Adapting_Early_Childhood_Curricula_for_Children_with_Special_Needs(KVTM)

LOOSE-LEAF VERSION

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Ninth Edition

Adapting Early Childhood Curricula
for Children with Special Needs

BUTUHLENGKAPHUB [email protected]
Ruth E. Cook
Professor Emeritus
Santa Clara University
M. Diane Klein
Professor Emeritus
California State University–Los Angeles
Deborah Chen
Professor
California State University–Northridge

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FOREWORD

For over three decades, this text, Adapting Early Childhood Curricula for Children with
Special Needs, has served as a major resource for early educators, related services per-
sonnel, and faculty members who teach them. Its tremendous success lies in its blend of
developmental and learning theories, with practical suggestions for delivery of services to
young children with special needs and their families.

While today’s children with special needs are enrolled in the full range of early
childhood education programs, many of these programs have limited exposure to strat-
egies for modifying or expanding the curricula for these children. In most cases, only
minor adaptations may be needed to ensure that all children can become full members
of the group and benefit from the activities. Nevertheless, these adaptations can pose
challenges to service providers who are engaged in meeting the diverse needs of a wide
range of children in their programs.

This text is aimed at supporting those personnel. Its focus is on enhancing collabo-
ration, consultation, and problem solving among educators and other service personnel
in community-based inclusive early education settings, whether they are in child-care
homes, centers, or classrooms. Emphasis is placed on assisting practitioners to identify
the strengths that children and families bring to the programs and on involving fami-
lies through family-centered, relationship-based approaches. These strategies can only
be optimally implemented by planned coordination and collaboration among the many
personnel who work in these settings, who come from a variety of disciplines such as
special education, early childhood education, physical and occupational therapy, speech
and language pathology, psychology and counseling, health services, and so on.

The authors, Ruth Cook, Diane Klein, and Deborah Chen, together, bring years of
teaching and clinical experience to this text, as well as active engagement in the field
of early intervention/early education. Their collective knowledge is reflected in their ef-
fective translation of theoretical information into practical techniques that can be imple-
mented in a range of early education settings.

This text covers topics such as recommended practices in the field, family con-
cerns and experiences, individualized program planning for children, implementation
of instructional strategies, managing and understanding child behavior, and the integral
involvement of families in their children’s programs. Specific curricular strategies in de-
velopmental domains, such as language, motor, social, concept development, and emer-
gent literacy, also are described. Other useful features of the text include charts and
descriptions of typical child development, information on specific types of disability in-
cluding children with multiple disabilities, and resources available through web sites and
periodicals.

Adapting Early Childhood Curricula for Children with Special Needs is a highly
readable and comprehensive resource for early educators. This text appeals to the needs
of a wide range of readers who seek to support the development of young children with
special needs and their families through inclusive early education programs.

Marci J. Hanson, PhD
Professor

Early Childhood Special Education
San Francisco State University

iii

PREFACE

This book is written with you, the student of either early childhood or special education,
in mind. Whether you are studying to become a teacher of young children with special
needs or are an early interventionist with a related background who wishes to develop
greater versatility in your chosen field, we have designed this to be an easy-to-read, in-
teresting, and comprehensive resource for you. It provides extensive use of examples,
dialogues, practical illustrations, vignettes, and a focus on the best practices in the field.

When this text was originally published, intervention with young children with spe-
cial needs was in its formative years. Since that time the field has expanded, and this
book has successfully grown with it. Young children with special needs are now enrolled
in a variety of settings and are served by professionals and paraprofessionals with diverse
backgrounds. Our objective now, as it was in the first eight editions, is to present a text
that will play a major role in the development of all who serve young children. The focus
is on the skills necessary to assist infants, young children, and their families to meet their
special challenges and develop to their fullest potential.

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES

This book has four main strengths that make it a compelling self-teaching resource:

1. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the natures of all young children
and how they learn. Adapting curricula and intervention approaches for children
with special needs works effectively only when professionals build on a strong
foundation of understanding what is common to all young children. On the basis of
this necessary foundation, students can consider strategies for meeting the develop-
mental and educational needs of infants and young children who have disabilities
or who experience circumstances and conditions that potentially interfere with op-
timal growth and adjustment.

2. The approach taken in this text stresses the absolute necessity of understanding
young children within the context of the family. Every family is unique and com-
plex, reflecting the many influences of history, culture or ethnicity, economics, and
family dynamics. Early interventionists must focus not on the detailed analysis of
these many factors but on ways of supporting families that will maximize their day-
to-day fulfillment as caregivers of their young. As explained in the text, your job, in
part, is to help parents develop a sense of competence in their own abilities to nur-
ture their children regardless of family circumstances. Appreciation of families’ roles
in the development of children and respect for families’ concerns and priorities are
critical to effective curriculum design and program development.

3. A significant portion of the text is organized according to traditional developmental
domains: social-emotional, motor, communication, and cognitive skills. As an early
childhood special education professional, you will seek to develop these growth
areas in the children entrusted to you. Thus, you must develop a thorough under-
standing of each of these complex domains.

4. Finally, you must ultimately understand that all the growth areas and individual and
family background factors must be synthesized into a view of the whole child. As in
any other form of synergy, the whole child is much greater than the sum of his or
her parts. This holistic view relates directly to the book’s emphasis on activity-based
and play-based approaches to intervention. You will learn how to integrate goals
and objectives for all domains into developmentally appropriate and motivating
activities in inclusive, community-based settings. You will also learn how to work
collaboratively with others in inclusive community-based settings in an itinerant
consultation role. Throughout, best practices are explained for home, center, or
classroom application.

iv

Preface v

The four points just mentioned suggest the framework and approach that have con-
sistently made this book appealing to readers of eight previous editions. They have been
time tested and consistently found to be helpful.

NEW IN THIS EDITION

• Throughout the text, links to short video examples further explain key concepts.
• References to relevant web sites are included in selected chapters.
• Colorful photos as well as color enhanced text contribute to the readability of the

text.
• Evidence-based practices were updated along with additional examples of embed-

ding interventions in daily activities and routines.
• In depth coverage of development of communications skills includes AAC
• Consideration of the importance of principles of universal design for learning

(UDL), with suggestions for application to preschool settings
• Expanded discussion of interventions strategies with special consideration of spe-

cific disabilities such as autism
• Discussion of dialogic reading as an evidence based practice for supporting lan-

guage and literacy development
• Information on effective means of supporting emergent writing and math skills.

ORGANIZATION

The text opens with a presentation of our philosophy for working with children who
have special needs. It explores human likenesses and value differences and discusses our
belief in the importance of providing services in the most normalized settings possible.
Chapter 1 highlights the historical contributions of the fields of early childhood education
and special education. Important features and implications of Public Laws 94–142, 99–
457, 101–336, 101–476, 102–119, 105–17, and 108-446 are summarized. Evolving trends in
the field and alternative approaches to service delivery including the unique challenges
involved in supporting inclusion are discussed. Key findings from research on preschool
inclusion and the necessity of using person first language are highlighted.

Chapter 2 presents techniques to involve families in a collaborative partnership
with the variety of professionals with whom they must interface. In developing a family-
focused approach, students are encouraged to view families from a systems perspective.
Special attention is given to the various methods of parent involvement that can accom-
modate cultural diversity, language differences, and unique family situations.

Within Chapter 3, the importance of becoming a skilled observer of children is
stressed as students are encouraged to link curriculum to assessment and the monitoring
of progress. The components of individualized family service plans (IFSPs) and indi-
vidualized education programs (IEPs) are discussed in detail while techniques for writing
goals and objectives are illus-trated. Strategies for collaborative programming and transi-
tion planning are outlined. Chapter 4 focuses on curriculum development within a frame-
work of generic instructional strategies and introduces the principles of the Universal
Design for Learning. Communicative interactions, facilitation of play, the development of
appropriate schedules, and optimal environmental arrangement contribute to the success
of early intervention. As noted earlier, Chapter 5 focuses on considerations and strategies
for teaching young children with specific disabilities, including those with low incidence
and multiple disabilities, autism, or who have been prenatally exposed to alcohol.

Chapter 6 begins by describing the stages of psychosocial development as a precur-
sor to understanding how to facilitate social skills through the medium of play. Consid-
erable attention is given to helping children who experience particular emotional and
behavioral challenges and working with those who have been maltreated. The use of
positive behavioral supports is discussed in detail.

After describing typical development of motor skills, Chapter 7 examines atypical
motor development. Practical intervention strategies are offered, including handling and

vi Preface

positioning guidelines as well as techniques for facilitating self-help skills. The role of
movement education and music in the development of motor skills is considered.

Chapters 8 and 9 focus on the development of communication and cognition. The
importance of caregiver–child interactions and the role of play in optimal development
is recognized throughout. Special attention is devoted to specific strategies for enhancing
communication skills in children with severe disabilities, autism, visual impairments, and
hearing impairments. Attention is given to children from non–English-speaking families.
The section devoted to understanding the social and linguistic factors related to children’s
emergent literacy skills and strategies for encouraging these skills is unique. Facilitation
of phonological and phonemic awareness along with a brief synthesis of premath skills is
included in this section.

The final chapter provides an overview of models, strategies, and challenges for
providing inclusion support to young children with disabilities who are included in com-
munity-based early childhood settings. The chapter also contains helpful considerations
for working with paraprofessionals.

As in previous editions, the appendices include a wealth of practical information,
such as developmental guidelines, curricular adaptations for children with specific needs,
modifications, and checklists to assist facilitation of inclusion. A sequence of steps for mi-
lieu approaches is included. Finally, it includes a list of competencies that we hope will
be developed by each and every reader.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We present this book with gratitude to the hundreds of children and parents who have
been our teachers. From them we have learned to value and nurture the uniqueness of
each child regardless of background, skills, or abilities. We believe we have found a way
to meet children’s unique needs in whatever setting they appear. It has been our pur-
pose to convey the essence of this process to anyone interested in working with young
children.

We wish to sincerely thank the many colleagues and friends who assisted and
supported us throughout the many years since the original edition of this book. We are
especially grateful for the conscientious efforts of those who so kindly read and com-
mented on the prospectus and rough drafts of the present edition. Special gratitude goes
to the following reviewers for their time, attention, and feedback: Kai Kaiser, Saddleback
­College; Ellen Lynch, University of Cincinnati; Megan Purcell, Purdue University; and
Sarah Hamsher. Malone University

There are many people who enrich and enhance one’s personal as well as profes-
sional life along the way. As indicated in the dedication which appeared in the previous
edition of this text, we want to again acknowledge the continuing support of Dr. Annette
Tessier, who was a coauthor of six of the previous editions, continues to inspire and en-
liven us. We will be forever grateful.

We also want to express our very sincere admiration and thanks to Dr. Marci ­Hanson
who has graciously written the foreword for this text. More than any other, Dr. Hanson,
has provided us intellectual and academic leadership and collegiality that has guided the
work of many of us in the area of early childhood special education.

Deep appreciation is extended to the parents, children, and outstanding staff of
Centro de Niños y Padres, at California State University at Los Angeles, the California State
University, Northridge Child and Families Studies Center, and the CHIME Early Education
Program for their effective implementation of evidence-based practices that support the
learning of all young children. Appreciation also goes to S­andra Hovancik and Barbara
Porter for their skills as graphic artists. Finally, we send gratitude to Laurie Nielsen for
­designing a useful instructor’s guide.

Preface vii

Throughout this project, the personal support of those with whom we live and
work has been invaluable. Very special thanks go to Erin Klein, Christopher Cook, and
Kimberly Cook Bodemar, (and of course their own children) without whom our under-
standings of child growth and development would have been superficial, at best. Sincere
gratitude goes to Curtis Cook, whose patience, tolerance, and editorial skills over the
years helped make this project possible.

The editors and staff at Pearson Education have worked hard to keep us on target.
Particular praise and gratitude goes to our editor, Ann Davis and her editorial assistant,
Janelle Criner, for their attention and prompt responses have been invaluable throughout
the acquisition and development of this manuscript.

BRIEF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Educating Young Children with Special Needs: The Challenge 2
Chapter 2 In Partnership with Families 32
Chapter 3 Developing Individualized Intervention Plans and Programs and

Monitoring Progress 68
Chapter 4 Designing Instructional Programs 104
Chapter 5 Considerations for Teaching Children with Specific

Disabilities 132
Chapter 6 Promoting Emotional and Social Development 162
Chapter 7 Helping Young Children Develop Motor and Self-Help Skills 204
Chapter 8 Nurturing Communication Skills 238
Chapter 9 Encouraging the Development of Cognitive Skills and

Literacy 282
Chapter 10 Teaming: Collaboration, Problem Solving, and Inclusion

Support 324
Appendix A Chart of Typical Development 362
Appendix B Strategies for Helping Children with Specific Disabilities

Participate in Inclusive Settings 370
Appendix C Common Sequence of Training Steps Used in Milieu

Approaches 375
Appendix D Inclusion Support Itinerant Procedures 377
Appendix E Periodicals Relevant to Early Childhood Special Education 384
Appendix F Competencies for Trainees in Early Childhood Special

Education 385
Glossary 389
References 397
Name Index  412
Subject Index  418

viii

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Educating Young Children with Special Needs: The Challenge 2

Viewing the Child with Special Needs as a Child First 3

Person-First Language  4

Inclusion of Young Children with Special Needs in Community-Based Settings 4
Philosophy of this Text 5
Early Childhood Special Education: An Evolving Field 6

Pioneering Influences and History of Early Childhood Special Education  6
Casa dei Bambini  7
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development  7
Recognition of the Role of Early Experiences  7
Project Head Start: A Breakthrough  8
Doubts 9
Impact of Early Education  9
Early Education for Children with Disabilities  10

Changing Policies: The Impact of Public Pressure and Legislation 10

Development of Professional Groups  10
The Power of Private Citizens  11
The First Chance Program  11
Public Law 94-142: The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975  11
Public Law 99-457: The Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1986  12
Public Law 101-336: The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990  13
Public Law 101-476: The Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1990  13
Public Law 102-119: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1991  14
Public Law 105-17: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997  14
Public Law 108-446: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004  14

Foundational Principles of Early Childhood Special Education 15

Relationship-Focused Models of Early Intervention  15
Family-Centered Services  16
Community-Based Inclusive Settings  16
Interdisciplinary Collaboration  17
Culturally Responsive Practices  17
Coordinated, Comprehensive Services  17
Evidence-Based Practices  18
Routines-Based and Embedded Interventions  18
Standards-Based Curriculum  18
Child Outcomes  19
Response to Intervention (RTI) or Tiered Instruction  19
Pre-K Response to Intervention  20
Universal Design for Learning (UDL)  21

Building on Recommended Practices 21

Collaboration Between Early Childhood Education and Early Childhood Special Education Professionals  22
The Importance of Ongoing Pursuit of Evidence-Based Practices  24

Service Delivery 25

Services for Infants and Toddlers  25
Services for Preschoolers  27

ix

x Contents 

Meeting Young Children’s Needs in Inclusive Settings 27

Unique Challenges Involved in Supporting Early Childhood Inclusion  28
Key Findings from Research on Preschool Inclusion  29
The Role of the Early Childhood Special Educator  29
The Case for Specific Training Related to Inclusion Support  30
Summary 31

Chapter 2 In Partnership with Families 32

Emotional Supports for Families with Children Who Have Special
Needs 36

Failure to Consider Basic Needs  36
The Need for Emotional Support  37

Parental Reactions: Dealing With Grief and Other Feeling States 37

Shock, Disbelief, and Denial  39
Anger and Resentment  39
Bargaining 40
Depression and Discouragement  40
Adaptation and Adjustment  41
A Father’s Perspective  41
Transitions 41

The Family as a System 42
Extended Family and Sibling Needs and Reactions 43

Siblings 44

Parents as Team Members 45
Options for Family Engagement 46

A Continuum  47
What Fathers Say About Their Involvement  47
Supporting and Partnering with Parents  47
Conferences with Parents  50
Parent Support Through Family Resource Centers  55
Engaging Families Through Internet-Based Communication  56

Working with Culturally Diverse Families 56

Cultural Models and Child-Rearing Practices  57
Language Differences  60
Parents’ Expectations of the Preschool Curricula  62

Working with Special Family Populations 63

Parents with Developmental Disabilities  63
Teen Parents  63
Foster Caregivers  64
Families That Have Experienced Divorce  64

Understanding the Impact of Poverty 65

Homelessness 66
Summary 67

Chapter 3 Developing Individualized Intervention Plans and
Programs and Monitoring Progress 68

The Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) Process for Infants, Toddlers,
and their Families 69

The IFSP Process  69

Contents xi

Participants in Initial and Annual IFSP Meetings  70
Identifying Family Concerns, Priorities, and Resources  70
The IFSP Document  71
Developing Outcome Statements  72

Service Coordination 79

Who Can Become Service Coordinators?  79
Models of Service Coordination  79

Promoting Essential Interagency Collaboration 80
Developing Individualized Education Programs (IEPS) for Preschoolers 81

The Interdisciplinary IEP Team Meeting Process and Required Contents of the IEP  81

Considering Darren 83

Background Information  83
Present Levels of Performance and Identified Strengths and Needs  84
Supports Darren Will Need to Be Successful in His Present Preschool Setting  86
Placement Decision: Inclusive Preschool Setting, with Supplementary Supports and
Services 86
Purposes and Limitations of the IEP  87
Accommodations and/or Modifications  87
The IEP Document  88
Considerations Beyond the IEP  89

Writing Program Objectives 91

Basics of Writing Behavioral Objectives  92

Becoming a Skilled Observer 93

Observing How Children Perform a Task  94
Considering the Special Challenges When English Is the Child’s Second
Language 94
Realizing Environmental Influences on Child Performance  94
Recognizing the Interrelationship of Skills  95
Guidelines for Successful Observation  96
The Portfolio and Its Use with Young Children  97
Types of Observation Samples  97

Recording Children’s Progress 98
Linking Assessment to Curriculum 101
Facilitating Program Transitions 101

Steps in Transition to Center-Based or Public School Services  101
The Role of the Early Childhood Special Educator in Facilitating Transitions  103
Summary 103

Chapter 4 Designing Instructional Programs 104

Curriculum 105

Definition 105
Choosing a Curriculum  105
Considering Children with Special Needs  107
Philosophy of This Text  107

General Instructional Strategies 108

Motivation 108
Applied Behavior Analysis  110
Positive Behavior Support (PBS)  111
Social Mediation of Experience  112

xii Contents 

Responsive Adult–Child Communication Strategies  113
Routines 114

Play as an Important Teaching Context 115

Music and Young Children  117

Arranging the Physical Environment to Maximize Learning 118

The Physical Environment  118
Grouping Children  118
Sound and Lighting  119
Visual Materials  120
Special Considerations for Infants and Toddlers  120

Creating a Positive Social-Emotional Environment 121

Anticipate Children’s Questions  121
Encourage Children with Specific Positive Feedback  121
Provide Opportunities for Self-Efficacy and Decision Making  122

Designing the Teaching–Learning Environment: Universal Design for
Learning 122

Multiple Means of Representation  122
Multiple Means of Expression  123
Multiple Means of Engagement  123

Embedding Teaching and Learning Opportunities 123

Carefully Planned Schedules Promote Consistent Daily Routines  124
EQUIVALENT PRACTICE: Providing a Variety of Activities to Accomplish Any One
Outcome or Objective  128
Using an Activity to Achieve More Than One Objective  129
Summary 130

Chapter 5 Considerations for Teaching Children with Specific
Disabilities 132

Getting Started: Gathering Information About the Child 133

Learn from the Family  134
Collaborate with Team Members  134
Identify Required Assistive Technology Devices  137
Plan and Conduct Observations  137

Suggestions for Teaching Children with Specific Disabilities 138

Health Impairments  138
Hearing Loss  139
Difficulties in Learning  140
Physical Disabilities  141
Visual Impairments  142
Autism Spectrum Disorders  143
Specific Strategies for Teaching a Child with ASD  144
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders  146

Teaching Children with Severe and Multiple Disabilities 148

Provide Opportunities for Children to Make Choices  148
Ecological Inventory and Discrepancy Analysis  149
Interdisciplinary Support Participation Plan  150
Objectives Within Routine Matrix  150
Analyze a Child’s Lack of Response  151
Principle of Partial Participation  152

Contents xi ii

Prompting and Fading Procedures  153
Errorless Learning  153
Communication Strategies  155

Tips for Promoting Children’s Participation in the Classroom 157

Art Area  157
Book Reading  158
Manipulatives Area  158
Pretend Play Area (e.g., dress-up, transportation)  159
Gross Motor Area or Activities and Outside Play  159
Large-Group Activities  160
Summary 161

Chapter 6 Promoting Emotional and Social Development 162

Becoming Emotionally Secure 163

Attachment 164
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development  165
Greenspan’s Model of Affective Development  167

Building a Healthy Environment 170

Structure and Consistency  170
Routines 171
Limits 172
Constructive Consequences  173
Logical Connections  173
Variety 173
Avoiding Frustration  174
Encouraging Desirable Expressions of Feelings  174
Promoting Appropriate Behavior Modeling  176

Facilitating Social Skills 176

Use of Environmental Structuring  176
Use of Typical Peers as Mediators of Social Skills  177

Encouraging Developmental Play Behavior 178

The Importance of Play in Supporting Healthy Social and Emotional
Development 178
The Nature of Play  178
Development of Social Interaction Skills Through Play  179

Helping Children with Emotional and Behavioral Challenges 184

Individual Temperament  184
Children Who Lack Self-Control  185

Children Who are Reluctant to Participate 190
Use of Reinforcement 193

Give Credit Where Credit Is Due  193
Ignore Minor Disruptive Behaviors  193
Minimize the Use of Negative Consequences  194

Positive Behavior Support (PBS) 195

Using Behavioral Analysis to Understand Disruptive Behavior  196
Designing Positive Behavior Support Plans for Young Children
with Disabilities  197
The Pyramid Model  197

Use of Social Stories 199

xiv Contents 

Special Considerations for Working with Children Who Have Been Abused
and Neglected 200
Summary 203

Chapter 7 Helping Young Children Develop Motor and Self-Help
Skills 204

The Development of Motor Skills 206

Sequential Trends of Motor Development  207
Helping Parents Understand  207
Reflexive Development  207
Developing Gross Motor Skills  208
Developing Fine Motor Skills  208

Atypical Motor Development 214

Problems in Muscle Development  215

Assessment of Motor Abilities 216

Infants and Toddlers  217
Severe Motor Impairments  218
General Considerations for Assessment of All Young Children  218
Play-Based Assessment  219

Physical Therapy Intervention 219

Role of Therapists  219
Approaches to Therapy  221
Sensory Integration  221
Positioning and Handling  223
Proper Lifting  223
Adaptive Equipment and Assistive Technology Devices  224

Development of Adaptive Behavior Skills 225

Use of Task Analysis  225
Dressing 227
Toileting 227
Feeding 228
Self-Feeding 230

Adapting the Environment 231

The Classroom or Center  231
The Home  231

Movement Education 232

Movement Skills and Music  233
Movement Skills and Imagination  234
Adaptations in Movement Education  234
Summary 237

Chapter 8 Nurturing Communication Skills 238

The Subskills of Language 239

Content, Use, and Form  239
Semantics 240
Syntax 240
Morphology 240
Phonology 241
Pragmatics 241

Contents xv

Contribution of Social Interaction Theories to Understanding Early
Communication Development 243
Stages of Development of Communication Skills in Young Children 244

Prelinguistic Communication  244
The Onset of Language  245
Combining Words  246

Necessary Conditions for the Development of Communication Skills 247

Characteristics That Can Interfere with Language Development  248
Characteristics That Can Interfere with the Production of Speech  250

Nurturing Speech, Language, and Conceptual Skills 251

The Important Role of Caregiver–Child Interaction  251

General Classroom Strategies that Encourage and Support
Communication 254

Beginning Where the Child Is  256
Conversing with the Child  256
Choosing What to Talk About  256
Listening 257
Developing Pragmatic Skills  257
Expanding Skills  257

Communication Interventions for Young Children with Intensive
Needs 257

Communicating with Children Who Have Severe Disabilities  260
Techniques for Teaching Expressive Communicative Behaviors: Output Strategies  261
Identifying Behaviors That Can Be Used Communicatively  261
Teaching Communicative Behaviors by Creating Opportunity and Need for
Communication 262
Teaching Communication Behaviors Through Applied Behavior Analysis  263

Augmentative and Alternative Communication Systems 265

Steps in Developing an AAC System  266
Classroom Strategies That Facilitate Augmentative Communication Skills  267
Using the Picture Exchange Communication System  269

Supporting Communication in Children with Hearing Loss 269

Specific Strategies for Working with Children with Hearing Loss  271
Facilitating Comprehension of Speech  271
Hearing Aids  272
Cochlear Implants: Amazing Advances in Technology  273
Supporting Spoken English  273
Children with Intermittent Hearing Losses  274

Supporting Communication in Children with Visual Impairments 274
Supporting Communication in Children with Autism Spectrum
Disorder 275

Use of Applied Behavior Analysis Approaches with ASD  275

Supporting Communication in Children with Severe Motor
Disabilities 276
Supporting Communication in Children with Language
Differences 277

Learning a New Language  277
Stages of Second-Language Learning  278
Dual-Language Learning and Home-Language Maintenance  278

xvi Contents 

Planning Communication Intervention: Collaborative Consultation with
Speech-Language Specialists 279
Summary 281

Chapter 9 Encouraging the Development of Cognitive Skills and
Literacy 282

What is Cognition? 283
Basic Cognitive Processes 284

Attention 284
Perception 284
Discrimination 284
Memory 285

Development of Cognitive Skills 285

The Developmental Theory of Piaget  285

Demonstration of Cognitive Skills Through the Developmental Stages of
Children’s Play 289

Simple Object Manipulation  289
Exploratory Play  289
Functional Play  289
Symbolic Play  289

Supporting the Development of Cognitive Skills in Young Children 290

Intentionality 290
Means–End Behavior  291
Trial-and-Error Exploration  291
Object Permanence  292
Deferred Imitation  292

Supporting the Development of Cognitive Skills in Preschoolers 293

Developing Symbolic Representation Through Play  293
Cognitive Developmental Stages of Play  293
Problem Solving  294

Teaching Children Who Have Intellectual Disabilities 295

Characteristics of Children with Significant Intellectual Disabilities  296
Adapting Instruction  296

Facilitating Cognitive and Information-Processing Subskills Related to
Academic Achievement 297

Facilitating Children’s Engagement  299
Structuring Learning Experiences  301

Emergent Math and Science 302

Classification, Seriation, and Concept Development  303
Teaching Number Concepts  305
Avoiding Stereotyped, Labored Teaching of Concepts  306

Development of Literacy 307

The Precursors of Reading and Writing  308
Emergent Literacy Goal Areas  309
Developing Literacy in Daily Classroom Activities and Routines  310
Oral Language and Literacy for School Readiness  311
The Nature of School Language  312

Cultural Differences in Early Language and Literacy Experiences 312

Differences in Children’s Early Use of Narrative  312

Contents xvii

Cultural Differences in Early Caregiver–Infant Interaction  314
Cultural Differences in Uses of Print  314

Specific Strategies that Support Emergent Literacy Skills 315

Whole-Language Versus Phonological Approaches to the Development of Literacy  318
Developing Print Awareness and Sight-Word Vocabulary  321

A Brief Note on Early Writing 323
Summary 323

Chapter 10 Teaming: Collaboration, Problem Solving, and
Inclusion Support 324

Collaboration, Problem Solving, and Shared Decision Making 325

Communication Strategies: The Key to Successful Teaming  326
Problem Solving and Conflict Resolution  327
Dealing with Conflict: Perspective Taking and the Process of Conflict Resolution  327
Problem-Solving Case Study: Paulo  330

Models for Supporting Children with Special Needs in Inclusive
Settings 332

No Support  332
Use of One-to-One Assistant  332
Staff In-Service Models  333
Itinerant Consultation Model of Inclusion Support  333
A Note on Disability Specialists and Therapists in Itinerant Service-Delivery Roles  334
Specific Support Strategies Provided by Itinerants  334

Co-Teaching Approaches to Inclusion Support 338

Co-teaching Defined  338
Challenges of Co-teaching  338
Components of Effective Co-teaching  338
The IEP: The Key to Successful Inclusion  341
Communication and Collaboration in Co-teaching Models  343
Problem Solving and Conflict Resolution in Co-teaching Models  344
Administrative Issues  344
Stages of the Co-teaching Relationship  345

Effective Teaming with Interdisciplinary Specialists 345
Teaming with Paraprofessionals 346

Who Are the Paraprofessionals?  346
Designing and Defining Jobs  347
Communicating Expectations  350
Discovering and Using Special Skills and Talents  351
Defining the Teacher’s Responsibilities to Paraprofessionals  351
Being an Appropriate Role Model  352
Allowing for Sufficient Planning Time  353
Providing Constructive Feedback: Coaching and Mentoring the
Paraprofessional 354

Paraprofessionals as One-to-One Assistants 355

Supervision of One-to-One Assistants in Inclusive Settings  356
Guidelines for Use of One-to-One Assistants  356

Evaluating Paraprofessional Services 357

Using Self-Evaluations  357
Teacher-Initiated Evaluations of the Paraprofessional  357