-Hijaz terrane, Arabian shield 19,
central gneiss belt 192–193 206, 431 20
central granulite terrane hail 342, 425 Himalaya Mountains 210, 210–211
193–194 Hajar Mountains (Oman Mountains) convergent plate margin
central metasedimentary belt
193 303–306, 305 processes 98–99
Grenville front 194 Hajar Supergroup, Oman Mountains Mount Everest 285–286
tectonic evolution of 194–198 rainfall 428
groins 198 306 Himalayan terrane, Tibetan Plateau
ground moraines 285 Hajar Unit, Oman Mountains 304 426–427, 427
groundwater 198–201, 199 half-life 165, 348–349 Hindu Kush, Indo-Gangetic Plain
aquifers 16–17, 27, 86, halide minerals 207 229
161–162, 200, 361 halite 207 hinge lines 156, 157
artesian wells 27 Halley’s comet 85, 86 hinterlands 211
cones of depression 86 halocline 346 Hoffman, Paul Felix 195, 211
contamination of 200–201 halogen 207 hogbacks 211, 212
drinking water standards 200 hammada 360 Holmes, Arthur 90, 334–335
fracture zone aquifers 161–162 Hamrat Duru Group, Oman Holocene epoch 69, 211–212, 347
karst terrains 238–240
meteoric 277 Mountains 306
hanging valleys 207, 207
hanging walls 149
hardness 282
hard water 201
Harker, Alfred 207

494 Index

holoplankton 329–330 polar lows 340 Idaho
homeostasis 163 Saffir-Simpson scale 216–217 Columbia River flood basalts
homoclines 212 storm surges 217, 399 153
Homo erectus 338 Hutton, James 166, 217–218, 443 Lake Bonneville 337
homogeneous strain 401 hydrocarbons 218 Northern Rockies 357
Homo habilis 338 coal 85 Yellowstone National
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis 338 gas hydrates 164 Park/Yellowstone Valley 56,
Homo sapiens sapiens (humans) natural gas 289 227, 261, 452, 464, 464–465,
petroleum See 465
338
Holocine 69, 211–212, 347 petroleum/petroleum industry igneous rocks 225–227 See also
Neolithic 290 hydroelectric power 218 plutonic rocks (intrusive rocks);
Sahara Desert 361–362 hydrofracturing 218 volcanic rocks (extrusive rocks)
hydrologic cycle 218, 378 amphiboles 11–12
homosphere 31, 34 hydrology 108, 218–219 basic rocks 41
Honduras, Hurricane Mitch 217 hydrolysis 457 batholiths 42
Hooke’s Law 110 hydrosphere 130, 219 Bowen, Norman Levi 53
horizontal aquifers 161–162 breccia 53–54
horizontal plane 407 biosphere 49–50 carbonatite 62–63
hornfels 273 hydrologic cycle 218 diapirs 121
horns 77, 177 hydrostatic equilibrium, principle of feldspar 150
horse latitudes 212 (isostasy) 230 granite 181–182
horsts 212–213 hydrothermal deposits 219, 275 Ontong-Java plateau, Pacific
hothouses 221, 250 hydrothermal fluids 219 Ocean 154, 301–302,
hot spots 213, 452 hydrothermal solutions 219 306–307
hydrothermal systems 249, 275 pegmatite 321
Hawaii 208, 260, 261 hydrothermal vents 47, 50, 125, S-type asteroids 29
Iceland 224 307 viscosity 451
mantle plumes 260–261, 261 black smoker chimneys 50, xenoliths 463
Yellowstone National Park 465
hot springs 213, 464–465, 465 50–52, 51, 71, 125, 249, 307 ignimbrites 298
Howard, Luke 83 white smoker chimneys 50, 51 impact craters 227–228
Hoyle, Fred 48 hypabyssal rocks 225
Hubble, Edwin 48 hypsometric curve (hypsographic Chicxulub crater, Yucatan
Hubble Space Telescope 263, 339, curve) 219, 219 Peninsula, Mexico 30, 68, 71,
372 440
Hudson Bay, Canada 213, 213–214 I
humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) Iapetus Ocean Mercury 271
338 Venus 451
Holocine 69, 211–212, 347 Scottish Highlands and 374 impactogens 159
Neolithic 290 ice ages 175, 220–222, 249–250 Imperial fault, California 364
Sahara Desert 361–362 inclination 172
Huronian division 214 See also glaciers/glaciation inclinometers 83
Huronian Supergroup, Canada icebergs 177, 222–223, 359 index fossils 228
344–345 diatoms 121
Hurricane Alice 151 calving 176, 222 echinoderms 136
Hurricane Andrew 217 sea ice 375, 376 graptolites 182, 182
Hurricane Camille 217 ice caps 175, 223, 375 stratigraphy and 404
Hurricane Claudette 151, 153 ice dams 153 India
Hurricane Manoun 215 icehouses 250 Cherrapunji region rainfalls
Hurricane Mitch 217 Iceland 223–225, 224, 261
hurricanes 214–217, 215, 216 Iceland spar 56 153
floods and 151, 217 ice sheets 175, 223, 278, 337 Deccan flood basalts 68, 109,
Galveston Island, Texas 40–41, ice shelves 359
ichnofossils (trace fossils) 49, 61, 153, 261
151, 164, 214 225 Eastern and Western Ghats
Ida (asteroid) 29
228–229
monsoons 285

India-Asia convergence 98–99, 210, isostatic anomalies 230 Index 495
211, 229, 334, 428 isostatic correction 183
isostatic models 230 Kazakhstan, Aral Sea 22
Indian Ocean isotopes 230–231, 348–349 K-band 416
currents 300 isotopic dating systems 166–168 Kearsarge–Central Maine basin,
ridge 278 Israel, Dead Sea 109
tsunami 303, 436, 437, 439 Isua belt, Greenland 22, 26, 38 Appalachians 14–15, 15–16
Italy, Venice subsidence 411 kelp 47
Indian plate 427 Kelvin, Lord 166
Indo-Australian plate 292 J Kentucky, Mammoth Cave 68
Indo-Gangetic Plain 229 Jabal Akhdar, Oman 305–306 kerogens 26
Indus River 229 jade 232 kettle holes 420
Indus Valley, Indo-Gangetic Plain Japan Keweenawan rift, North America

229 Mount Fuji 286 343–344
infauna 47 paired metamorphic belts K-feldspar 457
inflationary theory of the universe 48 Kidd, Bill 55
infrared imagery 352–353 232–233 Kilauea, Hawaii 452
infrared radiation 229, 348, 424 Tokyo subsidence 411 kimberlites 120–121, 241, 463
Inner Mongolia 295 tsunami 436, 439 kinematics 407
Inner Mongolia–Northern Hebei jet streams 205, 233 kinetic energy 424
Ji’balah Group, Arabian shield 19 Kirkwood Gaps 28
orogen 297 jifn 127 klippen (klippe) 241
insects 65 Johnson, Peter 18 knob and kettle terrains 420
inselbergs 229 Joides Resolution 233 Kober, Leopold 91
interfluves 122 joints 111, 159, 160 Kola Peninsula, Russia 241–242
intermediate rocks 41, 226 types of 160–161 Kollsman, Paul 10
intertidal zones 47 weathering and 456, 457, 458 komatiite 23, 101, 242
Intremo Group (Sèries Quartzo- joint systems 160 Koppen, Wladimir 79
Jones, Davie 415 Krakatau eruption 56, 302,
Schisto-Calcaire, QSC), Jordan, Dead Sea 109
Madagascar 255, 257 Jupiter 28, 233, 233–234, 480 436–437, 439
intrusive rocks See plutonic rocks Jurassic Period 234–235 K-T (Cretaceous-Tertiary) extinction
(intrusive rocks)
inversions 229–230 K 68, 105, 109, 264–265
invertebrates, Cambrian period 58, Kaapvaal craton, South Africa 25, Kuiper belt 85
60–61 kurums 441
Io 234 45, 46, 100, 101, 236–238, 237, Kuskokwim River, Alaska 312
ion microprobe 230 459–462, 460, 461, 472, 474 Kusky, Timothy 45–46, 92,
ionosphere 31–32, 34, 230 Kaibab Limestone, Grand Canyon
Iran, Zagros and Makran Mountains 181 391–392
467–469, 468 kames 238 Kuwait 242
iron, banded iron formations (BIFs) kaolinite 238, 457 Kuwait Bay 242–243
38–40, 40 Karakoram Range, Indo-Gangetic
iron meteorites 276 Plain 229 L
ironstone sediments 70 Karelian province, Baltic shield 38 lagoons 245
Irving, Earl 335–336 Karoo Sequence, Kaapvaal craton Lagrange Points 28
Ishtar Terra, Venus 450 238 lahars 245, 266
island arcs 94–96, 97 karst terrains 238–240 Lake Bardawil, Egypt 387
Lake Bomoseen, Vermont 111
Arabian shield 17–18, 19–20 caves 67–68 Lake Bonneville, Utah, Nevada,
crustal growth and 100, 101, Everglades, Florida 145
Kaskaskia Sequence 434 Idaho 337
333 katabatic winds 240–241 lake breezes 374
subduction zones 410 Lake Eyre, Australia 246
isograd See metamorphism lakes 245–246
isostasy 230
continental drift theory and 90 Aral Sea 22
Lawson, Andrew Cowper 247 eutrophication 143
Finger Lakes, New York 150

496 Index

lakes (continued) black smoker chimneys and longshore drift (littoral drift) 40,
Great Lakes, North America 184 51–52 198, 251, 456
Great Salt Lake, Utah 185
Great Slave Lake, Nunavet 185, Cambrian 58, 60–61 Long Valley caldera, California
185 Carboniferous period 65–66 252–253
Lake Eyre, Australia 246 Cenozoic 68, 69
Lake Titicaca 10, 246 chemosynthesis and 71 look azimuth 416, 417
Lake Victoria 246 classification of species 480 lophophores 53
pack ice 375 Cloud, Preston 83 Louisiana
seiche waves 381 Cretaceous 105
Devonian 119 Hurricane Andrew 217
Lake Titicaca 10, 246 faunal succession 150 New Orleans subsidence 410
Lake Victoria, Africa 246 Hadean Eon 204–205 Lovelock, James 82, 163
land bridges 421–422 Mesozoic 272 low-grade metamorphism 272
Landsat 368, 369, 370, 416 Ordovician 311 low-pressure regions 8
landslides 169, 266, 267, 439–440 Ordovician period 311 low velocity zone 30
Langmuir Circulation 247 Proterozoic 345 Ludlovian age 386
La Niña 138 Silurian 386 luster 282
Lapland-Kola province, Baltic shield stromatolites 405, 405–406 Lyell, Charles 166, 212, 253, 289,
supercontinent cycle and 443
38
Laramide orogeny 358 412–415 M
Large Format Camera (LFC) 371 Tertiary 421–422 macrobursts 425
laser altimeter 10 Triassic 434–435 macroevolution 145
latent heat 32 lightning 425–426 Madagascar 254–258, 256
lateral moraines 285 light scattering 379
laterite 247 lignite 85 Hurricane Manoun 215
Laurasia 247 limestone rainbow 351
Laurentia 58, 247, 422 caves 68 mafic dikes 184
laurmontite 469 metamorphism of 273 mafic rocks (basic rocks) 41, 41,
lava 247, 451–453 sediments 70 226
limonite 250 magma See also volcanoes
aa lava 1 Limpopo Province, Africa 461, 461, crust, formation of 332, 333
pahoehoe lava 314 472, 474 explosive vs. nonexplosive
pillow lavas 25, 324, 328–329, Linde, Andrei 49
linear dunes 367 eruptions and 452–453
329 liquefaction 411 igneus rocks 225–227
lava fountains 452 lithification 250 plutons 339
lava tubes 314 lithology 159 volcanic bombs 451
Law of Faunal Succession 150 lithosphere 49–50, 129, 250–251 magma chamber 332, 333
Law of Original Horizontality 403 See also crust magmatic differentiation 226, 227
Lawson, Andrew Cowper 247 Little Bitter Lake, Egypt 387 magmatic tectonics 83
L-band 416 littoral drift (longshore drift) 40, magnesio-carbonatites 62
lead-zinc deposits 474 198, 251, 456 magnesite 62
left-lateral strike-slip fault 148 littoral zones 251 magnetic anomalies 315, 316, 335
Lemaitre, Georges 48 lizardite 385 magnetic compasses 86, 258
lenticular clouds 84 Llandoverian age 386 magnetic fields
Levantine fold belt, Syrian arc 417 load 53, 251–252, 356 Earth 172–173, 173, 335, 335
levees 247–248 Loch Marce, Scotland 374
Lhasa terrane, Tibetan Plateau lochs 373 auroras and 35–36, 36
lode deposits 179 compasses 86, 258
426–427, 427 loess 128, 139, 252, 252 declination 109
lherzolite 307 Logan, William 214 magnetosphere 36, 36,
Libby, Willard F. 61, 165–166 Loma Prieta earthquake, California
life, origins and evolution of 64, 132 258–259
paleomagnetism 315, 316,
248–250
Archean (Archaean) 26–27 335
atmosphere and 480 Uranus 446

Index 497

magnetic poles 86, 109, 315, mass spectrometers 265 mesoscale convective systems 425
335–336 mass spectrometry 265 mesosphere 31, 34, 271–272
mass wasting 265–270 Mesozoic era 272
magnetosphere 36, 36, 258–259
magnetotail 259 creep 103, 103–104, 169, 268, Cretaceous period 104,
Maine 441 104–105

boudins 52 debris avalanche 217, 269–270 Jurassic period 234–235
Penobscottian orogeny debris flows 245, 268–269 Triassic period 434–435, 435
erosion 142 Mesozoic truncation event 358
321–325, 323, 324 granular flows and earth flows mesozonal rocks 42
rock cleavage 79 Messinian salt crisis 290
Main Ethiopian Rift 6 269 metabauxite 42
Majlis Al Jinn Cave, Oman 67 mudflows 217, 269 metamorphic facies 147, 274, 274
Makran Mountains, Iran 467–469, rockfalls 269 metamorphism/metamorphic rocks
468 slides 267, 269 272–273, 273
mammals 66, 421–422 slumps 267, 267–268, 439, 440 amphiboles 12
mammatus clouds 84 slurry flows 268 C-type asteroids 29
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky 68 solifluction 268, 441 Dabie Shan ultra-high pressure
Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone subaqueous 270
National Park 465, 465 mathematicians metamorphic belt, China 71
manganese nodules 259 Milankovitch, Milutin M. 278 eclogites 136
Manihiki Plateau 301 Sedgwick, Adam 379–380 Eskola, Pentti 142–143
Manjeri Formation, Belingwe Matrix theory (M-theory) of the garnets 164
greenstone belt, Zimbabwe universe 49 gneiss 179
44–46, 46, 470, 472–473 Matsitama greenstone belt, granulites 182, 182
Manso River 320 Zimbabwe craton 470 greenschist 187
mantle 259–260 Matthews, D. H. 336–337 Japan’s paired metamorphic
asthenosphere 30 Matuyama 337
convection and 23, 90–91, Mauna Loa, Hawaii 451, 452 belts 232–233
Mazinaw terrane, Grenville province marble 261
93–94, 94, 208, 260–261, 193 metasomatic 275
261, 412 McCarty fiord, Alaska 151 schist 372–373, 373
mantle plumes 94, 213, 260–261, McCarty tidewater glacier, Alaska serpentinite 385
261, 301 176 wollastonite 462
mantle root (tectosphere) 250, 419 McHugh complex, Alaska 74–75 metasomatic processes 275
marble 261 McLelland, Jim 5 metasomatism 275
Margulis, Lynn 406 meanders 154, 270, 312 Metazoa 275–276, 345, 449
Marianas Islands 261 mean stress 404 Meteor Crater, Arizona 228
Marianas-style arc systems 94, 95 mechanical weathering 456–457 meteoric water 277
Marianas trench 261 mechanics 407 meteorites See meteors/meteorites
Mars 261–263, 263, 480 medial moraines 285 meteorology 277
marsupials 421 Mediterranean Coastal Plain Region, radiosondes 349
Massachusetts Sinai 388 Wegener, Alfred Lothar 458
Cape Cod 61 Mediterranean region, Messinian salt meteor showers 86, 276
wollastonite 462 crisis 290 meteors/meteorites 29–30, 276–277
mass extinctions 170, 171, 263–265 medusa 99 See also asteroids; comets
Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) mélanges 95, 270–271 Chicxulub crater, Yucatán
boundary 68, 71, 105, 109, membrane desalination 114–115
264–265 membrane distillation 115 Peninsula, Mexico 30, 68, 71,
Devonian 119 Mercalli, Giuseppi 135 440
evolution and 146 Mercury 271, 271, 480 as geological hazard 171
Permian-Triassic extinction 264, meroplankton 330 Hadean Eon 203
317, 412–413 Merrimack trough, Appalachians 15 impact craters 227–228
supercontinent cycle and mesoproterozoic interval 343 Neogene impact event 290
412–413, 414 tektites and 420
methane 32, 164, 289, 377

498 Index

Mexico Mississippi mountains 129 See also mid-ocean
Baja California 38 Hurricane Camille 217 ridge systems; orogeny/orogens
Chicxulub crater, Yucatán Washington County flood Adirondack Mountains 3–6, 4,
Peninsula 30, 68, 71, 440 (1927) 152 194, 195–196
alluvial fans 8–9, 9
Miami Oolite 145 Mississippian Period 65 Alps 9–10, 111
mica 50, 277, 281–282 Mississippi River 152, 248, 283, Andes 10, 12
mica schist 372–373, 373 Appalachians 13–16, 14, 16,
microbursts 425 283–284 58, 321–325
microscopes Missouri Atlas Mountains 31
Basin and Range Province,
electron microscopes 137–138 Carrol Cave 398 United States 41–42, 358
polarizing microscope 339–340 New Madrid earthquakes 131, Brooks Range, Alaska 54
Sorby, Henry Clifton 397–398 Chugach Mountains, Alaska
microwave remote sensing 353 411 74–76, 75, 77, 207, 286, 442
Mid-Atlantic ridge 51, 223–224, St. Louis floods 152 exfoliation 146
278 See also mid-ocean ridge Missouri River 283, 283 fault-block ranges 89, 111, 312
systems Miyashiro, Akiho 232 fault-blocks 112
mid-latitude cyclones See mobilist school 91 fold and thrust belts 89, 111,
extratropical cyclones Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale 312
mid-latitude deserts 117 135, 135–136, 354 Himalaya Mountains 98–99,
Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt (MORB)– Mohorovicic discontinuity (the 210, 210–211, 285–286, 428
type ophiolites 100–101 Moho) 250, 284, 383, 384 hinterlands 211
mid-ocean ridge systems 277–278 Moh’s Hardness Scale 282 inselbergs 229
black smoker chimneys 50, Moine thrust zone 374 Mount Everest 54, 285–286
Moinian Assemblage, Scottish Mount Fuji, Japan 286
50–52, 51, 71, 125, 249, 307 Highlands 373, 374 Mount Logan, Canada 286
crust formation at 332 Mojave segment, San Andreas Fault Mount McKinley, Alaska 286,
divergent margins 124, 364 286–287
molasse 284 Mount Washington, New
124–125 Mollusca 164 Hampshire 287
heat loss by mantle convection Mongolia, Gobi Desert 179 Mount Whitney, California 287
monoclines 111 Oman Mountains (Hajar
and 93–94.94 Mono Lake-Inyo Craters 253 Mountains) 303–306, 305
Iceland 223–224 monsoon deserts 118 rainshadow deserts 117–118
life’s origins 249 monsoons 284–285, 428, 436 Rocky Mountains 356–358
transform faults 277–278, 433 Montana Brooks Range, Alaska 54
volcanic eruptions and 452 Rocky Mountains 357 Canadian Rockies 12, 357
Mid-Pacific Mountains 301 W. R. Grace and Co. asbestos Chinook winds 73
Midyan terrane, Arabian shield 19, upslope fog 155–156
20 disaster 28 Ural Mountains 444
Milankovitch, Milutin M. 278 Yellowstone National Park 464, Venus 450
Milankovitch cycles 278–280, 279 volcanic ranges 89, 111–112,
millidarcy 326 464–465, 465 312
milligal 183 Moon 130
mineral cleavage 78 Mount Elbert 356
mineralogy 280–282 age of 166 Mount Everest 285–286
diamond anvil press and multi- origin of 203, 205 Mount Fuji, Japan 286
tides and 428–430 Mount Katmai, Alaska 448–449
anvil press 121 Moon halos 411 Mount Logan, Canada 286
Goldschmidt, Victor Moritz moonmilk 398 Mount Marcy massif, Adirondack
Moores, Eldridge 195
179–180 moraines 177, 285, 285 Mountains 3–4, 5
Werner, Abraham Gottlob 458 MORB (Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt)- Mount McKinley, Alaska 54, 286,
Miocene epoch 421 type ophiolites 100–101
Miramichi massif, Appalachians 15, Morocco, Atlas Mountains 31 286–287
16 mountain breezes See katabatic
Miranda 446 winds
mirror plane crystal symmetry 107 mountain glaciers 175

Index 499

Mount Pinatubo, Philippines 245 Galileo photos 29, 130 Nicaragua, Hurricane Mitch 217
Mount Saint Helens, Washington Hubble Space Telescope 263, Nile River 246, 293–295, 294
nimbostratus clouds 84
245, 453 339, 372 Nipissing terrane, Grenville province
Mount Sinai, Egypt 390 Voyager 2 292, 445
Mount Washington, New Hampshire National Association of Geoscience 192
Teachers (NAGT) 288 nitrogen oxide 377
287 National Oceanographic and nitrous oxide 32
Mount Whitney, California 287 Atmospheric Association (NOAA) Nixon, Lewis 397
Mozambique Belt 59, 343 288–289, 437 NOAA (National Oceanographic
Mozambique Ocean 59 National Weather Service (NWS) 289
MSS (Multi-Spectral Scanner) 369 natrolite 469 and Atmospheric Association)
M-theory (Matrix theory) of the natural gas 218, 289, 458 288–289, 437
The Natural History of Rocks noncoaxial deformation 402
universe 49 (Harker) 207 nonconforminties 443
Mtshingwe Group (Lower natural selection 145 nonelastic deformation 110
Neandertals 338 non-uniformitarian view 444
Greenstones), Belingwe greenstone Near Islands, Alaska 8 nor’easters 146, 399–400
belt, Zimbabwe 44–46, 470 Nebraska Sand Hills 367 normal fault 149
mud cracks 381 nebular theory 203 normal surface forces 404
mudflows 217, 269 nektons 289 Norseman-Wiluna greenstone belt,
mudstone 273 Neogene period 289–290, 421 Australia 188, 189, 190
multi-anvil press 121 Neolithic (New Stone Age) 211, 290 North America See also specific
multi-effect distillation 114 Neoproterozoic era 290, 343 countries and states
Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) 369 Neo-Tethys Ocean 304–305, 422
multiverses 49 Neptune 290–292, 292, 480 Adirondack Mountains 3–6, 4,
Murray, John 70 net convergence 8 194, 195–197
muskegs 287 Netherlands, subsidence in 410–411
Mweza greenstone belt, Zimbabwe Nevada Appalachians 13–16, 14, 16,
craton 470 Lake Bonneville 337 58, 321–325, 323, 324
mylonite 287, 287 thrust fault 111
mylonitic gneiss 179 Nevado del Ruiz, Columbia 245, Cenozoic era 68–69
266 Cordillera 357, 415, 421
N Newfoundland east coast passive margin 320,
Nabitah suture zone, Arabian shield decollement 110
fault scarp 149, 149 320
19, 20 ophiolites 324 Great Lakes 184
NAGT (National Association of New Hampshire, Mount Washington Keweenawan rift 343–344
287 Laurentia 58, 247, 422
Geoscience Teachers) 288 New Madrid, Missouri 131 Lawson, Andrew Cowper 247
nailhead spar 56 New Mexico, Southern Rockies Ordovician period 310–311
Najd fault system, Arabian shield 356–357 Paleocene-Eocene subduction
Newton, Sir Isaac 428–429
19, 20 New York event 422
Namib Desert, Africa 367 Finger Lakes 150 Panama isthmus 317–318
Namibia, Skeleton Coast 391 Long Island seawater intrusion Rocky Mountains 12, 54,
nappes 91, 241, 288
NAS (National Academy of Science) 364 68–69, 73, 356–358, 357
Potsdam Sandstone 13 Brooks Range 54
288 New Zealand, Alpine fault and
NASA See National Aeronautics and Otago Schist 292–293 Tertiary ridge subduction event
Ngezi Group (Upper Greenstones), 421, 422
Space Administration (NASA) Belingwe greenstone belt,
Natal, Boris 102 Zimbabwe 44–46 North American plate 364, 465
National Academy of Science (NAS) North Atlantic cold bottom water

288 80–82
National Aeronautics and Space North Atlantic Igneous Province

Administration (NASA) 288 153
asteroids and comets 30 North China craton 71–72, 101,
Cassini spacecraft 233
295–297, 307
northern lights (auroras) 35–36, 36
northers 369

500 Index

North Korea 295 rogue waves 358–359 olistostromes 95
North Pole 315, 378 tsunami 436–441, 438, 440 olivine 281
North Sinai fold belt 390 wind and 455 Oman
North Slope, Alaska and Arctic ocean-continent subduction systems
410 hogback mountain 212
National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) ocean currents 299–301, 300, 302 Majlis Al Jinn Cave 67
297–298 Benguela current 391 Oman Mountains (Hajar
Norway, Svalbard and Spitzbergen coastal downwelling 85
Island 415–416 coastal upwelling 85 Mountains) 303–306, 305,
Novarupta eruption, Alaska 448 Coriolis effect 99 467
Nubian-type Sandstone 389 Ekman spirals 136 sinkhole 239, 240
nuclear accelerators 151 El Niño and the Southern Wadi Dayqa 454
nuclear fission 151 Oscillation (ENSO) 138 Wahiba Sand Sea 368, 368
nuclear fusion 162 geostrophic currents 174 Oman Mountains (Hajar Mountains)
nuclear reactors 151 Langmuir Circulation 247 303–306, 305, 467
nuée ardentes 298, 453 Skeleton Coast, Namibia 391 On the Origin of Species (Darwin)
Nunavet, Canada 25, 329, 419 themohaline circulation 80–82, 109, 145
NWS (National Weather Service) 289 300, 424 Oort cloud 85, 203
tides and 428 opal 6–7
O waves and 358–359 ophiolites 307–310, 308, 309
Occupational Safety and Health Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) 233, accretion 100–101
302, 310 Arabian shield 19
Administration (OSHA), asbestos oceanic crust 106, 299, 301 Boil Mountain ophiolite, Maine
regulation 28 Caspian Sea 66–67 321–325, 323, 324
ocean basins/oceans 299 See also formation of 309–310, 332, Dongwanzi ophiolite, China
beaches; sea-level rise and fall 333 71–73, 296–297, 307
gabbro 163 formation 309–310
abyssal plains 1 Hess, Harry Hammond 209 North China craton 296–297
atolls 35, 351 hypsometric curve (hypsographic oceanic crust and 100, 125
benthic environments 46–47, curve) 407–408, 408 oldest 307
ophiolites and 101, 125 Oman Mountains 304–305
49, 50 seismic layers 125 podiform chromites and 74
carbon cycle and 63 oceanic migrations 302 Opisthobranchia 164
desalination 114–115 oceanic plateau 301–302 optical imagery 352–353
evaporites 144 accretion 101 Ordovician extinction 264
lagoons 245 flood basalts 153–154 Ordovician period 310–311, 311
layers of 63 Ontong-Java plateau 154, Oregon
littoral zones 251 301–302, 306–307 Columbia River flood basalts
manganese nodules 259 oceanic plates 409–410 153
mid-ocean ridges See mid-ocean ocean-ocean subduction systems 410 Crater Lake 56, 57
oceanography 70, 302–303 Original Horizontality, Law of 403
ridge systems Odenbach, Frederick L 382 The Origin of Continents and
oceanography 302–303 ODP (Ocean Drilling Program) 233, Oceans (Wegener) 90
plate tectonics and 336 302, 310 origin of universe See Big Bang
pycnocline 346 offscraping 2, 2 Theory
reefs 47, 62, 99, 184, 351 offshore 43 orogeny/orogens 88–89, 112,
seawater, composition of Ohio River 283, 283 311–312 See also mountains
oil See petroleum/petroleum Penobscottian orogeny
378–379 industry 321–325, 323, 324
tides 428–430, 429 oil traps 327 Proterozoic 343
transform faults 432, 432–433 Old Red Sandstone 374, 380, 416 Turkic (accretionary-type) 102
tsunami 302, 436–441, 438, Oligocene epoch 421, 422 orthobauxite 42
orthogneiss 179
440
waves 455, 455–456, 455–456,

456
beaches and 43, 455,
455–456, 456

Index 501

orthopyroxene-bearing granulite Paleozoic era 315, 317 permafrost 325–326, 325–326, 326,
182, 182 Cambrian period 58–61, 59, 60 441
Carboniferous period 64–66, 66
Otago Schist, New Zealand Devonian period 119 permeability 199, 326
292–293 ice age 220 Permian period 326–327
Ordovician period 310–311, Permian-Triassic extinction 264,
Ottawan orogeny 3, 5, 192, 311
197–198 Permian period 326–327 317, 412–413
Silurian period 385–386 Peru
outflow boundaries 425
outwash 177 palm tree structures 432 Altiplano 10
outwash plains 177 Palmyride fold belt, Syrian arc fold El Niño and the Southern
overland flow 141
Oweineat Mountains 360 belt 417, 418 Oscillation (ENSO) 138
oxbow lakes 154, 312, 312 Palymra fold belt, Syrian arc 417 Lake Titicaca 246
oxide iron formations 38–39 Pan-African orgenic belts 59, 343 petrogenesis See petrology
oxide minerals 282, 313 Panama Canal 318 petrography 327, 397
oxygen 32, 280, 328 Panama isthmus 221, 317–318 petroleum/petroleum industry 218,
ozone 32, 313, 436 Pangea 318–319, 319 327–328
ozone hole 313 anticlines and 12–13
Mesozoic era 272 Caspian Sea 66–67
P Paleozoic era 247, 317 conodonts 88
Pacific Ocean Panthalassa 319 correlation of rocks 404
Permian period 326–327 hydrofracturing 218
abyssal hills 1 supercontinent cycle 412 Kuwait 243
currents 300 Triassic period 435 natural gas 289
East Pacific Rise 278 Wegener, Alfred 90, 90 wildcat wells 458–459
guyots 35, 209, 299, 377 Panthalassa 319, 435, 435 Zagros and Makran Mountains,
Hess, Harry Hammond 209 pantotheres 421
Marianas trench 261 parabolic dunes 367 Iran 467
oceanic plateaus 154 paragneiss 179 petrology 328
Ontong-Java plateau 154, parallel drainage patterns 126
parallel folds 157 Bowen, Norman Levi 53
301–302, 306–307 parallel strata 380 Harker, Alfred 207
Panama isthmus 318 parhelia 411 Pettijohn, Francis John 328
plateaus 301 Parry Sound terrane, Grenville phanerites 225
ridges 125 province 192–193, 197 Phanerozoic eon 328
seafloor magnetic stripes 316 partial melting 226–227, 227 Philippines, Mount Pinatubo
tsunami 436, 437 passive margins 93, 319, 319–320, eruption 245
Pacific plate 292, 364 320, 327 phosphates 70
pack ice 214, 222, 340, 375 Patagonia 320–321 photochemical smog 436
pahoehoe lava 314 P-band 416 photosynthesis 49, 328, 406
paired metamorphic belts 232–233 peat 85 phototropism 209
Pakistan, Makran Mountains pediments 321, 321 physical weathering 140
467–469, 468 pegmatite 321 phytoplankton 329
Paleocene epoch 221, 421, 422 Pennsylvanian period 65 Piazzi, Giuseppe 30
paleoclimatology 314–315 Penobscottian orogeny 321–325, piedmont glaciers 175
Paleogene period 139, 421 323, 324 Pietersburg greenstone belt,
Paleolithic division 315 Penrose-type ophiolites 307–309 Kaapvaal craton 237
paleomagnetism 315–316, 316, 335 Penzias, Arno 48 Pilbara craton, Australia 26–27, 190
paleontology 315 perched water tables 17, 200 pillow lavas 25, 324, 328–329, 329
faunal succession 150 Percival, William 48 pingos 441
Grabau, Amadeus William peridotite 325 pipes 241
periodic table of the elements Piscataquis volcanic arc,
180–181 477–478 Appalachians 14, 15, 16
Steno, Nicolas 399 Pitman, Walter 336
Paleoproterozoic interval 342–343 placer deposits 179, 329, 461
placer mining 329

502 Index

plagioclase feldspars 282 plutons 42, 225, 225, 339 primary waves (P-waves,
plane of the ecliptic 378 podiform chromites 73 compressional waves) 132–133,
planets See solar system Point Lake greenstone belt, Slave 260, 383, 384
plankton 329–339
plastic behavior 451 craton 392, 393, 394 primitive (P-type) asteroids 29
plate boundaries, map of 336 polar cells 206 principle of hydrostatic equilibrium
plate tectonics 330–337, 336 polar deserts 119, 127
polar glaciers 175 (isostasy) 230
continental margins 93 polar ice caps 223 principal stress 404
convergent plate margins See polarizing microscope 339–340, 397 Principle of Stratigraphic
polar jet stream 233
convergent plate margin polar lows 340 Superposition 399, 403
processes polar soils 396 Principles of Geology (Lyell) 253,
divergent or extensional pole of rotation 331, 332
boundaries 122–125, 123, Polynesians 302 289
124, 333 polynyas 340 Prodomus (Steno) 399
earthquakes 130–136 polyps 351 prograde metamorphism 272–273
geological hazards and 170 Pongola Supergroup, Kaapvaal prokaryotes 249, 345
heat loss by mantle convection Prosobranchia 164
and 93–94.94 craton 237 Proterozoic era 342–345, 344
historical development of population growth 171–172
theories 91–92, 333–337 porosity 120, 199, 267, 326, 340 Huronian division 214
metamorphism and 275, 275 porphyries 225 ice age 220
passive margins 93, 319, porphyroblasts 287 Neoproterozoic 290
319–320, 320, 327 porphyroclasts 287, 287 protistids 345
Proterozoic 343 Portugal, ocean exploration 302 protomylonites 287
pull-apart basins 41, 109, 346, potassium-argon dating technique Protozoa 345
404–405, 431–432 pseudorandom code 178
seafloor magnetic stripes 315, 168 pseudotachylite 150
316 potential energy 424 P-type (primitive) asteroids 29
structural geology and Potsdam Sandstone, Appalachians pull-apart basins 41, 109, 346,
406–407, 407–408 404–405, 431–432
supercontinent cycles 412–415 13 Pulmonata 164
suture zones 415 Powell, John Wesley 340–341 pumice 453
transform plate margin processes Pratt isostatic model 230 punctuated equilibrium 145–146
333, 431, 431–433, 432 Precambrian eon 341, 341–342 See pure shear extension model 122,
volcanoes and 452 123
platforms, carbonate 62, 320, 351 also Archean era; Proterozoic era pure shear strain 402
playas 242, 337 diamonds 121 P-waves (primary waves,
Pleistocene epoch 337–339, 347 Hoffman, Paul Felix 211 compressional waves) 132–133,
plieus clouds 84 Vendian period 449 260, 383, 384
Plinian columns 453 P-wave shadow 383, 384
Pliny the Elder 11, 453 precession of the equinoxes pycnocline 346
Pliocene epoch 421, 422 279–280 pyrite 411
plumose structures 160, 160 pyroclastic flow 298
Pluto 277, 339, 339, 480 precipitation 342 pyroclastic rocks 346, 451
plutonic rocks (intrusive rocks) 225, erosion and 141 pyrope 164
225 floods 151 pyroxene 281
breccias 53 fog 155–156 pyrrhotite 411
dunites 127 hydrologic cycle 218
gabbro 163 monsoons 436 Q
greenstone belts 187 rainbows 351, 351 Qiangtang terrane, Tibetan Plateau
harzburgites 207–208 rainfall pattern changes 83
peridotite 325 thunderstorms 425 426–427, 427
urbanization and flash flooding Qinglong foreland basin and fold
446–447
water table and 454–455 thrust belt, North China craton
296
Pridolian age 386
primary porosity 340

QSC (Sèries Quartzo-Schisto- recumbent synclines 111, 111 Index 503
Calcaire, Intremo Group), Red Sea 319, 320, 417
Madagascar 255, 257 Redwall Limestone, Grand Canyon ripple marks 381
river systems 354–356 See also
quadratic elongation 401 181
quartz 282 reefs 35, 47, 62, 99, 184, 351 drainage basins
quartzo-feldspathic gneiss terranes Rees, Martin 49 alluvial fans 8–9, 9
regional metamorphism 274 Amazon River 10
100 regolith 103, 103, 265, 456 braided streams 53, 54,
Quaternary period 347 regressions 351–352, 414–415 154–155
Reis crater, Germany 420 deltas 113, 147, 352
Holocene epoch 69, 211–212, relative dating systems 165 erosion 141–142
347 Reliance formation, Belingwe estuaries 143, 147
floodplains 152, 154
Pleistocene epoch 337–339 greenstone belt, Zimbabwe 471 floods 151, 152, 354–355,
remote sensing 352–353 446–447
R fluvial sediments 154–155
radar 370–371, 449 infrared radiation 229 Gilbert, Grove K. 175
satellite imagery 369–371 levees 247–248
Doppler radar 126 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) load 251–252, 356
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) meanders 270
416–417 Mississippi River 152, 248,
416–417 reptiles 65–66 283, 283–284
radar altimeter 10 Resolution, H.M.S. 233 Nile River 246, 293–295, 294
radar band 416 resources 353 oxbow lakes 312, 312
radar remote sensing 353 retroarc foreland basins 159 sedimentary facies 147–148
Radarsat 371, 417 Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) terraces 420, 420–421
radiation 348 urbanization and flash flooding
369–370 446–447
Geiger counters 164–165 reverse faults 112 wadis 386–387, 389, 454, 454
infrared 229, 348, 424 reverse osmosis 115
solar 278–280, 279, 348 rheology 451 rivulets 140
radiation fog 155 Rhodesian craton See Zimbabwe roche moutonnée 177
radiation temperature inversions rock correlation 404
230 craton rockfalls 269
radioactive decay 94, 166–168, rhodochrosite 62 rock flour 177
348–349, 349 Richter, Charles 354 rockslides 269
radiocarbon dating See carbon-14 Richter scale 135, 353–354 Rocky Mountains 356–358
dating ridge push 409
radio communications 230 ridge-ridge transform faults 431, Brooks Range, Alaska 54
radiolara 345 Canadian Rockies 12, 357
radiometric dating 165 432–433 Chinook winds 73
radiosondes 349 ridges See mid-ocean ridge systems Rocky Mountain trench 357
radium 349–350 ridge-transform intersections rocky shore environments 47
radon 171, 349–351 Rodinia 59, 180, 195, 197, 343,
rain 342 432–433 344
rainbows 351, 351 Riedel fractures 432 Rogers, W. B. and H. D. 91
rainshadow deserts 117–118 rift basins/rifting 41, 354, 355 rogue waves 358–359
ramp valleys 432 Rossby Waves 205–206
Ranotsara fault zone, Madagascar Afar Depression, Ethiopia 6 Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica 222–223,
254 continental 23, 122–124, 124 359, 376
Rat Islands, Alaska 8 graben 181 rotation (deformation of rocks) 110,
RBV (Return Beam Vidicon) Proterozoic 343–344 401
369–370 rift-rift-rift (RRR) triple junctions rotational axis
Recent See Holocene epoch 125, 355 Earth 332, 378
recessional moraines 285 rift system 354, 355 Uranus 445–446
recharge areas 200 rift valley 122, 125 Venus 449
rectangular drainage patterns 126 right-lateral strike-slip fault 148
rimmed shelves 62
rinds 457
Ringwood, A. E. 260

504 Index

roto inversion crystal symmetry 107 San Francisco Peaks, Arizona 452 seasons
rounding 369, 381 San Jacinto fault, California 364 Earth 378
RRR (rift-rift-rift) triple junctions Santa Ana winds 369 Saturn 372
Santa Cruz Mountains, California Uranus 445–446
125, 355
Rub’ al-Khali, Arabia 367 132 seawater 378–379
Runcorn, Stanley K. 335–336 Santorin (Thira), eruption of, Crete color of 379
Russia, Kola Peninsula 241–242 composition of 378–379
Ryoke-Abukuma metamorphic belt, 437, 439 intrusion 201, 363, 363–364
SAR (synthetic aperture radar) 371,
Japan 232 secondary porosity 340
416–417 secondary waves (S-waves, shear
S Sarawak Chamber, Borneo 68
sabkhas 144, 243 satellites waves) 132–133, 259, 260, 383,
Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale 384
global positioning systems (GPS) Second Law of Thermodynamics
216–217 177–179 423–424
Sahara Desert 360–362 Sedgwick, Adam 379–380
imagery 352–353, 369–371 sedimentary basins
desertification 116 synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
sand seas 367 Altiplano, Andes 10
Sahel, Africa 116, 117, 362–363 416–417 Dead Sea 109
Saih Hatat, Oman 305–306 saturated zone 200 foreland basins 41, 158–159
St. Louis University Earthquake Saturn 371–372, 372, 480 Indo-Gangetic Plain 229
Center 382 Sauk Sequence 434 pull-apart basins 41, 109, 346,
saltation 140, 251, 355, 367 scaly pahoehoe lava 314
salt deposits 143, 144, 290 Scandinavia, Caledonides 58 404–405, 431–432
salt diapirs 121 scanning electron microscopes (SEM) strike-slip systems and 404–405
salt marshes 47 transtension and transpression
Salton Sea, California 364 137–138
saltwater intrusion 201, 363, scattering of light 379 and 405
363–364 schist 372–373, 373 Witwatersrand 459–462, 460,
Sambirano Group, Madagascar 255 schistose 187
San Andreas Fault, California schistosity 273, 372 461
130–131, 132, 364–365, 365, 421, Scotland 373–374, 374 Witwatersrand basin 459–462,
431
Sanbagawa metamorphic belt, Japan basin and dome fold interference 460, 461
232 pattern 156, 158 Witwatersrand basin, South
sand avalanches 367
sand dunes 365–367, 366, 367 Caledonides 58 Africa 179, 238, 329,
Kuwait 242 Sedgwick, Adam 379–380 459–462, 460, 461
Sahara 360 unconformity 443 sedimentary facies 147
Skeleton Coast, Namibia 391 SDTS (Spatial Data Transfer sedimentary rocks 380–381 See also
Wahiba sand sea, Oman 368, Standard) 122 sediments
sea breezes 374–375 banded iron formations (BIFs)
368 seafloor magnetic stripes 315, 316 38–40, 40, 70, 249, 250
wind and 115, 139, 139, 366, sea ice 222, 340, 375–376 biogenic 49
sea-level rise and fall 376–377 breccias 53, 53–54, 150
367 coastal cities and 81, 171 carbonates 62
sand ripples 367, 368, 368 polar ice caps and carbon cycle and 63
sand seas 367–368, 368 Carboniferous period 65
223–376–377 chert 71
Skeleton Coast, Namibia 391 regressions 351–352, 414–415 clastic rocks 77
sandstone subsidence 410–411 concretions 86
supercontinent cycle and conglomerates 87
graywacke 183–184 cross-bedding 105, 106
metamorphism of 273 413–415, 414 diapirs 121
turbidite 442 transgressions 414–415, dolomite 126
sandstorms 115 flysch 155
433–434 gravel 183
sea lilies (crinoids) 105 graywacke 183–184
seamounts 299, 377–378
Sea of Umtali, Zimbabwe craton

474

Index 505

heavy minerals 208–209 serpentinite 385 siliceous oozes 1
lithification 250 Seychelles 68 silicic rocks 41, 226
mélanges 270–271 Shabani-Tokwe gneiss complex, silicoflagellates 345
Milankovitch cycles and 279 silicon 280
Pettijohn, Francis John 328 Zimbabwe 44, 46 sills 225, 339
sandstone 368–369 shadow zones 383, 384 Silurian period 385–386
stratification (bedding) 44 shale 273, 443, 443 Silurian System 386
stratigraphy 384, 403–404 shale diapirs 121 similar folds 157
turbidite 442, 443 Shamvaian group, Zimbabwe craton simple shear extension model 122,
Sedimentary Rocks (Pettijohn) 328
sedimentary strata 384 471, 474 123
sedimentary structures 380–381 Sharbot Lake terrane, Grenville simple shear strain 402
sediment flows 268 Sinai Peninsula, Egypt 386–390,
sediment load 251–252, 356 province 193
sediments 380 Shatsky Rise 301 390, 417–418
abyssal plains 1 shear joints 160 Sinian era 391
alluvial fans 8–9, 9 shear rupture 160 Sinian fauna, China 73
beaches 42 shear strain 401 Sinian System 391
biogenic 49 shear surface forces 404 sinkholes 171, 238–240, 240, 410,
chemical 70, 380 shear waves (S-waves, secondary
clastic 380 411
clay 77–78, 238, 281–282 waves) 132–133, 259, 260, 383, siphonophores 330
clays 77–78 384 SIR (Shuttle Imaging Radar) 370
deltas 113, 113, 147, 352 shear zones 67 Sitter, William de 48
diagenesis 120, 272 sheeted dikes 308–309, 310 Skeleton Coast, Namibia 391
eolian 139–140 shelly pahoehoe lava 314 slabby pahoehoe lava 314
evaporites 143, 143–144, 144 shields 385 See also cratons slaty cleavage 273, 397
fluvial 154–155, 154–155 Slave craton, Canada 391–396, 394,
molasse 284 Arabian shield 17–22, 22
seiche waves 381 Baltic shield 38, 241–242 395
seismic discontinuities 259–260, continental crust 88, 89 Slave Province, Canada 101, 187,
383, 384 deformation of rocks 111
seismic moment 354 shields (speleothem) 398 189
seismic waves 132 shield volcanoes 451 Sleepy Dragon terrane, Slave craton
seismograms 134, 381, 382 shoestring sands 155
seismographs 134, 134–135, shooting stars See 392, 393, 394, 395
381–382 meteors/meteorites sleet 342
seismology 383–384 shrink/swell potential 78 slickenlines 150
seismometers See seismographs Shurugwi (Selukwe) greenstone belt, slickensides 150
selective scattering 379 Zimbabwe craton 470 slides (mass movements) 267, 269
Selukwe (Shurugwi) greenstone belt, Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-A, SIR- Sloss, Laurence L. 434
Zimbabwe craton 470 B, SIR-C) 370 slumps 267, 267–268, 439, 440
SEM (scanning electron microscopes) Siberia slurry flows 268
137–138 comet impact, Tunguska 86, Smith, William H. 396
Semail nappe, Oman Mountains smithsonite 474
304–305 441 smog 436
semidiurnal tides 428 flood basalts 317, 413 snow 342
Sengör, A. M. Celal 55, 91, 102 Global Carbon Sink 385 Snowball Earth 175
sequence stratigraphy 384–385 permafrost 325–326 soil profiles 396, 397
series (time stratigraphy) 403 Taiga Forest 385, 419 soils 396–397
Sèries Quartzo-Schisto-Calcaire siderite 62
(QSC, Intremo Group), Sierra Nevada mountain ranges 287, clay 78
Madagascar 255, 257 358, 465–466 laterites 247
silica-content rock classification 41, permafrost and 325–326
226 rivers and 354–355
silicate iron formations 39 weathering and 456
silicate minerals 280–282 solar flares 36, 259
silicate tetrahedra 280–281, 281 solar radiation 278–280, 279, 348

506 Index

solar system species, classification of 480 Stratigraphic Superposition, Principle
asteroids 28–30, 29 specific gravity, measuring 183 of 399, 403
comets 29–30, 85, 85–86, speleothems 398, 398
276–277, 441 spessartine 164 stratigraphy 403–404
data summary 480 sphalerite 411, 474 Grabau, Amadeus William
Earth 129–130, 130 spheroidal weathering 457 180–181
formation of 202–205, 204 spinel 313 sequence stratigraphy 384–385,
Jupiter 233, 233–234 Spitzbergen Island, Norway 415–416 403–404
Mars 261–263, 263 SPOT (Système pour l’Observation time stratigraphy 403–404
Mercury 271, 271
Neptune 290–292, 292 de la Terre) 370 stratocumulus clouds 84
Pluto 277, 339, 339 springs 200 stratosphere 31, 34
Saturn 371–372, 372 spring tides 428 stratovolcanoes 451–452
Uranus 445, 445–446 squall lines 425 stratus clouds 84
Venus 449, 449–457 St. Louis floods, Missouri 152 stream capture 126–127
stages 403 stream flow 141
solar wind 35–36, 258–259 stalactites 398, 398 stream order 114
solifluction 268, 441 stalagmites 398, 398 streams See river systems
solution sinkholes 240 standard air pressure 8 stream terraces 420, 420–421
sonar 397 standard model of the universe 48 stress 110, 404, 451
Songban-Ganzi terrane, Tibetan star dunes 367 stretch 401
steady state theory of the universe strike 407
Plateau 426–427, 427 strike line 407
Sonoma orogeny 357 48 strike-slip faults 112, 148, 149,
Sorby, Henry Clifton 397–398 Steamboat Geyser, Yellowstone
sorting 368–369, 380–381 404–405
South Africa National Park 465 greenstone belts and 190
steam fog 155–156 transform faults and 431, 431,
Du Toit, Alexander Logie 128 Steinman, G. 307 432
Kaapvaal craton 25, 45, 46, Steno, Nicolas 91, 399
steppe 399 string theory 49
100, 101, 236–238, 237, 472, steps 404 stromatolites 209, 209, 345, 405,
474 stereo aerial photographs 352
kimberlites and diamonds 241 stilbite 469 405–406
Limpopo Province 460, 461, Stille, Wilhem Hans 399 strontianite 62
461, 472, 474 stinky black shales 143 structural geology 406–409, 408,
veldt 399 Stokes Law 399
Witwatersrand basin 179, 238, Stone Age 211, 290, 315 409
329, 459–462, 460, 461 stony-irons 276 cross sections 105
South America See also specific stoping 226, 339 Dewey, John F. 119–120
countries storm surges 217, 399–401, 401 plate tectonics and 406–407,
Altiplano 10 Stowe, Clive W. 469, 470 407–408
Amazon River 10 Strahler, Arthur N. 401
Andes 12 straight-line winds 425 sturgeon 67
Atacama Desert 30–31 strain 110, 401, 401–403, 402 Sturtian period 391
Cape Horn and the Strait of stylolites 120
Magellan 61 analysis 402 S-type asteroids 29
South Dakota badlands 37, 38 viscosity and 451 subaqueous mass wasting 270
southern lights 35–36 strain path 402 subduction zones 1–3, 94–96, 333,
Southern Oscillation See El Niño Strait of Magellan 61
and the Southern Oscillation “Strata Identified by Organic 409–410
(ENSO) Remains” (Smith) 396 subsequent streams 126
South Pole 315 stratification (bedding) 44 subsidence 410–411
Space Shuttle orbiters 371 cross-bedding 44, 105, 106 subsidence events 410
Spatial Data Transfer Standard formations 159 subtropical jet stream 233
(SDTS) 122 unconformities 443, 443 Sudan

Al-Jazirah 293
drought 116
Suess, Eduard 91, 312
sulfide iron formations 40

Index 507

sulfide minerals 282, 411 Sykes, Lynn 337 Teyq sinkhole, Oman 240
Sumatra earthquake 135, 303, 354, synclines 111, 111 thalweg 154
synforms 156 thecamoebians 345
437, 439 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) 371, Thematic Mapper (TM) imaging
sun dogs 411
sun halos 411 416–417 system 370
sun pillars 411 Syr Darya River 22 Theory of Earth (Hutton) 217
sunspots 36, 259 Syrian arc fold belt 417–418 Theory of Relativity 421–422
Supai Formation, Grand Canyon 181 Système pour l’Observation de la The Theory of the Earth (Hutton)
supercell thunderstorms 425, 430
supercontinent cycles 412–415 Terre (SPOT) 370 443
thermal distillation 114
epicontinental seas 140 T thermal metamorphism 273
evolution and 146 Taconic orogeny 13–14, 324 thermobarometry 165
Gondwana (Gondwanaland) TAG hydrothermal mound 51 thermocline 63, 346
taiga 385, 419 thermodynamics 423–424
180 Tanzania carbonatite 62 thermohaline circulation 80–82,
Cambrian period 59 Tapeats Sandstone, Grand Canyon
Carboniferous period 65, 66 300, 424
ice ages and 220 181 thermoluminescence 168
Proterozoic era 343 tarns 77 thermophyllic organisms 49
Tethys ocean 422–423 Tati greenstone belt, Zimbabwe thermosphere 31, 34
Third Law of Thermodynamics
Laurasia 247 craton 470
Pangea 318–319, 319, 412 tectonicists 424
Thomson, Charles Wyville 70
Mesozoic era 272 Burke, Kevin C. 55 thomsonite 469
Paleozoic era 247, 317 Dewey, John F. 119–120 thorium-lead dating technique 168
Panthalassa 319 Hoffman, Paul Felix 195, 211 thrust faults 2–3, 149, 189–190
Permian period 326–327 Stille, Wilhem Hans 399 thunderstorms 424–426, 426, 430
Triassic period 435 tectonics See plate tectonics Tibesti massif, Sahara 360
Wegener, Alfred 90, 90 tectosphere 250, 419 Tibetan Plateau 426–428
Proterozoic era 343, 344 Tejas Sequence 434
Tethys ocean 422–423, 423 tektite 419–420 continent-continent collision
Superior Province 187, 189, 190 temperate glaciers 175 zone 98–99
Superior-type banded iron temperature inversions 229–230
formations 38, 39 Tendaho rift 7 permafrost 325–326
superposed streams 126 tensile cracking 159–160 tidal bulges 430
superswell 94 tephra 452 tidal inlets 400–401
surface forces 404 tephra cones 452 tidal period 428
surface waves (earthquakes) 132, Terai 229 tidal waves See tsunami
133–134 terminal moraines 285, 420 tide-dominated deltas 113
surf zone 455, 455 terraces 420, 420–421 tide pools 47
suspect terranes 415 Tertiary period 421–422, 422 See tides 251, 428–430, 429
suspended load 251, 355 also Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Tierra del Fuego 61, 320–321
Sutton, A. H. 412 extinction time lines 403–404
suture zones 19–20, 415 Neogene period 289–290 time stratigraphy 403–404
Svalbard, Norway 415–416 Paleogene period 139, 421 tintinnids 345
Svecofennian orogeny, Baltic shield Tethys Ocean 422–423, 423 Tippicanoe Sequence 434
38 Alps and 9–10 Titan 372
swash zone 455 Cenozoic era 69 Titicaca, Lake 10, 246
S-waves (shear waves, secondary Triassic period 435, 435 TM (Thematic Mapper) imaging
waves) 132–133, 259, 260, 383, Texas
384 Balcones escarpment rainfalls system 370
S-wave shadow 383, 384 Tokwe terrane, Zimbabwe craton
Swaziland Supergroup, Kaapvaal 151
craton 236 Galveston Island 40–41, 151, 469–470, 471–473
Tomiko terrane, Grenville province
164, 164, 214
192
tonalite 323–324

508 Index

tonalitic suite, Adirondack tsunami run-up 438, 438–439 Powell, John Wesley 340–341
Mountains 5 Tucker, Robert 257 Southwest desertification 116
tundra 441 Yellowstone National
topographic elevations 121–122 Tunguska, Siberia 86, 441
tornadoes 430 tunicates 330 Park/Yellowstone Valley 56,
Tornquist Sea 58 Tunisia, Atlas Mountains 31 227, 261, 452, 464, 464–465,
trace fossils (ichnofossils) 49, 61, turbidite 60 465
turbidity currents 174, 442 United States Coast and Geodetic
225 twist hackle 160 Survey
trade winds 117, 431 typhoons 214 bench marks 46
trailing margins See passive margins United States Exploring Expedition
transcurrent plate boundaries See U 108
ultra-high pressure metamorphic United States Geological Survey
transform plate margin processes (USGS) 444
transform faults 277–278, 331, 333, belts 71 bench marks 46
ultramafic rocks 41 collection and analysis of
337, 431–433 ultramylonites 287 geochemical data 165
transform plate margin processes ultraviolet radiation 230, 313, 348 digital elevation models (DEMs)
Umtali line, Zimbabwe craton 474 121–122
93, 333, 346, 431, 431–433, 432 unconfined aquifer 17 economic resource assessments
transgressions 414–415, 433–434 unconformities 443, 443 353
transgressive sequences 434, 434 unconformity-bounded sequences tsunami mapping 437
translation (deformation of rocks) United States Public Health Service
434, 434 200
110, 401 underplating 2, 2 universe, theories of 47–49
transmission electron microscopes Ungava Peninsula banded iron unloading joints 160
updrafts 425
(TEM) 137–138 formation, Canada 40 upslope fog 155–156
transverse dunes 367 uniformitarianism 443–444 upwelling, coastal 85
Transverse Ranges, California 364 United Arab Emirates Ural Mountains 444
traps See flood basalts Ural-Okhotsk mobile belt 444
travertine 398 barchan dunes 367 uraninite 445
tree rings 114 Oman Mountains (Hajar uranium 349, 444–445
trellis drainage patterns 126 uranium-lead dating 166–167
trenches 94–95, 333 Mountains) 303–306, 305, Uranus 445, 445–446, 480
467 urbanization and flash flooding
Aleutian 8 United Kingdom 446–447
Marianas 261 Harker, Alfred 207 USGS See United States Geological
subduction zones 409–410 Scotland Survey
trench pull 409 Utah
triangulation 169 basin and dome fold cross bedding 106
Triassic-Jurassic extinction 264 interference pattern 156, Great Salt Lake 185
Triassic period 434–435, 435 158 Lake Bonneville 337
trilaterating 178 Middle Rockies 357
trilobites 61 Caledonides 58 uvarovite 164
Triton 291–292, 292 Scottish Highlands Uzbekistan, Aral Sea 22
Trojans (asteroids) 28
tropical climates 435–436 373–374, 374 V
Everglades, Florida 145 Sedgwick, Adam 379–380 Vail curves 414
sea breezes 375 unconformity 443 Valdez group, Alaska 75
soil of 396–397 Smith, William H. 396 Valles Marineris, Mars 262
weathering and 42, 458 United States Department of Defense valley breeze See katabatic winds
tropics 378, 436 Navstar satellites 177–178
tropopause 31, 34 United States See also specific states
troposphere 31, 34, 436 Basin and Range Province
trubidite 442, 443 41–42, 358
trubidity currents 442 Great Lakes 184
Tsarantana sheet, Madagascar 255 Mississippi River 152, 283,
tsunami 302, 436–441, 438, 440 283–284

Index 509

Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, eruptions, explosive vs. Walter, M. 406
Alaska 448–449 nonexplosive 452–453 Walther’s Law 147
Walvis–Rio Grande Ridge 144, 261
Van Allen radiation belts 35 as geological hazard 169 washes See wadis
vapor compression condensation graben 181 Washington
Hawaii 208, 451, 452
114 hot spots 213, 452 Columbia River flood basalts
Varanger epoch 391, 449 Iceland 223 153
varves 380 lahars 245, 269
vaterite 56, 62 lava 247 Mount Saint Helens 245, 453
veldt 399 Northern Rockies 357
Vendian period 391, 449 aa lava 1 watershed See drainage basins
Vendoza fauna 276 pahoehoe lava 314 waterspouts 430
Venice, Italy 411 pillow lavas 25, 324, water table 200, 454–455
vents See hydrothermal vents aquifers and 17
Venus 449, 449–457, 480 328–329, 329 cones of depression 86
Vermont, Lake Bomoseen syncline map of 336 water vapor 32
Mars 262 wave crests 455
111 mid-ocean ridges 125 wave-dominated deltas 113
Vikings 302 Novarupta eruption, Alaska 448 wave fronts 455
Vine, John 336–337 nuée ardente 298, 453 wavelengths 438, 455, 455
viscosity 94, 451 plate tectonics and 452 wave periods 455
Vishnu Schist, Grand Canyon 181 pyroclastic rocks 346 wave refraction 455–456
volcanic blocks 451 seamounts (guyots) 377–378 waves 455, 455–456, 456
volcanic bombs 451 subsidence and 411 beaches and 43, 455, 455–456,
volcanic islands 35 tsunami and 439
volcaniclastic sediments and rock Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, 456
rogue waves 358–359
346 Alaska 448–449 seiche waves 381
volcanic mountain ranges 89, Venus 450–451 tsunami 436–441, 438, 440
volcanic bombs 451 wind and 455
111–112, 312 volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) wave traps 439
volcanic necks 42, 225, 339 deposits 51–52 weathering 140, 456–458
volcanic rocks (extrusive rocks) 225 Volga River 66 bauxite 42
volumetric strain 401 chemical 456, 457
andesite 12 Voyager 2 exfoliation 146
breccias 53–54, 150 Neptune images 292 factors that influence 457–458
concretions 86 Uranus images 445 mechanical 456–457
dacites 108 Vumba greenstone belt, Zimbabwe mountains 41–42
flood basalts 153–154, 154, craton 470 yardangs 464
weathering profiles 456
301 W Weddell Sea, Antarctica 424
greenstone belts 187 W. R. Grace and Co. asbestos Wegener, Alfred Lothar 89, 90, 91,
kimberlites 120–121, 241, 463 312, 318, 334, 458
mélanges 95, 270–271 disaster 28 Wentworth scale 77
volcanoes 451–453 WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation Werner, Abraham Gottlob 458
Andes 12 Western Ghats See Eastern and
atolls 35 System) 179 Western Ghats, India
calderas 56, 57, 452 wackes 183–184, 369 West Rand group, Witwatersrand
Wadi Al-Batin, Kuwait 243 basin 459–460
Crater Lake, Oregon 56, 57 Wadi Dayqa, Oman 454 Whewell, William 443
Krakatau eruption Wadi El Arish, Egypt 386 White Nile River 293
Wadi El Bruk, Egypt 387 white smoker chimneys 50, 51
436–437, 439 Wadi Geraia, Egypt 387 Wide Area Augmentation System
Long Valley caldera, wadis 386–387, 389, 454, 454 (WAAS) 179
Wahiba Sand Sea, Oman 368, 368
California 252–253 Walcott, Charles D. 60
Yellowstone National

Park/Yellowstone Valley
56, 227, 261, 452, 464,
464–465, 465
climate change and 82

510 Index

Wiechert, E. 381–382 Wosnesinski glacier, Alaska 176 Z
wildcat wells 458–459 Wrangellia superterrane, Alaska 74 Zagros Mountains, Iran 121,
willimenite 474 Wyoming
willy-willys 127 467–469, 468
Wilson, J. Tuzo 333, 337 Rocky Mountains 356–357 Zeederbergs formation, Belingwe
Wilson, James F. 469 Yellowstone National Park 464,
Wilson, Robert 48 greenstone belt, Zimbabwe 471
winds 80 464–465, 465 zeolite 469
Zimbabwe craton 45, 45–46, 461,
Chinook winds 73 X
coastal downwelling and 85 X-band 416 461, 469–474, 472, 473
coastal upwelling and 85 xenoliths 463 accretion of 471–474
doldrums 125–126 xenotime 463 Belingwe greenstone belt,
eolian sediments 139–140 X-ray fluorescence 463 Zimbabwe 44–46, 45, 46,
general circulation models 165, X rays 348 189, 236, 470
Chilimanzi suite 471
205–206, 206 Y Great Dike 184
horse latitudes 212 Yafikh-Ragbah orogeny, Arabian Northern Belt (Zwankendaba
hurricane 216–217 Arc) 470–471
jet streams 205, 233 shield 18 Shamvaian group 471, 474
katabatic winds 240–241 Yanbu suture zone, Arabian shield Southern belt 471
lake breezes 374 Tokwe terrane 26, 469–470,
land breezes 375 19, 20 471–473
Langmuir Circulation and 247 Yangtze craton 391
load 252 Yangtze River 391 zinc 474–475
loess 252, 252 yardangs 139–140, 464 zincite 474
sand dunes and 360, 366, 367 Yellowknife greenstone belt 25, 329, zircon 463, 475
Santa Ana winds 369 zirconium 475
sea breezes 374–375 394 zone of ablation (glaciers 176
thunderstorms 425 Yellowknife greenstone belt, Slave zone of accumulation (glaciers) 176
tornadoes 430 zooplankton 329
trade winds 117, 431 craton 392 Zoroaster Granite, Grand Canyon
waves 455 Yellow River, China 248
witherite 62 Yellowstone National 181
Wittenoom asbestos disaster, Zunhua structural belt, North China
Australia 28 Park/Yellowstone Valley 56, 227,
Witwatersrand basin, South Africa 261, 452, 464, 464–465, 465 craton 72, 296–297
179, 238, 329, 459–462, 460, 461 Yilgarn Province, Australia 187 Zuni Sequence 434
wollastonite 462 Yosemite Valley and National Park Zwankendaba Arc (Northern Belt),
Wopmay orogen, Slave craton 392 465, 465–466
Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico 440 Zimbabwe craton 470–471
Yucatán Pennisula, Mexico 30, 68,
71