Chocolate - Science and Technology

232 Chocolate Science and Technology

slopes and chocolate temper units were generated to enhance understanding of the dif-
ferent temper regimes and boundaries of identification. Thus, different combinations of
tempering temperatures could be employed to induce stable fat polymorph formation
and are greatly dependent on fat content and partly PSD of the dark chocolate during
manufacture.

12.3 CONCLUSIONS: EFFECTS OF TEMPERING AND
FAT CRYSTALLISATION ON MICROSTRUCTURE
AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Fat crystallisation behaviour during tempering of dark chocolate plays vital roles in defin-
ing structure, mechanical properties and appearance of final products. Wide variations in
mechanical properties and appearance were noted in products of differing PS and temper
regime. PS was inversely related with texture and colour, with the greatest effects noted
with hardness, stickiness and visual lightness at all temper regimes. Overtempering caused
increases in product hardness, stickiness with reduced gloss and darkening of product sur-
faces. Undertempering induced fat bloom in products with consequential quality defects in
texture, colour and surface gloss. Also, it was noted that variations in PS had no influence
on crystallinity of dark chocolates whether optimally-, over- or undertempered. PS had a
limited but significant direct relationship with certain melting parameters – Tonset, Tpeak and

Hmelt – independent of temper but significant inverse relationship with Tend and Tindex.
Contrariwise, varying temper influenced crystallinity and chocolate melting properties (Tend,
Tindex and Hmelt). Undertempering of dark chocolate resulted in widened crystal size distri-
bution with significant changes in Tend, Tindex and Hmelt. Overtempering caused moderate
increases in crystal size distribution, with significant effects on Tend, Tindex and Hmelt, but
no changes were noted in Tonset, or Tpeak. Fat–sugar melting profiles were similar in all
chocolates independent of PS and temper regime.

Examination using a stereoscopic binocular microscope revealed clear variations in sur-
face and internal crystal network structures and interparticle interactions among optimally
tempered, overtempered and undertempered (bloomed) samples. Blooming caused whitening
of both surface and internal peripheries with consequential effects on texture and appear-
ance. Scanning electron micrography showed an even spatial distribution of numerous small,
stable β-polymorph crystals in a network with well-defined interparticle connections in op-
timally tempered chocolate. With overtempered chocolate there were large numbers of very
small crystals in network with similar well-defined particle-to-particle connections resulting
from formation of stable β-polymorphs with early nucleation: the outcome was growth of
seed crystals from melt into submicron primary crystallites and a fat crystal network sta-
bilised by van der Waal forces. Undertempering resulted in dissolution of a large number of
small crystals, rearrangement and recrystallisation into a small number of larger (lumps) fat
crystals (Ostwald ripening). In this process there was polymorphic transformation, nucle-
ation and growth of new large crystals in a more stable polymorphic form, with formation
of solid bridges with weak and fewer intercrystal connections within chocolate structures.
Thus, attainment of optimal temper regime during tempering of dark chocolate is necessary
for achievement of premium quality products and avoidance of defects in microstructure,
affecting mechanical properties, appearance and melting character.

Conclusions and industrial applications 233

12.4 CONCLUSIONS: FAT BLOOM FORMATION AND
DEVELOPMENT WITH UNDERTEMPERING

The rate of bloom development in undertempered dark chocolate was dependent on solids,
PSD and storage time. Blooming was initiated in chocolates within 24 hours and essentially
complete by 96 hours. Changes during blooming were attributed primarily to growth of new
fat crystals within the structural network with changes in light reflection, yielding increases
in surface whiteness and in hardness. From differential scanning calorimetry on melting
properties, values for Tonset, Tend, Tpeak and Hmelt suggested polymorphic transformation
from βIV to βV within 24 hours and further to βVI after 72 hours. Micrographs showed
similar crystal network structure and interparticle interactions in chocolates of different PS
immediately after tempering. Within 24 hours, liquid and unstable recrystallised fat had
appeared on surfaces with initiation of bloom. Unstable fat recrystallised during storage into
more stable polymorphs and crystal growth was promoted by Ostwald ripening with the ap-
pearance of white crystalline structure that had spread gradually throughout entire chocolate
masses after 96 hours. Chocolate of the largest PS (50 µm) showed most rapid fat bloom,
the smallest PS (18 µm) the slowest, attributed mainly to hydrodynamic forces of capillary
action. It was concluded that bloom development was initiated by movement of liquid and
unstable fat onto product surfaces through capillarity created by hydrodynamic forces within
the interparticle pores and crevices, followed by growth of new fat crystals promoted by
diffusion gradients across the mass until the chocolate was fully bloomed. Understanding
fat bloom formation and development in dark chocolate has potential applications in new
product development.

12.5 CONCLUSIONS: FLAVOUR VOLATILES AND
MATRIX EFFECTS RELATED TO VARIATIONS IN PSD
AND FAT CONTENT

Variations in flavour volatile release in chocolate matrices, varying in PSD and
fat content, suggested potential effects of matrix structure and lipophilic–flavour
interactions. Increasing PS significantly reduced release of 3-methylbutanal, 2-
phenylethanol, furfuryl alcohol (furfurol), acetic acid, methylpyrazine, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine,
2,5-dimethylpyrazine, trimethylpyrazine, tetramethylpyrazine and 2,3,5-trimethyl-6-
ethylpyrazine, 2-phenylethylacetate, 2-methylbutanal and 5-ethenyltetrahydro-R,R,5-
trimethyl-cis-2-furanmethanol (linalool oxide). Fat content was directly related to headspace
concentrations of compounds characterised by cocoa, chocolate, praline, fruity and roasted
notes: trimethylpyrazine, 3-methylbutanal, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine,
tetramethylpyrazine, linalool oxide and 2,3,5-triethyl-5-methylpyrazine at all PSDs. Con-
trariwise, there was an inverse relationship between matrix fat content and headspace concen-
tration of 2-phenylethanol, furfuryl alcohol (furfurol), methylpyrazine, phenylacetaldehyde,
2,3,5-trimethyl-6-ethylpyrazine and 2-carboxaldehyde-1-H-pyrrole likely due to lipophilic
matrix–flavour interactions.

The principal component analysis and regression models predicted contribution of volatiles
to overall flavour character. One Strecker aldehyde, 3-methylbutanal, and two nitrogen hetero-
cycles derived from Maillard reactions, trimethylpyrazine and 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine,
provided cocoa, praline-chocolate and nutty notes, with three others, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine,

234 Chocolate Science and Technology

2,5-dimethylpyrazine and tetramethylpyrazine, likely making little contribution and show-
ing only minimal effects on cocoa-chocolate flavours. Ethyl groups in pyrazine compounds
suggest a key role of alanine and its Strecker aldehyde and acetaldehyde in dark choco-
late flavour formation. Others, 2-methylbutanal, 5-ethenyltetrahydro-R,R,5-trimethyl-cis-2-
furanmethanol (linalool oxide) and 3,7-dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol (linalool), had likely no
effect on dark chocolate flavour characters. Likewise, 2-phenylethanol, furfuryl alcohol (fur-
furol), methylpyrazine, phenylacetaldehyde and 2,3,5-trimethyl-6-ethylpyrazine emerged as
compounds contributing caramel-like, sweet, honey and candy notes, with acetic acid con-
tributing to acid-sour sensations. Matrix effects on flavour release in chocolate merit attention
for new product development with consumer demand for a wider range of origins and defined
products: sensory influences of PSD and fat content remain unclear.

12.6 INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE AND APPLICATIONS OF
RESEARCH FINDINGS IN THIS BOOK

The research findings in this book would be valuable to the chocolate confectionery industry
as it brings greater understanding on the applicability of PSD and ingredient composition
to optimise flow behaviour and consequently textural and melting properties of finished
chocolates. PSD could be manipulated with the combined action of fat and lecithin to control
rheological properties of chocolates, with significance for quality control and reductions in
production costs. This understanding would allow manufacturers to lower the viscosity of
chocolates without changing the composition or cost, or to lower fat content without affecting
viscosity and quality.

In addition, findings on crystalline network microstructure of the molten chocolate ex-
plained the defining role of PSD and fat content on the rheological, textural and melting
properties of chocolates. These revealed that for chocolate of the same composition and
processed under identical conditions, the PSD of the suspended non-fat solid, fat and lecithin
contents play important roles in determining their melting behaviour. These findings would
have application in defining chocolate quality during manufacture in terms of nature of crys-
talline material, dimensions of crystals and polymorphic stability that dictate mechanical and
melting properties.

Results from models developed to study tempering behaviour revealed that PSD and
fat content of products influenced crystallisation behaviour during tempering of products,
causing wide variations in chocolate temper units. From these, satisfactory and unsatisfactory
temper regimes and their corresponding temper slopes and chocolate temper units have been
provided. These would limit the trial and errors currently used to identify appropriate temper
regimes for chocolates, with industrial significance for reducing processing (tempering) times
with assurance in quality control and shelf characteristics.

Finally, findings from the tempering and fat crystallisation behavioural studies showed
that attaining optimally tempering during pre-crystallisation of chocolate is necessary and
plays vital roles in defining the structure, mechanical properties and appearance of finished
products. As well, information from the flavour studies showed that differences in product
matrices varying in PSD and fat content result in variations in flavour volatile release in
chocolate systems, suggesting potential effects of matrix structure and lipophilic–flavour
interactions. These findings would help processors predict contribution of individual flavour
volatiles and suggest how these can be regulated to attain defined flavour characters during

Conclusions and industrial applications 235

manufacture. This knowledge is necessary for the achievement of premium quality products,
manufacturing improvements, new product development and quality control.

12.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER
RESEARCH STUDIES

A number of points have been noted throughout this book that suggest the need for further
in-depth investigations in chocolate research. These could include the following:

1. Further studies are required to integrate sensory and instrumental analyses of texture and
flavour release from chocolate products varying in PSD and fat content, and establish
relationships using multivariate analyses.

2. Time–intensity procedures could be employed to characterise the effects of optimal temper
and overtemper regimes on the melting behaviour of products during consumption. It could
also be deployed to study effects of varying PSD and fat content on reported variations in
melting character of derived chocolates.

3. Some scientific findings from this book have revealed that the finer the chocolate, the
sweeter the taste, since small crystals dissolve more rapidly than larger ones. However,
there is no published systematic research on the effect of particle fineness on the flavour
of chocolate. Further studies are required to elucidate the relationship between ingredient
composition, PSD and its textural effects on the release of chocolate flavour volatiles and
their perceived intensity during consumption.

4. Comparison of flavour characters in chocolate is complicated by variations caused by
different genotypes, geographical origin, pod differences, fermentation and drying meth-
ods, and subsequent processing (roasting, alkalisation and conching). Although some
major steps have been made to identify the causes of these variations, it is still prema-
ture to conclude that this is fully understood. To fully understand variations in chocolate
character, further research is required to optimise post-harvest treatments (pod storage,
pulp pre-conditioning, depulping, fermentation and drying) of cocoa beans differing in
genotype, subsequent manufacturing processes (roasting, alkalisation and conching) dur-
ing chocolate manufacture as well the sensory evaluation of final flavour character in
chocolate.

5. Milk chocolate solids comprise particles from sugar, non-fat milk components and cocoa.
This study investigated PSD of solids from only sugar and cocoa, which cannot be related
directly to milk chocolate products. Changes in the sizes of particles from the other two
particulate ingredients should also be investigated for effects on the physical and sensory
character in milk chocolates.

6. The effectiveness of conching could be studied using response surface methodology to
optimise conching efficiency in terms of time and temperature that are best suited for the
different types of chocolate products (white, milk and dark) during industrial manufacture.
This will help reduce the inconsistencies in conching conditions.

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Appendix 1: Abbreviations used
and their meanings

AEDA Aroma extract dilution analysis
ANOVA Analysis of variance
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
CBE Cocoa butter equivalent
CBR Cocoa butter replacer
CBS Cocoa butter substitute
CCRD Central composite rotatable design
cDNA Complementary deoxyribonucleic acid
CSD Crystal size distribution
DSC Differential scanning calorimetry
EC European Commission
EU European Union
FID Flame ionisation detection
GC Gas chromatography
GC-MS Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
GC-O Gas chromatography–olfactometry
GMS Glycerol monostearates
GU Gloss units
HRGC High-resolution gas chromatography
ICA International Confectionery Association
ICCO International Cocoa Organisation
IOCCC International Office of Cocoa, Chocolate and Confectionery
NCA/CMA National Confectioners Association/Chocolate Manufacturers
Association
PC Principal component
PCA Principal component analysis
PGPR Polyglycerol polyricinoleate
PS Particle size
PSD Particle size distribution
RSM Response surface methodology
SDS-PAGE Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
SPME Solid phase micro-extraction
SSA Specific surface area
TAGs Triacylglycerols

Appendix 2: Abbreviations, acronyms
and websites of organisations related
to cocoa and chocolate industry

Acronyms Organisation Website

CAC Codex Alimentarius http://www.codexalimentarius
CMAA Commission commission.net
ED&F Man Cocoa Merchants’ http://www.cocoamerchants.com
FAO Associations of America
Cocoa trader (cocoa http://www.edfman.com/cocoa.php
FCC statistics, free registration)
FDA Food and Agriculture http://www.fao.org/
FLO Organization of the United
Nations http://cocoafederation.com
ICA (formerly Federation of Cocoa
IOCCC) Commerce http://www.fda.gov/
US Food and Drug
ICCO Administration http://fairtrade.net
ICE Fairtrade Labelling
LIFFE Organizations http://www.international-
International confectionery.com/
NYBOT International
WCF Confectionery Association http://www.icco.org
WHO (source of ICA/IOCCC
WTO analytical methods) http://www.theice.com/cocoa.jhtm/
International Cocoa http://www.liffe.com
Organization
Intercontinental Exchange http://www.nybot.com
London Intercontinental http://www.worldcocoafoundation.
Financial Future and org/
Options Exchange http://www.who.int
New York Board of Trade http://www.wto.org
World Cocoa Foundation

World Health Organisation
World Trade Organisation

Appendix 3: Glossary of chocolate
terminologies

Bittersweet chocolate Also referred to as ‘dark chocolate’, this chocolate is manufactured
by blending a minimum amount of 35% cocoa liquor with variations of sugar, cocoa butter,
emulsifiers and flavourings.

Bloom The appearance of fat or sugar on the surface of chocolate giving it white sheen or
Cassosmoneteimqueastiinodniv√iduτa=l w√hiτteCAbl+ob√s. η CA.√γ˙

τ , yield stress; τ CA, Casson yield stress; ηCA, Casson plastic viscosity; γ˙ , shear rate.
Cocoa butter A natural fat that is present in cocoa beans and obtained by pressing cocoa

liquor.
Cocoa butter equivalent These are vegetable fats that are totally compatible with cocoa

butter and can be mixed with it in proportions stipulated by regulation.
Cocoa butter replacer These are vegetable fats that may be mixed with cocoa butter but

only in a limited proportion by regulation.
Cocoa liquor, cocoa mass Also known as chocolate liquor, this is composed of roasted and

ground cocoa nibs.
Cocoa nibs Similar to cocoa cotyledons, these are cocoa beans with shells removed.
Cocoa powder A product obtained by grinding or pulverising pressed cocoa cake and

available in different fat levels. It can be natural or manufactured by the Dutch process.
Compound This is a confectionery product in which vegetable oil has been substituted for

cocoa butter.
Dextrose Also known as glucose or cornstarch, it is a sweetener which is commercially

made from starch by the action of heat and acids or enzymes, resulting in the complete
hydrolysis of cornstarch. It is a reducing sugar that produces high-temperature browning
effects in baked foods. Industrially, it is used in ice-cream bakery products, confections
and chocolate cookie drops. The sugar helps maintain the shape of the cookie drop during
baking and reduces smearing of the chocolate after baking.
Dutching process This is an alkaline treatment of cocoa nibs prior to grinding, or the
liquor prior to pressing. It facilitates darkening of the resultant cocoa liquor, modifies the
chocolate flavour and also helps keep the cocoa solids in uniform suspension in chocolate
beverages.
Emulsifier A surface-active agent that promotes the formation and stabilisation of an emul-
sion. Examples are lecithin and polyglycerol polyricinoleate that are used in chocolate
manufacturing to help control flow properties.
Enrobing The act of coating a candy centre by covering it with chocolate. This could be
done by either hand or mechanical means.
Fat bloom This is the visually undesirably white cast that appears on chocolate products as
a result of poor or insufficient tempering or exposure of the chocolate to high temperatures
without retempering.
Fermentation A process by which complex microbial interaction naturally modifies the
composition of cocoa beans so that upon roasted it yields characteristic chocolate flavour.

Appendix 3: Glossary of chocolate terminologies 257

Grinding A mechanical process by which roasted cocoa bean nib is reduced to a smooth
liquid known as cocoa liquor.

Hard butter This is a class of specialty fats with physical properties similar to cocoa butter.
They are typically solid to semisolid at ambient temperatures and melt relatively rapidly
at higher temperatures depending on application.

Lauric fat A vegetable fat typically containing 40–50% lauric fat acid and mainly obtained
from coconut and palm-kernel origin. Compound coatings containing lauric fats usually
require appropriate tempering.

Lecithin A natural food additive which acts as an emulsifier and surface-active agent. Most
commercial lecithin products are derived from soybean. In chocolate manufacture, it
controls flow properties by reducing viscosity and it is typically used in ranges between
0.1 and 0.5%.

Milk chocolate A chocolate product made by the combination of about 10% cocoa liquor,
12% milk with cocoa butter, sugar or sweeteners, emulsifiers and some flavourings.

Natural process Non-alkalised cocoa liquor processed into cocoa powder without alkaline
treatment.

Non-lauric fat This is an edible fat which does not contain lauric fatty acids. Examples are
cottonseed oil, soybean oil and palm oil. Manufacture of confectionery products containing
non-lauric fat typically requires no tempering and will possess a higher melting point.

Non-Newtonian liquid A liquid such as molten chocolate whose viscosity varies according
to rate of stirring (shear).

Origin liquor Cocoa mass manufactured in country of bean origin.
Particle fineness This is the measurement of average particle size of component solids in a

chocolate mix and is expressed in ten-thousandths of an inch or in microns.
Plastic viscosity Amount of energy required to keep a non-Newtonian liquid moving once

motion has been initiated.
Press cake The product that remains after most of the cocoa butter has been expressed from

the cocoa liquor. Press cake is pulverised for making cocoa powder.
Pressing The process of partially removing cocoa butter from cocoa liquor by means of

hydraulic presses. The two products obtained after pressing are cocoa butter and pressed
cake.
Roasting A cooking or heating process applied to cocoa beans using dry heat at high
temperatures to facilitate winnowing of the beans into nibs and also help develop the
chocolate flavour.
Semisweet See ‘Bittersweet chocolate’, another name for semisweet.
Sweet chocolate A chocolate product prepared by blending a minimum of 15% cocoa
liquor with varying amounts of sweeteners and cocoa butter. Flavourings may sometimes
be added.
Tempering The process of fat crystallisation during chocolate manufacture so that the
finished product solidifies in a stable crystal form. Proper tempering when followed
provides good contraction from moulds, good setting properties, good surface gloss and
shelf-life characteristics. Tempering is a critical step in chocolate manufacture and certain
confectionery products.
Unsweetened baking chocolate This is a consumer term for cocoa or chocolate liquor.
Vanillin An artificial substitute for vanilla.
Viscosity A measure of the resistance to flow of molten chocolate and determines its abil-
ity to be pumped through pipes during industrial manufacture, and the extent to which

258 Chocolate Science and Technology

the chocolate could be used to cover the centre of confectionery, cake, cookie or ice
cream. Chocolate viscosity is influenced by process, solids particle size distribution and
formulation variations.
White chocolate A chocolate product composed of sugar, cocoa butter, whole milk and
flavourings. In the United States, this product cannot be called chocolate since it does not
contain cocoa solids. It is sometimes referred to as white cocoa butter-based confectionery
coating.
Winnowing The process of cracking and removing the cocoa bean shell to reveal the inner
part of the bean, the ‘nibs’.
Yield value Amount of energy required to initiate motion in a non-Newtonian liquid, for
example molten chocolate.

Index

Aasted, 46, 108, 157–158, 176 aluminium, 178, 201
acetaldehyde, 64, 68, 219, 229, 234 aluminium pan, 178, 201
acetic acid, 23–24, 28, 43, 59, 64, 66–67, Amadori compounds, 66
Amazon, 1, 2, 27
220, 222–223, 225–228, 233–234 Amelonado, 15, 27
acetic acid bacteria, 24 America, 3, 4, 27, 98
Acetobacter, 24 America Society for Testing and Materials

aceti, 24 (ASTM), 201
pasteurianus, 24 amine-assisted degradation, 59
rancens, 24 amines, 25, 60–61, 64, 66
xylinum, 24 amino acids, 22, 25, 29, 34, 39, 59, 61–64,
acid, 21, 23–24, 27–29, 33, 39, 43, 58–59,
66, 216
64–66, 72, 77, 80, 96, 229, aminopeptidase, 24
234 anaerobic hydrolytic phase, 23, 29
acidity, 27, 39, 58–59, 64–65, 77, 82, anaerobic yeasts, 23
216 analysis of variance, 158, 175, 202
acidoduric, 24 anandamide, 100
acid-sour sensations, 229 anthocyanin fractions, 21
ADM, 9, 104, 157, 175, 200, 216 anthocyanins, 21–22, 27, 92–93
adrenaline, 99 antiatherosclerotic properties, 100
aerobic condensation, 29, 33 anticarcinogenic activities, 98
aerobic phase, 25, 29 anticarcinogenic properties, 98
aerosols, 86 antioxidants, 10, 35, 91–92, 95, 100, 215
Africa, 2–3, 15, 20–21, 27–28, 35, 37, aphrodisiac, 91–92, 99–100
41, 58, 76, 94, 104, 175, 200, 216, apparent viscosity, 36, 53, 104–105,
228
aftertaste, 55, 78 107–108, 116, 118, 121–123
agglomeration, 42, 131 appearance, 75–76, 174–175, 179, 183, 190,
Agilent Technologies, 218
agricultural mulch, 38 193, 198–199, 202, 204, 206, 207, 210,
air blasting, 29 212, 214, 230–234
air drying, 31 arginine, 97
alanine, 23, 64, 68, 229, 234 aroma, 20, 22–24, 27, 29, 61, 68, 73–76, 78,
albumin, 22 80, 83–85, 90, 215, 218
alcohol, 29, 39, 51, 64, 68–70, 91, 215, aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA), 68
219–220, 225, 227–229, 233 aromatic, 26–27, 29, 76, 80, 93
alcoholic fermentation, 23 Arriba, 16, 26, 76–77
aldehydes, 39, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68–70, 76, artisanal chocolate, 6
215, 219–220, 228–229, 233–234 Asia, 3–4, 27, 37
aldol, 63, 66 aspartic endopeptidase, 22
alkali treatment, 64 aspartic endoprotease, 22
alkalisation (Dutch process), 12, 38–39, 41, aspartic proteinase, 23, 25
58, 64–65, 71–72, 235 astringency, 25, 27, 29, 31, 34, 58, 65–66,
alkaloids, 20–22, 39, 77–78 216
astringent, 22, 59, 65, 78, 221, 228

260 Index

atherogenesis, 96 bloom, 41, 44, 47, 53, 55–57, 75, 156, 178,
atherosclerosis, 91, 96–97 180–181, 183–184, 186–188, 190,
atmospheric pressure, 74 193–194, 197–198, 201, 203–204,
atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation 206–208, 212, 214, 232–233

mass spectrometry, 74 bob and cup geometry, 103–105, 107
Australasia, 5 box fermentation, 27, 30
Australia, 4, 6 Brazil, 1–4, 12, 20, 35, 37–38, 59, 64–65
Austria, 5–6 Brownian motion, 206
automated kneaders, 41 browning reactions, 33. See also Maillard
auxiliary flavours, 80
Aztecs, 1, 91 reaction
budding, 14
Bacillus Bühler, 157, 200, 217
cereus, 24 bulk cocoa, 1, 12
circulans, 24 butanoic acid, 67
coagulans, 24 butter fat, 43, 47
megaterium, 24
stearothermophilus, 24 cacao, 1, 92, 95
subtilis, 24 Cadbury, 41, 81
caffeine, 21, 29, 77–78, 99
back extrusion, 109, 148 calcium, 94–95
Bahia, 27, 59 Cameroon, 3, 12, 27
ball mill, 40 cancer, 10, 91, 98
barley, 76 Candida
basic cocoa, 1, 12
basket fermentation, 27 castelli, 23
batch mixer, 41–42 guilliermondii, 23
batch-to-batch consistency, 89 saitoana, 23
beads mill, 40 cannabinoid receptors, 92, 100
beans, 1–4, 9, 12, 14, 16, 18–22, 24–32, 35, capsids, 20
Caracas, 27, 37
58–59, 71–72, 76, 80, 95, 215. See caramel, 26, 29, 43, 58, 66, 68, 70–71,
cocoa beans
bean composition, 13, 20 76–77, 215, 220–221, 225–229, 234
bean constituents, 33, 58 caramelisation, 66, 221
bean cut test, 37 caramelised flavour, 43, 58
bean genotype, 12–13, 215 carbohydrate, 21, 35–36, 52, 94–95
bean origin, 13 carbon dioxide, 23–24
bean selection, 58 carbonyl–amino condensation reaction, 29
bean sizes, 37 carboxymethyl cellulose, 52
bean spreading, 29 carboxypeptidase, 22–24
Belgium, 4, 6 carcinogenic, 92, 97–99
Bellafonte, 218 cardioprotective, 91, 100
benchmark cocoa flavour, 27 cardiovascular disease (CVD), 10, 91, 97,
Bingham, 102. See viscosity
bioactive compounds, 96 99
Birmingham, 105, 157, 176, 200, 217 Cargill, 9, 104, 157, 175, 200, 216
biscuits, 8, 32, 51 Caribbean islands, 1
bitterness, 12, 22, 25, 27, 29, 31, 39, Casson, 49, 54–55, 101–104, 106, 112,
58–59
bittersweet, 38, 76–78 115–123, 146, 153, 230. See also
black pod disease, 19 plastic viscosity; yield value
blood lipid levels, 95 Casson model, 55, 102, 120, 146, 154, 230
blood pressure, 95–96, 99 Casson plastic viscosity, 54–55, 105, 107,
115–117, 119–123, 145–146, 153, 230
Casson yield value, 54–55, 105, 107,
116–123, 145–146, 153, 230

Index 261

caster oil, 53 155–158, 166, 169, 174–176, 180,
catechins, 12, 21, 35, 92–95, 215 198–200, 206, 216–217
Central America, 1 cocoa butter equivalent (CBE), 47, 50
Central composite rotatable design cocoa butter replacer (CBR), 47, 51, 75
cocoa fermentations, 24
(CCRD), 155, 158, 160 cocoa flavonoids, 92, 95, 96
Ceylon, 26 cocoa flavour, 20, 58
cheese, 74 cocoa fruits, 14–16
China, 4, 7, 104, 157, 176, 200, 216 cocoa genotypes, 26
chocolate, 1–4, 6–12, 14, 18, 20–22, 24, cocoa liquor, 2, 27, 39–42, 52, 64–65, 82,
94–95, 104–105, 157, 175–176, 200,
29–31, 33, 35–36, 39, 41, 43, 45–50, 216–217. See also cocoa mass
53–58, 61, 63, 65–69, 71–76, 78–86, cocoa market, 3, 12
88–91, 94, 96–106, 108–109, 111, 113, cocoa mass, 24, 31, 68, 98
115–121, 123–129, 131–139, 141–144, cocoa nibs, 34, 50, 216
146–158, 159, 161, 165–172, 174–177, cocoa pods, 17–19
179–184, 186–194, 197–203, 205–210, cocoa polyphenols, 96
213–216, 219, 221–222, 225–235 cocoa powder, 2, 32, 39–41, 64–65, 75, 92,
chocolate appearance, 205 94–95, 188, 190, 207
chocolate characters, 34, 58 cocoa processing, 58, 219
chocolate consumption, 2–3, 35, 73–74, 91 cocoa pulp, 23
chocolate defects, 55 cocoa quality, 59
chocolate flavour, 29, 59, 74 cocoa solids, 2, 35, 39, 53, 82–83, 102, 105,
chocolate liquor, 66. See also cocoa mass 136, 190, 210, 212
Chocolate Manufacturers Association, 103 cocoa thrips, 20
chocolate mass, 156, 158, 174, 198, 200, cocoa tree, 1, 12–14, 19–20. See also cacao
214 coconut, 32, 51, 77
chocolate melting profiles, 185 coconut oil, 51, 77
chocolate microstructure, 175 Codex Revised Standard, 105, 217
chocolate quality, 54–55, 74, 174, 234–235 coffee, 7, 70–71, 74, 221–222
chocolate recipe, 58 cohesiveness, 123–126
chocolate temper slope, 155 colour, 12, 14, 20, 22, 25, 29–31, 33, 36, 39,
chocolate temper units (CTU), 172, 234 44–46, 52, 59, 61, 64, 75–76, 103,
chocolate viscosity, 102, 153, 230 111–112, 128, 155, 175, 177, 179,
chocolatl, 1 183–184, 190, 193, 199, 201, 205–206,
cholesterol, 92, 95–98 230
Christopher Columbus, 1 colour imaging analysis, 103
CIELAB system, 177 colour intensity, 76
clean-in-place, 89 computer vision, 103
cocoa, 1–33, 35–59, 64–65, 69–73, 75–78, computerised tempermeter, 109, 201
80–82, 85–86, 91–105, 112, 129, 136, concentric cylinders, 102–103, 105, 107
155–157, 166, 169, 174–176, 180, 185, conche, 43, 55, 58, 66
188, 190, 198–200, 206–207, 210, 212, Frisse, 43–44
215–217, 219–222, 225–229, Lipp, 105, 158, 176, 217
233–235 conching, 2, 12, 41–43, 54, 65–66, 68,
cocoa, bulk, 12, 26, 35 71–72, 74, 79–80, 82, 101–102, 112,
cocoa bean composition, 216 158, 175, 202, 216, 219, 221, 226,
cocoa beans, 1–4, 9, 12, 14, 19–20, 22, 24, 235
28–29, 31–32, 58, 64, 72, 77–78, confectionery, 2, 6, 8, 10, 41, 48, 51–54, 58,
215–216, 235 73–74, 97, 182, 193, 199, 226, 234
flat, 37 Congo, 26
smoky flavour, 80 consistency, 75, 123–126
cocoa butter, 1, 3, 39–45, 47, 49–53, 56–57,
65, 75, 85, 92, 94, 104–105, 112,

262 Index

consumer acceptability, 73 crystallised state, 186
consumer judgement, 73 crystallised TAG systems, 175, 199
consumer likeness, 75 cut test, 29, 37
consumer perception, 75, 80 cyanidin-3-α-l-arabinoside, 21
consumer preference, 35, 73 cyanidin-3-β-d-galactoside, 21
continuous fat phase, 35 cyanidins, 25
continuous tempering, 45 cyclo-oxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1 and
contraction, 46
cooking chocolate, 50 COX-2), 96
coolant fluid, 176, 200
coolant temperatures, 155, 158, 160 dandelion, 76
coolants, 155 dark chocolate, 6–7, 10, 35–36, 42, 56,
cooling curve, 158–159, 180–181
copper, 94–95 65–66, 68–69, 71–72, 76, 78, 94–96,
coronary heart diseases, 93 98–99, 101, 104–105, 107, 110–111,
correlation analysis, 144–145, 147–148 113, 115–121, 129, 131, 133–136,
correlation coefficient, 144–146, 149–150, 138–139, 141–144, 146–149, 151–157,
161–162, 165, 169, 172–175, 179–185,
207 187–194, 197–200, 202–203, 205–210,
Côte d’Ivoire, 2–5, 12, 58–59 213–217, 219, 222, 225–233, 235
cotyledons, 18, 21–22, 24–25, 28–29, 39, defatted cocoa powder, 2
degree of crystallinity, 135, 153–154
92 degree of roasting, 40
Couette geometry, 47 dehydroreductone, 61
counterhegemonic act, 8 demoulding, 41, 109, 174
Criollo, 1, 12, 21–22, 26, 35 Denmark, 6, 108, 158, 176, 200, 217
Croatia, 4 density, 2, 13, 153, 231
crumb, 82, 128 deoxyhexosulose, 59
Crypto Peerless mixer, 105, 157, 176, 200, deoxyribonucleotides, 99
depulping, 33, 235
217 descriptive analysis, 55
crystal growth, 45, 109 descriptive sensory tests, 80
crystal lattice formation, 47 dextrose, 51. See also fructose
crystal maturity, 170 diabetes, 92
crystal network organisation, 172, 174, 198 diabetic chocolate, 51
crystal nucleation, 45 diet modification, 92
crystal seed, 47 dietary flavonoids, 93
crystal size distribution (CSD), 141, 174, dietary supplementation, 91
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC),
185 111, 138–139, 141–142, 175, 178,
crystal structure, 212 185–188, 201, 207, 212, 231, 233
crystal type, 185 diffusion, 22, 24, 83, 198–199, 214, 225
crystalline network density, 153, 230 diketopiperazines, 29
crystalline network structure, 101, 174 dioxo compounds, 64
crystalline-state distribution, 134, 185 disc mill, 40
crystallinity, 135, 153–154, 174, 185 diseases, 13, 16, 18–20, 35, 91
crystallisation, 41, 44, 46, 56–57, 109, 141, D-limonene, 48
Dominican Republic, 3
144, 150, 155–156, 158, 165, 172, dopamine, 99
174–175, 179–181, 185, 198, 232, dried cocoa beans, 32
234 drug-induced psychoses, 100
crystallisation behaviour, 155, 172, 180, drying, 9, 12, 26–27, 29, 31, 33–34, 39, 52,
185 59, 66, 72, 74, 77, 82, 216, 235
crystallisation conditions, 172, 175, 198 drying platform, 30
crystallisation heat, 180
crystallisation temperature, 172
crystallised network microstructure, 175

Index 263

drying methods, 235 197–199, 202, 204, 206–207, 209–210,
DSC thermograms, 142 212–217, 219, 225–235
duo–trio test, 80 fat bloom, 41, 44–45, 55–57, 156, 166, 174,
Dutch, 1, 39, 75, 96 190, 198–199, 206–207, 232–233. See
Dutch process, 38–39. See also alkalisation also bloom
fat crystallisation, 144, 155–158, 161–162,
Ecuador, 1, 3, 5, 12, 16, 26–27, 37, 59, 164–176, 178–182, 185, 187–190,
76–77 197–199, 202, 204, 206–207, 209–210,
212–217, 219, 225–235
Ecuadorian beans, 59 fat crystals, 45, 56, 165, 170
electron micrographs, 197 fat–sugar melting profiles, 174, 197
electronic noses, 89 fatty acid, 44, 50, 52–53, 66, 98, 175, 199,
electronic tongues, 89 216
electrophoretic, 22 fermentation, 8, 9, 12, 17–19, 21–31,
endocannabinoid levels, 92, 100 33–34, 36, 38–39, 59, 65–66, 72, 74,
endoprotease, 22–23 77–78, 82, 216, 235
endorphins, 99 fermenting pulp, 23
endothelial function, 91, 96 Fernando Po, 1
endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), 96 Finland, 6
endothermic transitions, 185, 207 firmness, 79, 109–110, 112, 123–125, 127,
England, 108–109, 158, 200 129–131, 144–149, 151–154, 230–231
enrobing, 42, 116, 123, 144 five-roll refiner, 41, 43. See also mill
enthalpy, 138, 178, 187, 201, 207 flame ionisation detector (FID), 71
enthalpy of melting, 138 flavan-3,4-diol, 21
environment, 8–10, 61, 215 flavanol, 93, 95, 97, 99
enzymatic mechanism, 66 flavanones, 93
enzyme, 23, 25–26, 28, 33, 72, 76, 84, 86, flavones, 93
flavonoid, 10, 35, 65, 72, 91–93, 95–96, 100
99–100 flavonoid-rich cocoa, 91–93
epicatechin, 12, 21, 35, 92–93, 95, 215 flavour, 9, 11–12, 14, 17–18, 21–24, 26–27,
epigallocatechin, 21, 92 29–31, 33, 37, 39, 42–43, 49, 51–52,
epithelial sensations, 186 55–59, 61, 66, 68–69, 73–77, 80–81,
esterification, 53, 199 84–88, 90, 151, 215–216, 218–221,
esters, 39, 53, 64, 66, 68–69, 215–216, 220 225–226, 228–229, 233–235
ethanol, 23–24, 28 flavour character, 12, 27, 29, 225–227, 235
ether, 70 flavour compounds, 12, 58, 68–69, 215, 220
ethical consumerisms, 8 flavour development, 12, 27, 29–30, 34, 42,
euphoria, 92, 99 58, 65, 71, 216
Europe, 1, 3, 5, 7–8, 10 flavour precursors, 18, 20, 22–23, 25–26,
European, 1, 4, 5, 7, 10, 48, 52 29, 33, 73, 216
European Commission Directive, 105, 157, flavour profile, 55
flavour precursors, 12–13, 22, 58
217 flavour properties, 58
European Union, 50, 52 flavour quality, 17, 58
exopeptidase, 22 flavour receptors, 81
flavour release, 74, 187, 215, 235
Fairtrade, 7–10, 35, 75 flavour synthesis, 68
Fairtrade cocoa, 7–8 flavour volatiles, 215, 225–227
Fairtrade Labelling Organization (FLO), 7 flavour-active components, 29, 216
fat, 21, 35–37, 39–41, 44–46, 49–52, 54–57, flavours, 20, 26, 30
flocculation, 131–132, 139, 153, 187, 231
65–66, 76, 79, 82–83, 86, 92, 94–95, floral flavour notes, 26
98, 102, 104–106, 112–113, 115–120,
123–124, 126, 128–129, 131–132, 134,
136–144, 147–152, 154–158, 161–162,
164–176, 178–182, 185, 187–190,

264 Index

flow properties, 103, 113, 179, 202, glutamine, 61
231–232 glyceride, 50
glycerol, 53, 199
flower, 14 glycerol backbone, 199
fluoroscopy, 85 glycerol molecule, 199
foam stability, 174 glycine, 64
food control, 73 glycosidase, 25, 29
food matrix, 74 G-protein-coupled receptors, 84
food structure, 216 Greece, 6
Forastero, 1, 12, 15, 20–22, 25–27, 35, Grenada, 26
grinding, 1–4, 40, 48, 79
76 grittiness, 47, 78, 103, 132
France, 4, 6 guaiacol, 27
free amino acids, 22 gum, 52, 74, 79
free-choice profiling, 80 gustatory, 74, 83
free fatty acids (FFA), 36, 226 gustatory–olfactory space, 83
free nerve endings, 79 gustatory receptors, 74
free radicals, 92, 99
free trade, 8 Haake K20 Thermo-regulator, 106
free water, 54 hammer mill, 40
fructose, 20–21, 25, 51, 77–78 hammy flavours, 30
fructosylamine, 61 handmade confections, 45
fruit, 1, 14–16, 19, 76–77, 80, 92, 206 hardness, 45, 75, 79, 110–112, 125, 127,
fruity notes, 26, 215
full-fat milk powder, 43 130–131, 139, 145, 147–150, 152–154,
functional foods, 10 174, 175, 177, 179, 181–183, 186, 193,
fungal attack, 19 201–204, 207–208, 212, 230–233
fungicides, 19, 20 harsh cocoa, 37
fungus, 19 harvesting, 13, 16–17, 19–20, 26
futures markets, 4 hazelnuts, 67, 70, 77
HDL cholesterol, 97
gallocatechin, 21 headspace concentrations, 66, 226
gas chromatography, 68, 71, 89, 215–216, healthier foods, 216
heap fermentation, 30
218 heat exchangers, 45, 155–156, 158, 168,
gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy 171, 176, 180–181, 200, 217
heat-resistant bacteria, 38
(GC-MS), 68, 71, 89, 215–216, 218 heightened sensitivity, 92, 100
gas chromatography–olfactometry (GCO), Herman Cortes, 1
Henri Nestlé, 2
215 Herschel–Bulkley model, 54, 102
generic descriptive analysis, 81 Hershey, 81
genetic origin, 26, 33 heterocyclic aroma volatiles, 63
genotype, 12, 14, 22, 25–26, 33, 80, 215, heterocyclic compounds, 61, 221
hexanal, 32
235 high-density lipoprotein (HDL), 97–98
Germany, 3–6, 105, 107, 158, 217 high-resolution gas chromatography
gestation, 84 (HRGC), 71, 216
Ghana, 2, 4–5, 12–13, 26–27, 58–59 honey, 1, 32, 76, 215, 219–221, 227–229,
global market, 91, 104 234
gloss, 46, 79, 103, 155, 174–175, 177, honeysuckle, 76
house flavours, 81
179–180, 183–184, 193, 197–199, hue luminance, 128–129
202–208, 212, 232
gloss units (GU), 177
glossy appearance, 79, 156, 190
Gluconobacter oxydans, 24
glucose, 21, 23, 25, 51, 59–60, 99
glucosylamine, 60–61

Index 265

human buds, 75 International Organization for
human nutrition, 35 Standardization, 54
humidified sniffing port, 218
humidity, 13, 56, 57 international trade, 7
HunterLab, 111, 177, 201 interparticle aggregates, 226
hydrocarbon, 64, 66, 68–70, 220 interparticle aggregation, 139, 146, 185, 187
hydrodynamic force, 198, 206, 214, 233 interparticle flocculation, 226
hydrolysis, 22, 24–25, 29 interparticle interactions, 101, 174, 184,
hydrophilic, 22–23, 52, 128
hydrophilic oligopeptides, 22 186, 198, 203
hydrophilicity, 226 interparticle passages, 206
hydrophobic, 22–23, 33, 52, 72 interparticle pores and crevices, 214
hydrophobic amino acids, 22–33 interparticle network, 204
hydrophobic oligopeptides, 22 interparticle network interactions, 204
hydrophobicity, 226 intrinsic qualities, 73
hydroxymethylfurfural, 61 invertase, 25
hydroxytrytamine, 99 Iquitos Mixed Calabacillo 67 (IMC67), 27
hypercholesterolemia, 96 Ireland, 5–6
hypertension, 92 iron, 35, 94–95
hypothalamus, 92, 99 isoflavones, 93
isoleucine, 64
icecream, 51 isomalt, 52
icecream coatings, 50 isomerisation products, 61
imidazole, 63 isothermal phase behaviour, 175
Incas, 1 Italians, 1
index of viscosity, 123–127, 145–150, Italy, 6
Ivory Coast, 12, 27, 59, 65
154
India, 27 Japan, 5, 6, 8, 178, 202
indium, 111, 178, 201 Java, 27, 37
Indonesia, 2–4, 12, Java beans, 27, 37
inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), 99 jaw movement, 85
inflammation, 91, 100 Joint Photographic Expert Group (JPEG),
infrared heating, 59
ingredient, 1–2, 10, 36, 41, 51, 57, 73, 177–178, 202
Joseph Fry, 2
80–81, 100–101, 105, 153, 234
inositol, 20 Karl Fischer, 105, 158, 176, 200, 217
insecticides, 20 ketones, 39, 64, 68–69, 71, 76, 215, 220
insects, 14, 19–20, 23, 36–37 key flavour compounds, 216
instrumental analyses, 235 key volatile fractions, 216
insufficient tempering, 180 kibbled cake, 40
insulin sensitivity, 91, 96, 99 kibbling machines, 40
intercrystal connections, 197, 203 kinaesthetic, 74
interfacial pressure gradient, 204 Kluyveromyces marxianus, 23
International Confectionery Association knife, 178, 202
Kodak, 177
(ICA), 5–6, 54, 101–104, 108,
120–121, 146, 153, 158, 176, 200, 230 lactic acid, 23, 29, 59
International Cocoa Organisation, 1 lactic acid bacteria, 23–24, 59
international cocoa market, 59 lactic acid formers, 24
international markets, 5 lactitol, 51
International Office of Cocoa, Chocolate Lactobacillus
and Confectionery (IOCCC), 54, 102,
106, 108 fermentum, 24
plantarum, 24

266 Index

Lactococcus (Streptococcus), 24 luminance, 177
lactis, 24 luteolin, 93

lactose, 51–52 machete, 18
laser diffraction particle size analyzer, 158, magnesium, 35, 94–95
Maillard, 23, 71, 216
200 Maillard flavour notes, 82
laser diffraction technique, 48–49 Maillard flavour precursors, 216
laser light scattering, 48 Maillard reaction, 51, 59–60, 63, 66, 71–72,
lauric fat, 51
laxative effect, 52 219, 228–229, 233
LDL cholesterol, 97 Malaysia, 2, 4, 26–27, 37, 64–65, 77
LDL peroxidation, 97 Malaysian cocoa, 64
lecithin, 43, 52–53, 65, 79, 101–102, maltitol, 51–52
maltol, 66, 68
104–106, 112, 115–120, 123–125, Malvern Instrument, 48, 105, 158, 176, 200,
128–129, 131, 136–144, 148–149,
151–152, 154, 157–158, 168, 217
175–176, 182, 200, 216–217, 230–231, Malvern MasterSizer, 48, 105, 158, 160,
234
leucine, 61 176, 217–218
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, 24 Malvern particle size analyser, 48, 105, 160,
light microscopy, 101
light milk chocolate, 37 176, 217
light roast, 37 mannitol, 20, 51
light scattering, 204–205 manufacturing techniques, 147
light scattering coefficients, 204 Marasmius pernicious, 20
light to medium roast, 37 marijuana, 100
linseed, 67 mass spectral data, 218
lipid, 20, 35, 42, 46, 50, 53, 65, 87, 95, 97, mass spectrometry, 71, 74, 215
156 Masterseeder, 45
lipid composition, 35 MasterSizer Laser Diffraction Particle Size
lipid crystal form, 35
lipid crystallisation, 44–45 Analyzer, 105, 200
lipid oxidation products, 97 mastication, 36, 78–79, 83–84, 86, 103
lipid–protein cells, 20 matching descriptors, 218
lipophilic, 226, 228–229 matrix, 215, 228, 234
lipophilic compounds, 226 matrix effects, 215
lipophilic–flavour interactions, 228, 234 matrix particle size distribution, 215
lipophilic matrix–flavour interactions, 226, matrix retention, 222
229 matrix structure, 228, 234
lipophilicity, 226 Mayan, 1, 91
lipophobic, 52 mealy bugs, 19–20
lipoxygenase, 96 mean particle diameter, 49, 105
liquid fat, 180–181, 198, 212 mean particle size, 49, 105
liquid fraction, 206 mechanical driers, 80
liquid polarity, 216 mechanical properties, 103, 156, 174, 177,
liquor pressing, 40
liquor roasting, 39 179, 184–186
liquor treatment, 40 medicinal benefits, 91
London, 5 medium roast, 37
London terminal market, 5 melanoidin, 63
low-density lipoprotein (LDL), 10, 91–92, melting, 76, 79, 84, 86–87, 101, 104, 106,
96, 98
low-fat chocolate, 131 111, 133–134, 138, 140–145, 149–154,
156, 158, 174–176, 178–179, 185–189,
193, 197–198, 200, 203, 207, 208–209,
212, 215, 231–235
melting behaviour, 235

Index 267

melting character, 101, 104, 197, 235 disc, 40–41
melting characteristics, 79, 101, 174–175 hammer, 40–41
melting duration, 101, 111, 144–145, pin, 41
stone, 40
153–154, 231 milling, 40
melting enthalpies, 186–187 mixer, 41, 105
melting index, 101, 111, 144–145, 153–154, mixing, 41, 43, 48–49, 146, 170, 176,

178 200
melting profile, 104, 175, 186–187 mixing efficiency, 85
melting properties, 35, 101, 144, 154, modelling, 155
moist roasting, 39
174–175, 198, 215 moisture, 31, 33–34, 36, 39–40, 43, 51, 53,
melting qualities, 101
melting temperatures, 111, 153–154, 156 54, 65, 72, 105, 113, 158, 175, 179,
methionine, 64 200, 216–217, 219, 226
methyl benzene, 68 molasses, 26
methylbutanal, 32, 64, 66–67, 69, 71, 215, molten chocolate, 45, 102, 146, 148, 150
monosaccharide, 51
219, 222–223, 225–229, 233–234 monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), 98,
methylpropanal, 64, 69, 71, 215, 219, 222, 175
mood-lifting effects, 91, 100
225 mould, 18, 31, 33, 65, 109, 156, 176, 181
methylxanthines, 99 mould growth, 31
Mexican beans, 64 moulding, 41, 42, 123, 144
Mexico, 1, 8, 27 mouth-feel, 47, 55, 73–75, 78–79, 84, 86,
microbial activity, 24 103, 226
microflora, 24 mouth temperature, 75
micrographs, 101, 174, 212 mucilage, 21
micro-organisms, 23, 28, 38–39 mucilaginous pulp, 18, 28
microscope, 111, 178, 232 multimodal, 74, 202, 219
microscopic images, 212 multimodal size distributions, 179, 202,
microstructural analysis, 153 219
microstructural examination, 190 multiple comparison test, 186, 202, 205
microstructural organisations, 193 multiple range test, 158, 175, 202, 218
microstructural properties, 135, 153–154, multistage heat exchangers, 45, 155
multivariate analysis, 235
156, 174 multivariate product space, 215
microstructure, 103–104, 111, 131–134, multivariate statistics, 101, 145, 153
multivariate techniques, 218
136, 153–154, 165, 174–175, 190, muscle activity, 85
193–194, 198–199, 202, 204, 207, 212, mystical properties, 91
216, 230–232, 234
mid-crop, 3 Nacional cocoa, 1, 12, 16, 26
migration, 75, 143, 204, 206 Nanay 33, 27
milk, 2, 10, 35–37, 41–43, 46–49, 51–53, nasopharynx, 85
56, 58, 65–66, 68, 71, 76–77, 79, National Confectioners Association/
81–82, 94–95, 102, 151, 182, 216, 235
milk chocolate, 2, 10, 35–37, 42, 46–48, Chocolate Manufacturers Association
51–52, 56, 58, 65, 68, 76, 79, 85, 87, (NCA/CMA), 103
94–95, 151, 182, 216, 235 Nestlé, 9, 41
milk crumb, 35, 43 network microstructure, 216
milk fat, 46, 51–52, 85, 235 neurotransmitters, 99
milk powder, 2, 35, 43 New Guinea, 27
milk protein, 52, 95 new product development, 103, 214, 235
milk solids, 41, 49, 51–52, 77, 81–82,
102
mill, 40–41
ball, 40

268 Index

Newtonian, 49, 53, 54 optimally tempered, 158–160, 172,
fluid, 49 180–197, 200, 203
liquid, 53–54
oral melting behaviour, 141, 186
nib, 25, 38–40, 59, 64. See also cocoa nib oral perception, 41
nib grinding, 40 oral sensations, 85–86
nib roasting, 25, 40, 59, 64 organic acids, 22, 77–78
niche markets, 9–10, 75 origin chocolates, 35
Nigeria, 3, 12, 27 Orinoco valleys, 1
NIST 05 Mass spectral library, 218 orthonasal olfaction, 86
nitric oxide, 91, 96–97, 99 orthonasal techniques, 73–74
nitric oxide (NO) concentration, 96 Ostwald ripening, 193, 198, 212, 214,
nitrogen, 21, 29, 68–69, 220, 228–229,
232–233. See also recrystallisation
233 oven drying, 31
non-cariogenic chocolate, 51 overfermentation, 33
non-hydrodynamic parameters, 216 overtemper, 176, 179, 235
non-ideal plastic behaviour, 54 overtempered, 158–160, 172, 174, 176,
non-Newtonian, 54
non-Newtonian flow properties, 102 180–185, 187–197, 200, 204
Norway, 5–6 overtempering, 179–181
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 175 oxalic acid, 21, 59
nucleation, 45, 155–156, 158, 165, oxazoles, 63
oxidation, 24, 29, 63, 65–66, 91–92, 95–98,
169–171, 174, 180, 193, 197, 232. See
also crystallisation 216
nutrition, 10, 35, 73, 91, 93, 97, 100 oxidative browning, 22
nutritional benefits, 91 oxidative condensation phase, 23
nutritional constituents, 94 oxidative stress, 93
nutty flavours, 59 oxygen, 68, 219
oxygen-mediated reactions, 29

obesity, 99 packaging, 42, 89
octadecane, 111, 178, 201 packaging materials, 89
octanal, 32 packing ability, 153
odour, 58, 66–71, 73, 77, 84, 89, packing fraction, 49
palate, 48
220–221 palate sensitivity, 48
odour assessment, 89 palm kernel oil, 51
odour characteristics, 58 palmitic acid, 35, 50, 52, 199
odour intensity, 68 panning, 42
odourants, 31 Papua New Guinea, 3, 26
odour-active volatiles, 32 parallel plate viscometer, 47
odourous compounds, 73 parenchyma cell, 20
off-flavour, 24, 29, 31, 33, 52, 77 Parinari 7, 27
oleic, 35, 50, 52, 199 particle deformation, 216
oleic acid, 52, 199 particle diameter, 48
olfactory, 74, 83, 84, 86, 89 particle fineness, 235
olfactory bulb, 84 particle-to-particle connections, 197
olfactory epithelium, 86, 89 particle-to-particle crystal connections, 193
olfactory neurons, 89 particle-to-particle interactions, 101,
olfactory receptors, 74
olfactory structures, 84 131–132, 182, 203
oligomers, 21 particle-to-particle network, 146
oligopeptides, 22 particle-to-particle strengths, 139
optimal temper, 109, 176, 180, 235 particle size analyser, 48, 158, 217
optimal temper regime, 109, 174, 179 particle size determination, 102, 103

Index 269

particle size distribution, 36, 47–50, 53, 57, platelet reactivity, 100
79, 81–82, 85, 101, 104, 106, 112–113, platelet-related primary hemostasis, 100
116–120, 123–128, 131, 133–136, 139, pod borers, 20
144, 148, 149, 151, 153–156, 160–161, pod storage, 17, 29, 33
165, 169, 172, 174–176, 179, 181, 184, pods, 3, 14, 16–19, 23, 235
187, 193, 200, 202–204, 215–216, pollens, 14
218–219, 222, 226–235 pollination, 14
polycondensation, 53
particle size reduction, 42 polydextrose, 51
pathogenesis, 97 polydimethylsiloxane-divinylbenzene, 218
pathogenic bacteria, 38 polyethylene (PE), 41
pathophysiological mechanisms, 91 polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), 53,
pectins, 21
penetrating chocolate, 61 102, 118
pentosans, 21 polymerisation, 63, 65, 72
peptides, 22–23, 29, 33, 66 polymorphic, 44–46, 141, 154–155, 174,
peroxidation, 96–97
pesticides, 20 180–181, 185–186, 193, 197–199,
pests, 13, 18 207–208, 212, 231–234
pH, 13, 22–24, 28–29, 39, 59–60, 63–65, 74 polymorphic crystals, 155
phase transformation, 175 polymorphic crystalline transition, 199
phase transition, 175, 181 polymorphic fat, 174
phenol, 27, 29, 66, 71, 80, 215 polymorphic forms, 44–46, 155, 180, 197,
phenol–protein interaction, 29 233
phenolic compounds, 29 polymorphic stability, 139, 154, 181
phenylacetaldehyde, 32, 66, 227, 229, polymorphic state, 172, 175, 198
polymorphic transformations, 45, 156,
233–234 180–181, 197–198, 232–234
phenylalanine, 23, 64 polymorphism, 141, 143, 147, 154, 175,
phenylethylamine, 99–100 231–233
phosphatidylcholine, 52 polymorphs, 104, 155, 231–233
phosphoglyceride, 52 polyphenol oxidase, 24, 25, 30
phospholipids, 125 polyphenolic cells, 20
phosphorus, 95 polyphenols, 12, 20–22, 24–27, 29–30,
photosensitive silicon, 48 33–34, 39, 92, 95–98, 215
physiological functions, 100 polyphenols storage cells, 21
Phytophthora megakarya, 19 polysaccharides, 26, 33
Phytophthera palmivora, 19 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 98
Pichia farinosa, 23 Portugal, 6
pigment cells, 21 post-harvest treatment, 33, 58, 216
pigmentation, 21 post-processing handling, 199
pin mill, 40 post-processing storage, 199
pine nut, 91 potassium, 35, 64, 95
plain chocolate, 2, 47, 79, 81. See dark potassium carbonate, 64
pre-crystallisation, 156, 199, 201, 217, 231,
chocolate 234
plasma antioxidant capacity, 97 precursors, 12, 13, 22, 58, 59
plastic mould, 176, 201, 217 predictive process control, 50
plastic trays, 176, 201, 217 premium chocolate, 5–7, 10
plastic viscosity (PV), 49, 51, 53–55, 102, premium quality, 235
premium varieties, 5
106, 112, 115–116, 119–121, 146, 153, pressed cake, 40
175, 216, 226, 230. See also Casson; pressing, 29, 40
viscosity pressure, 42, 45, 179, 202
platelet activation, 96
platelet functions, 93

270 Index

primary crystallites, 193 pyrazines, 27, 29, 39, 61, 63–64, 66, 68–71,
primary odourants, 68 215, 219, 221, 226, 229
primary taste, 36
principal component, 88, 152, 227–228 pyridines, 63, 70–71, 215, 221
principal component analysis (PCA), 88, pyrones, 71, 215, 221
pyrroles, 60, 63, 71, 215, 219, 221, 226,
120, 123, 129, 152, 227–228
proanthocyanidins, 21, 35, 92 228–229
process design, 45, 156 pyruvaldehyde, 64
process efficiency, 49
process fluidity, 49 quality, 2, 8–10, 17–20, 22–23, 25, 36–38,
process improvements, 230 45, 48, 51, 54–55, 57–58, 73–74,
process optimisation, 227 78–81, 87, 89–90, 101, 103–104, 133,
procyanidins, 12, 21, 27, 92–93, 95–96, 99, 154, 173–175, 181, 183–186, 190, 197,
202, 216, 230–232, 234, 235
215
product character, 216 quality assurance, 8, 48, 81, 154, 173, 184,
product composition, 103 186, 231, 234–235
product development, 216, 230
product identification, 103 quality attributes, 10, 73
product manufacture, 216 quality characteristics, 101, 175
product matrices, 155 quality control, 48, 81, 154, 173, 184, 186,
product optimisation, 80
product prototypes, 80 231, 234–235
product quality, 10, 155 quantitative Descriptive Analysis, 55
product quality characteristics, 155, 156 quantitative descriptive methods, 87
product rheology, 216 quantitative flavour profiling, 81
product structure, 216 quinines, 25, 77–78
product surfaces, 212 quinone, 25
product texture, 216
prostacyclin, 100 rainfall, 2, 3, 13, 26
protein, 20–22, 24, 35, 39, 52, 59, 66, 84, raised platforms, 30
raisin-fruity notes, 27
94–95 raisins, 26, 80
protein breakdown, 21 reactive oxygen species (ROS), 92
protein hydrolysis, 21 real-time magnetic resonance imaging, 85
protein nitrogen, 21 receptacles, 40
protein–polyphenol complexes, 29 recipe, 37, 45, 72, 82, 105, 147, 156–157,
proteinaceous constituents, 29
proteinase, 25 176, 200, 217
proteolysis, 23, 33 recrystallisation, 188, 190, 193, 197, 199,
proteolytic degradation, 22
proteolytic processes, 22 204, 210, 212, 232
proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry, red wine, 93
reduced sugar, 10
74 reducing sugars, 23, 34, 59, 61, 216
psychoactive chemicals, 99 refiner conche, 158
pulp, 12, 14, 16, 18–19, 23–25, 27–28 refiner pressure, 158, 175, 202, 218
pulp invertase, 24 refiner temperature, 158, 175, 202, 218
pulp pre-conditioning, 33, 235 refining, 41–42, 74, 79, 101, 112, 158,
pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance
175–176, 217, 222. See also roll
(pNMR), 175 refiner
pulverisation, 41 refractive index, 105, 158, 160, 176, 200,
pulverised cocoa cake, 41 217
pungent, 32, 67, 80 regression analysis, 144
putrid flavours, 30 regression coefficient, 144, 146, 161, 164
regression models, 146, 155, 161
relative humidity, 176, 198, 201
relative judgement, 55

Index 271

reproducibility, 118 satisfactory temper regime, 172–173,
residence time, 81, 144 231
residual fat, 40
residual proteins, 29 saturated fatty acid, 50, 52
response plots, 161, 165–167, 169–171 Sauter mean diameter, 105–106, 112, 131,
response surface, 155
response surface curves, 155 176, 200, 202, 218, 230
response surface methodology, 156 SCA, 22
retronasal flavour characters, 36, 73–74, 84 scanning electron micrography, 174
retronasal flavour release, 85 scanning electron microscopy, 178, 190
retronasal olfaction, 86 scatter plots, 207
retronasal pathway, 83 scattering factor, 129, 183
retronasal techniques, 73–74 Scavina 12 (SCA 12), 27
rheological behaviour, 57, 104, 230 Schiff base, 59–62
rheological characteristics, 10, 50, 215, 230 Schiff base formation, 59
rheological measurements, 36, 54, 102–103, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, 23
scraped surface heat exchanger, 47
146 secondary taste, 77
rheological models, 102, 104, 123 seed, 18, 25, 47, 156, 158, 168, 171, 232
rheological parameters, 101, 120, 123, 144, seed coat, 18
seed cotyledons, 18
146, 154 seed crystals, 156, 158
rheological properties, 41, 47, 101–104, seed tempering, 45
semi-selective sensors, 89
111, 144, 152–154, 156, 161, 175, semi-solid suspensions, 35
180–186, 199, 230–235 semi-sweet chocolate, 37
rheological qualities, 50, 101 semi-sweet cookie drops, 38, 125
rheology, 11, 49, 54, 101, 105, 144, 151, sensorial attributes, 57, 103
156. See also viscosity sensorial characters, 104
roast, 1, 12, 23, 25–27, 29–30, 36, 38, 40, sensorial properties, 73
58–59, 68, 70–71, 76–78 sensorial qualities, 175
roasted, 23, 30, 38, 59, 68, 70–71, 76–78, sensors, 158, 176, 200
222, 225–228 sensory, 11, 27, 31, 36, 41, 47, 49–50,
roasting, 1, 12, 23, 25–27, 29, 36, 38, 40,
58–59, 65, 72, 74, 77–78, 216, 235 54–55, 73–76, 79–81, 84, 87–90,
rodent infestation, 36–37 102–104, 112, 115, 133, 148, 175, 179,
rodents, 36–37 182, 202, 215, 229, 235
roll refiner, 41, 43, 176, 200, 217 sensory analysis, 55, 235
five, 41, 43 sensory attributes, 55
three, 176, 200, 217 sensory characteristics, 55
two, 41 sensory characters, 35–36, 50, 55, 73, 103,
rotational viscometers, 102 148, 235
Rudolphe Lindt, 2 sensory evaluation, 54–55, 74, 103, 175,
Russia, 4–5, 7 235
sensory mapping, 80
Sabah, 27 sensory perception, 11, 47, 55, 57, 74, 215
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 23 sensory philosophies, 81
Saccharomyces exiguous, 23 sensory profile, 55
saliva, 20 sensory properties, 41, 49, 75, 144, 154,
salivary enzymes, 86 175, 193, 232, 234–235
salt, 77, 79, 80, 84–85 sensory qualities, 102
sample press, 111, 178, 201 sensory scientists, 80
sample spanning aggregates, 120 sensory spectrum, 55
Sanchez, 27, 38 sepals, 14
Santa Clara, 218 serine carboxy-(exo)peptidase, 22

272 Index

serine exopeptidase, 22 Soxhlet, 105, 158, 176, 200, 217
serotonin, 91, 99 soya oil, 52
serum cholesterol, 92 Spain, 1, 6
serum concentration, 96 Spanish, 1
serum lipids, 96 Spanish Guinea, 1
sexual sensitivities, 100 spatial distribution, 197
sexual weakness, 92 specific surface area, 49, 146
shade drying, 31 spectral libraries, 218
shea butter, 75 specular reflectance, 205
shear, 45, 47, 49, 54–55, 86, 102, 104, spices, 1
spicy flavour notes, 26
107–108, 119, 156 spreadability, 123–127
shear rate-controlled rheometer, 101 stable crystals, 46, 156
shear stress, 55, 102, 107–108, 119–121, stable fat crystals, 46, 155
stable polymorphs, 174, 214
131 standard deviations, 201
shear viscosity, 49 starch, 20–21
shearing, 119, 120, 155–156, 174 starch granules, 20
shear-thinning, 54, 86 stearic acid, 35, 50, 52, 95, 199
shear–time–temperature process, 156 stearic triglyceride, 92
shelf-life, 45, 52, 81, 155–156, 174, 180 stepwise regression analysis, 155
shelf-life characteristics, 52, 81, 155, 174, Sterculiaceae, 1, 12
stereoscopic binocular microscope, 178,
180
shell, 20–21, 36, 38–40, 43 198, 208
shrivel, 3 stereoscopic binocular micrographs, 197
shrunken beans, 37 steric stabilisation, 53
silicon, 48 sterilisation, 38
Singapore, 177 sterol, 50
single-origin, 7, 10 stickiness, 174, 177, 179, 182–183
size distribution, 216 sticky surface, 79
skimmed milk powder, 42–43, 52 stimuli, 74
slaty beans, 80 stocks, 3
Slovenia, 4 stone mill, 40
smoky notes, 31, 80 storage cells, 20
smooth appearance, 199 storage characteristics, 181
snap, 76, 79, 155–156, 174, 180 storage polypeptides, 22
sniffing port, 218 storage proteins, 22, 33, 215
social class, 1 Strecker, 61–62, 64, 219, 229, 233–234
sodium, 77, 95 Strecker aldehyde, 62, 66, 229
sodium chloride, 77 Strecker degradation reaction, 61–62, 64,
soft model systems, 225
soil condition, 33 66, 68, 72, 219
solid chocolate, 45 stress, 49, 97
solid crystals, 46 strong basic cocoa, 26
solid fat content structural character, 156
solid phase micro extraction (SPME), 218 structural transformations, 188
solid tempered chocolate, 230 structural–fat migration relationships, 206
sorbitan, 53 structure–appearance relationships, 199,
sorbose, 20
sotolon, 68 207
sour, 27, 67, 77–78, 80, 84–85, 228–229, subnanometer-size dispersion, 206
succinic acid, 59
234 sucrose, 20–21, 25, 29, 51–52, 59, 77–78,
South America, 1, 3, 20, 35
South Korea, 5 104–105, 157, 175–176, 200, 216–217

Index 273

sugar, 2, 10, 19–23, 25–26, 29, 33–35, tartaric acid, 59
40–42, 51–55, 57, 59–61, 66, 72, 75, taste, 10, 36, 74
77–78, 82–86, 93, 98, 102–103, 112, taste buds, 74
116, 131–132, 136, 144, 157, 174–175, taste compounds, 86
178, 187–190, 200, 212, 216, 230, 235 taste descriptors, 77
taste intensity, 36
sugar alcohols, 51–52 taste masking, 89
sugar bloom, 55, 57 taste perceptions, 215
sugar crystal surfaces, 125 taste receptors, 86
sugar melting properties, 188 taste sensations, 77, 79
sugar particle surfaces, 125 taste stimuli, 74
sugar particles, 51 tea, 12, 93, 215
sugar products, 216 temper, 44, 160, 162–163, 166–174, 176,
sugar surfaces, 53
sugar–amine condensation, 59–60 179–190, 193, 197, 199, 231–232,
sugar-coating ability, 144 234–235
sugary chocolate, 75 temper index, 176
supercritical fluid extraction, 40 temper regimes, 172–174, 181–183, 199,
sulphur, 25, 70, 221 234
superoxide, 97 temper slopes, 158, 161–162, 165,
suppliers, 6–7 172–174
supply chain, 8, 175, 199 temper status, 158
sun drying, 30–31 temperature, 13, 24, 28–30, 33, 35, 38–41,
sun-dried beans, 31 43–45, 47, 49–50, 56–57, 59, 61,
sunshine, 2, 30 65–66, 72–75, 84–87, 158, 160–163,
surface area, 49 165–166, 168–173, 176, 179–181,
surface colour, 101 185–188, 193, 199–200, 202, 209,
surface crystalline network structure, 198 217–218, 231, 235
surface gloss, 197 tempered chocolate, 46, 109, 173
surface image, 208 tempered products, 155
surface plane, 205 temperer, 165, 169
surface regularity, 205 Aasted, 46, 158, 200, 217
surface texture, 14, 101 tempering, 41, 43–47, 56, 74, 79, 108, 153,
surface whiteness, 204 155–158, 160, 165–166, 168–170,
surface-active agents, 52 172–176, 179–181, 184, 193, 197,
surface-active ingredients, 49, 103 199–201, 206, 214, 217, 231–234
surfactant, 42, 52 tempering behaviour, 155, 165, 173, 176
suspension consistency, 102 tempering conditions, 144
sustainable development, 7 tempering curves, 176
sweatings, 23–24, 57 tempering equipment, 181. See also
Sweden, 6 temperer
sweeteners, 51–52, 82–84, 89 tempering machines, 45. See also temperer
Switzerland, 4–7, 75, 105, 158, 176, tempering process, 47, 158, 165
tempering procedure, 107, 158
200–201, 217 tempering temperatures, 173
swollen shoot disease, 19 tempering unit, 107, 173
systolic hypertension, 100 tempermeter, 109, 158–160, 166, 176, 201,
217
Tabasco, 27 temporal aspects, 86
tactile, 74 testa, 18, 20, 25
tallowy, 32 tetrahydrocannabinol, 100
tannin oxidation, 65, 216 tetramethylpyrazine, 29, 66, 221, 225–227,
tannins, 65, 216 229, 233–234
target population, 55

274 Index

textural attributes, 151 total plate count (TPC), 38
textural properties, 71, 101, 144, 151–154, total polyphenols, 216
total quality, 8
175, 199, 203, 230, 234–235 touch bloom, 56
textural qualities, 50, 101–102 traceability, 8, 33
texture, 2, 14, 41–42, 47, 49–52, 57, 65, 73, trained assessors, 218
trained panel, 55, 80
75, 76, 79, 84–85, 88, 90, 101, tray fermentation, 27
103–104, 109, 129, 135, 139, 144, 147, triacylglyceride, 109
153, 166, 174–175, 177, 179, 182, 187, triacylglyceride fractions, 109, 217
193, 197–199, 202–203, 212, 216, 219, Tricor Gloss meter, 177, 201
226, 230–231, 235 trigeminal sensations, 74
texture analyser, 101, 109, 111, 148, 177, trigeminal system, 79
201 triglyceride composition, 44–46
texture profile analysis, 55 triglycerides, 35, 44–45, 50, 52, 156, 172,
Thailand, 5
The Netherlands, 4, 6, 104, 157, 176, 200, 174, 198–199, 217
216 trilogy, 75
Theobroma, 1, 2, 12, 25, 35, 72 trimers, 21
Theobroma cacao, 1, 2, 12, 25, 35, 72 trimethylpyrazine, 68, 70, 219, 221–222,
theobromine, 20, 29, 99
theophylline, 20 225, 227–229, 233
thermal analysis, 111, 178, 201 trimodal particle size distribution, 49
thermal behaviour, 178 Trinidad, 20, 26–27, 37
thermal decomposition, 29 Trinitario cocoa, 1, 22, 26–27, 30, 35
thermal history, 172 tropic of Cancer, 1, 13
thermal thresholds, 66 tropic of Capricorn, 1, 13
thermodynamic, 45 trypsin inhibitor, 25
thermodynamic differences, 193 tyramine, 99
thermodynamic stability, 45 tyrosine, 23, 64
thermogram, 135
thermotolerant, 24 UIT1, 22
thiazole, 63, 71 UK, 2, 4, 6, 10, 104, 111, 157, 175–177,
thin film processing, 64
thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance 200–201, 216–217
(TBARS), 96 ultrasonic dispersions, 105, 176, 200, 218
thiozole, 215, 221 umami, 79
thixotropic behaviour, 120 undertemper, 176, 179
thixotropy, 55, 107, 108, 112, 116, undertempered, 158–160, 172, 174, 176,
119–123, 153. See also viscosity
threonine, 61, 64 182–197, 199–200, 203, 207, 212
time–intensity analysis, 88 undertempering, 179–182
time–intensity (TI) curve, 87–88 undesirable flavours, 80
time–intensity measurements, 87, 235 Unidentified Trinatario (UIT1), 27
time–intensity methodology, 151 United States, 102
time–intensity procedures, 235 unpleasant flavours, 80
time–intensity techniques, 87 unstable crystals, 46
time–temperature protocols, 174 untempered chocolate, 207
time–temperature throughputs, 155 untempering, 179
titratable acidity, 28–29 unsatisfactory temper regime, 172–173,
tocopherol, 50
tongue compression, 86 231
Torulopsis spp., 23 unstable crystal polymorphs, 180–181
total nitrogen, 21 unstable fat, 198
unstable fat polymorphs, 193
unstable polymorphs, 198
Upper Amazon clones, 27

Index 275

USA, 2, 4–7, 10, 102–103, 177–178, 201, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 218
218 volatile phenols, 66
volatile release, 36, 73–74, 225
vacuole, 20 volume histograms, 179, 219
valine, 64
value chain, 8 walnut, 77, 91
van der Waals force, 193, 197, 232 warehouse, 55
Van Houten, 39 weight control, 46, 102
vanilla, 1, 66, 68, 77 well-tempered chocolate, 46, 50
vanillin, 66 West Africa, 1, 2, 15, 20–21, 27–28, 35, 37,
vascular endothelium, 98–99
vascular system, 96 58, 76, 104, 157, 175, 200, 228
vasculoprotective effect, 100 wheat, 76
vasodilation, 91, 96, 100 whey powder, 52
vasorelaxation, 98 whey protein, 52
vegetable, 12, 92, 105, 160, 176, 200 white chocolate, 35–36, 94, 98, 235
vegetable oil, 105, 160, 176, 200, 217 white crystalline structure, 198, 214
Venezuela, 5, 26–27 whole bean roasting, 39
Viagra, 91 wine, 7, 12, 215
vicilin (7S)-class globulin (VCG), 22, 25 Wiley 7N Registry of Mass Spectral Data,
video fluoroscopy, 85
videofluorography, 85 218
vinegar, 220, 221 witches broom disease, 20
viral disease, 19. See also swollen shoot wooden billet, 18
world grindings, 3–4
disease world cocoa prices, 4
viscometer, 47, 54, 102 world trade, 8–9
World Trade Organization (WTO), 9
concentric cylinder, 102–103, 106
Haake, 105 xenomorphic, 188, 207
viscosity, 36, 40, 42–43, 45, 49–55, 81–83, xylitol, 51–52
XYZ tristimulus values, 201
86, 102, 107, 108, 110, 115–116,
118–120, 123–127, 129–130, 145–147, yeast, 23–24
149, 151–153, 216, 230–231, 234 yeast metabolism, 24
apparent, 110, 112, 118–123, 144–146, yeast population, 24
148–150, 152, 154, 230–231 yield, 9, 49, 102, 116–123, 144–150, 152
viscosity modifiers, 50, 103 yield stress, 49, 102, 112, 116–123, 131,
viscosity-reducing effects, 53
visual appearance, 199 144–150, 152–154, 168, 175, 216,
volatile acids, 31, 39, 43, 59, 64–66, 72, 216 230–231
volatile aroma compounds, 215 yield value, 49, 51, 53–54, 116–123, 132,
volatile aromatic fractions, 33 142, 153, 230. See also viscosity
volatile compounds, 74
volatile flavour constituents, 216 Zanzibar, 26
volatile fractions, 33, 216 zinc, 95



Photographs showing chocolate manufacture from cocoa
seedling to final product

Plate 1 Nursery of cocoa seedlings for planting.

Plate 2 Young cocoa plantations intercropped with plantain.

Plate 3 Flowering cocoa tree.

Plate 4 Growing (immature) Trinatario-type cocoa pods.
Plate 5 Typical cocoa plantation in Ghana with trees bearing unripe pods.
Plate 6 Unripe cocoa pods.

Plate 7 Cocoa tree with ripe and unripe Plate 8 A ripe (Forastero) cocoa pod from
pods. Ghana.

Plate 9 Ripe (Arriba) cocoa pods from the Ecuadorian region.

Plate 10 A researcher harvesting cocoa pods Plate 12 A researcher carrying ripe and unripe
from trees. cocoa pods.

Plate 11 A typical sharp-edged tool used for harvesting cocoa pods from trees.

Plate 13 Ripe, unripe and over-ripe cocoa pods (from left to right).

Plate 14 Vertical sections of unripe and ripe cocoa pods showing arrangements and colour of fruits
and seeds.

Plate 15 An opened unripe cocoa pod showing longitudinal arrangement of fruits.