Research Methodology A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners

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Index



100 percent bar chart 301–2

ABI/INFORM 36
accidental sampling 201
action research 131
active variables 71
after-only designs 215
Alkin, M.C. 324
alternate hypothesis 85
applications of research 6
applied research 9, 10
area chart 305–6
attitudinal scales 167–76

calculating attitudinal score 172
difficulties in developing 169
functions 168
in qualitative research 175
in quantitative research 168
relation to measurement scales 175
types 170–5
attitudinal score 172–3
attitudinal value 174
attitudinal weight 174
attribute variables 71
authenticity 184

Babbie, E. 178
Bailey, K.D. 10, 74, 83, 245
bar chart 298–300
before-and-after studies 107–10
bias 5, 141, 164, 246
bibliography 403–7
Black, J.A. 63
blind studies 126
books, reviewing 34
Bulmer, M. 8
Burns, R.B. 8, 144, 313

calculation of sample size 209–12
case studies 126
categorical variable 72
causal change

dependent variable 97–9
independent variable 97–9
total 97–9
cause variable 66–9
Champion, D.J. 63
chance variables 96–9
CINAHL 36
classificatory scale 74–6
closed questions 145, 151–4
cluster sampling 204–5
code book 257–68
code of conduct 241
coding 256–74
coding qualitative data 277–88

coding quantitative data 255–77
Cohen, M.R. 63
Cohen and Nagel 63
cohort studies 125
column percentage 295–7
community forums 129, 160, 330
community surveys 330
concepts

converting into indicators 64–6
difference between concepts and variables 63–4
measurement 73–7
conceptual framework 40
concurrent validity 180
conditioning effect 110
confidentiality 242, 246
confirmability 185
consent, 244
constant variable 73
construct validity 180
consumers, opinions 336
content analysis 277–88
content validity 179
continuous variables 73
control group 117
control studies 117–19
correlational research 9–11
cost–benefit analysis 341–2
credibility 185
cross-sectional studies 107
cross-tabulations 294
cumulative frequency polygon 303–3

data collection in qualitative studies 159–63
focus-group interviews 160
in-depth interviews 160
narratives 161
oral histories 161

data collection in quantitative studies 138–59
difference in quantitative and qualitative research 138
methods 138–59
prerequisites 159
primary sources 140–59
secondary sources 163–4
using attitudinal scales 167–75

data processing 253–88
coding 256–88
display 291–308
editing 255–6
in qualitative studies 277–88
in quantitative studies 255–77

data saturation point 213
databases 36
dependent variables 66–71
dependability 185
Denzin and Lincoln 184
descriptive research 10
dichotomous variables 72
disproportionate stratified sampling 203–4
Donnelly and Trochim 185
double-barrelled questions 155
double-blind studies 126
dropouts from an intervention 334
Duncan, O.T. 74

editing, data 255–6
elevation effect 142
equal-appearing interval scale 174
ERIC 36
error of central tendency 142
ethics in research 241–8

concept 241–2
participants 244–6
researcher 246–7
sponsoring organisation 247–8
stakeholders 243
evaluation, practice 323–52
consumer-oriented/client-centred 342–3
cost–benefit/cost-effectiveness 341–2
definitions 324–5
developing evaluation objectives 344–7
ethics 352
focus of evaluation 329
goal-centred/objective-oriented 342
holistic/illuminative 343
impact/outcome 337–41
improvement-oriented 329, 343
intervention–evaluation process 327–8
involving stakeholders 351–2
philosophical base 342–3
process monitoring/service delivery 335–7
program/intervention planning 330–2
target population participation 333–5
types 328–9
undertaking evaluation 343–51
why 325–6
evidence-based practice 4
experimental group 113
experimental study designs 113–26
after-only 115
before-and-after 116
comparative 120
control-group 117
cross-over comparative 123
double-control 119
matched-control 121
placebo 122
replicated cross-sectional 124
expert panel 125
expert sampling 207
explanatory research 9, 11
exploratory research 9, 11
external consistency procedures 182–3
extraneous variables 96–9

face validity 179–80
feasibility study 11
feminist research 132
Festinger and Katz 18
fishbowl draw 200
focus group 127–8
frame of analysis 274–6
frequency distributions 274
frequency polygon 302
functional analysis studies 336

Gilchrist, L. 244
graphs 297–307
Grinnell, R. 7, 83

Guba, E.G. 185
Guttman scale 175

halo effect 143
harm, caused by research 245
Hawthorne Effect 141
HEALTHROM 36
histogram 298
holistic research 129
Humanities Index 36
Huxley, T.H. 81
hypothesis

alternate 85
of association 87
characteristics 84–5
definition 81–3
of difference 86
errors 87–8
functions 83
null 86
of point-prevalence 87
qualitative research 88–9
types 85–7

impact assessments
after-only design 115, 338
before-and-after design 116, 339
comparative study design 120–1, 339
double control 119–20
experimental-control design 117–19, 339
interrupted time-series design 340
matched control 121–2
placebo 122
reflexive control design 339
replicated cross-sectional design 124, 340

incentives, providing 245
independent variables 66–71
indicators 64–6, 347–9
information

inappropriate use 247
misuse 248
sensitive 156–8, 245
informed consent 244
inquiry mode 9
internal consistency procedures 183–4
internet 37
interpretive paradigm 14
interval scale 74–7
intervening variables 69–71
intervention–development–evaluation process 327–8
interviewing 144–5
advantages 149–50
constructing schedule 156–7
disadvantages 150
forms of questions 151–4
formulating effective questions 154–5
schedule 145, 148
structured 145
unstructured 145
versus questionnaires 148–9

journals, reviewing 35–6
judgemental sampling 198, 207

Katz, D. 18
Kerlinger, F.N. 8, 44, 62, 82, 94, 98, 178

leading questions 155
Likert scale 170–4
limitations, research 236–7
Lincoln and Guda 185
line diagram 305–6
Lipsey, M.W. 324
literature review 31–42

reviewing procedure 33–40
searching exiting literature 34–5
why 31–3
writing 40–1
longitudinal studies 110
Lundberg, G.A. 7
matching 100
maturation effect 109
‘maxmincon’ principle 95–8
measurement of concepts 64–6
measurement scales 73–7
interval 75, 77
nominal or classificatory 75, 76
ordinal or ranking 75, 76
ratio 75, 77
MEDLINE 36
Meenaghan, T.M. 44
multiple responses 259
multi-stage cluster sampling 205

Nagel, E. 63
narratives (information gathering) 161
need-assessment surveys 330
negative statements 172
neutral items 173
nominal scales 76
non-discriminatory items 171–2
non-experimental studies 113–14
non-probability sampling 197–8, 206–8
non-random sampling 197–8, 206–8
null hypothesis 86
numerical scale 171

objectives, formulating 50, 54
observation 140–4

non-participant 141
participant 141
problems 141
recording 142–4
situations 141–2
100 percent bar chart 301–2
open-ended questions 151–3
operational definitions 55–7
oral histories 161–2
ordinal scales 74–6
outline (chapterisation) 314–19

panel of experts 337
panel studies 125
paradigms of research 14–15
participant observation 128, 141
participatory research 131–3
percentages 295–7
pie chart 304–5

pilot study 11
placebo effect 122
planning a research study 23–6
Poincaré 18, 73
polytomous variables 72–3
positive statements 172
positivist paradigm 14–15
Powers, G.T. 44
prediction 193
predictive validity 180
pre-test 158
primary data 138
primary sources 138
probability sampling 198–205
proportionate stratified sampling 203–4
prospective studies 111
pure research 9–10
purposive sampling 207

qualitative–quantitative study designs, differences 103–5
qualitative research

analysis 277–88
compared to quantitative research 20
sampling 212–13, 206–8
quantitative research
compared to qualitative research 20
frame of analysis 274
questionnaires 145
administering 146–8
advantages 148
covering letter 150–1
disadvantages 149
versus interviews 148
questions
advantages 153–4
close ended 151–2
disadvantages 151–2
forms of 151–3
formulating 154–5
open-ended 151–2
order 158
personal 156–8
pre-testing 158–9
sensitive 156–8
quota sampling 206–7

random
designs 115–24
numbers 200–1
randomisation 114
sampling 198–206

ratio scale 74–5, 77
raw data 255
reactive effect 109, 395
reconstructing the main concepts 275
reference period 106, 111
referencing 320
reflective journal 130
regression effect 109–10
reliability

concept 181
determining 182–4
factors affecting 182
in qualitative studies 184–6

report writing
bibliography 321
outline 314–19
referencing 320
about a variable 319–20
research
applications 4–6
characteristics 8–9
definitions 5, 7–8
objectives 50, 54
operational steps 18–23
paradigms 145
problem 44–7
process 18–27
proposal 217–37
reasons for 1–4
types 9–14
what does it mean 5, 7–8
writing 313–14
research design
definition 94
functions 94–5
theory of causality 95–9
research journey 18–27
research problem 44
aspects 45–7
considerations in selecting 47–8
steps in formulating 48–50, 51–3
formulation of objectives 50, 54
narrowing 48–50
operational definitions 55–7
qualitative research, in 57–8
sources 45–7
study population 55
research proposal 217–38
contents 218
data analysis 232–4
ethical issues 231
hypotheses 226–7
measurement procedures 230
objectives 224–6
preamble 220–2
problem and limitations 236–7
research problem 224
sampling 231–2
setting 230
structure of the report 235–6
study design 227–9
work schedule 237
researcher, ethical issues 246–7
retrospective–prospective studies 111–12
retrospective studies 111–12
Rossi, P.H. 324
row percentage 295–6
Rutman, L. 324

sampling 192–214
accidental 207
cluster 204–5
concept 193
design 194
disproportionate sampling 203
element 194
error 195

frame 194
judgemental 207
non-probability 198, 206–8
non-random 198, 206–8
population 193–4
principles 194–7
probability 199–206
proportionate 206
purposive 207
in qualitative and quantitative research 192
quota 206–7
random 199–206
with or without replacement 202–3
size 194
snowball 208
statistics 194
stratified 203–4
systematic 208–9
terminology 194
unit 194
saturation point 213
scattergram 307
schedule, work 237
Schinke, S.P. 244
search engines 37
Selltiz, J. 94
secondary data 163–4
secondary sources 138–9
semi-experimental studies, 106, 113–14
sensitive information 156–8
service delivery, evaluating 335–7
Shinkfield, A.J. 324, 342
simple random sampling 203
snowball sampling 208
Social Sciences Citation Index 35
Solomon, L.C. 324
sponsoring organisation, ethical issues 247–8
stacked bar chart 301
stakeholders 243
statistics and research 308
stem-and-leaf display 304
Stevens, S.S. 74
stratified random sampling 203–4
structured inquiries 11–12
structured interviews 144–5
stub 294
study designs, philosophy oriented 130–3
action research 131–2
feminist research 132
participatory and collaborative research 132–3
study designs in qualitative research 126–30
case study design 126–7
community discussion forums 129–30
focus groups/group interviews 127–8
holistic design 129
oral history design 127
participant observation 128–9
reflective journal log 130
study designs in quantitative research 105–24
before-and-after 107
comparative study designs 120–1
control studies 117–19
cross-over comparative designs 123
cross-sectional 107

double-control designs 119–20
experimental 113–14
longitudinal 110
matched-control designs 121
non-experimental 113–14
placebo design 122
prospective 111–12
random 114
replicated cross-sectional designs 124
retrospective 111–12
retrospective–prospective 111–12
semi-experimental or quasi-experimental 113–14
study population 55–6, 193
definition 55
ethical issues affecting 244–5
evaluating participation 333–5
Stufflebeam, D.L. 324
subject area 46–7
subjectivity 5
summated rating scale 170–4
systematic sampling 208–9

tables 292–5
target population 193
text 292
thematic writing 41
theoretical framework 38–40
Thurstone scale 174
Thyer, B.A. 94
time-frame 237
time-and-motion studies 336
total percentage 297
transferability 185
treatment group 113
trend curve 305
trend studies 124–5
Trochim 185
Twoomey, B.G. 44
Type I error 88
Type II error 88

unit of measurement 62
unstructured inquiries 11–12
unstructured interviews 144–5

validity 178–81
concept 178–9
concurrent 180
construct 180–1
credibility 184–5
dependability 184–5
face 179–80
predictive 180
in quantitative research 179–81
in qualitative research 184–6
transferability 185
types 179–81, 184–6

variables 62–73
active 71–2
attribute 71–2
categorical 72–3
chance 97–8
change 66, 68
and concepts 63–4

connecting 69–70
continuous 72–3
definition 62–3
dependent 66–70
dichotomous 72–3
extraneous 66–8
independent 66–70
intervening 69–70
measurement scales 73–7
outcome 68–71
polytomous 72–3
types 66–73

work schedule 237
working definitions 55–7

Young, P.V. 63