Protein interactions
Biological role is almost always dependent on a
physical interaction with something else – a complex
Interactions
Bind to LIGANDS without ligand = apo
with ligand = holo
Use NMR, X‐ray and Mass spec to determine structures of complexes.
General:
Usually a specific, unique binding site for a ligand. Sometimes, say for metal
binding, similar sites.
There are exceptions however – ex. Cytochrome C3
‐binds 4 heme’s in different sites
1.Binding sites often are sizable
depressions on the surface
1.The interactions surface between a
protein and ligand tends to be
maximized
a. Small ligands don’t perturb the dimensions of a protein much e.g. metals
b. Larger ligands tend to bind in surface depressions where they can associate
and dissociate – need to do their job and leave often
c. Non‐dissociators tend to bind in deep cavities near protein interior to
become integral parts of the structure – so they can’t leave easily
d. Long linear ligands (ex. polysaccharides) bind in clefts on the surface
e. If the protein and ligand are approx. same size (say 2 associating proteins)
their interface tends to be flat and large
f. With large ligands such as nucleic acids, the protein tends
to bind to depressions on the surface of the ligand.
Need steric and physical complementarity between each.
Approx. same rules we’ve already seen:
Electrostatics
Hydrophobics
Polar groups on surface – H‐bonded
Charges neutralized
Water molecules can act as intermediates
Sometimes charges can be solvated by multiple H‐bonds
The structure of a protein domain generally does not change substantially
when it binds a ligand – exceptions of course
Exceptions are usually of functional importance. Small movements of
atoms of the protein do occur in every case but they are often comparable
to the experimental errors in crystallographic/NMR structure analysis.
The most extreme changes in domains generally involve movements of
flexible loops on the protein surface. On the other hand, some small
adjustments are probably important in general to permit rapid rates of
association and dissociation; totally rigid complex structures in which
atoms interlock and interdigitate would be unlikely to be able to come
together readily.
But small subtle motions are seen. However, this is not always the case–
some proteins go through wild changes upon binding – some metal binders
ex. Calmodulin
Apo-Calmodulin Ca2+/Calmodulin
Ca2+/Calmodulin + peptide
Basic Binding Energetics
What’s the affinity of the protein for the ligand?
a measure of the free energy (∆G) of the interaction
The magnitude of the affinity determines whether a particular interaction
is relevant under a given set of conditions.
2 parts to affinity –
(a)does it like to naturally bind protein
(b)ligand concentration.
∆G = ∆H –T∆S (H – enthalpy, S – entropy)
Gibbs free energy equation
Tells you how much protein will like its ligand
∆G = ∆H – T∆S
The change in enthalpy (∆H) and the change in entropy (∆S) have opposite
signs—∆G will change very little if both enthalpy and entropy increase.
In a reaction where the chemical bonds become stronger or where chemical
bonds are being formed throughout the course of a reaction a negative ∆H
value will result. At the same time, this act of forming or even strengthening a
bond will limit the movement of the molecule and hence decrease the
molecule’s entropy. This leads to a fairly small ∆G value. This effect is
frequently invoked in the discussion of the thermodynamics of proteins,
ligands, and nucleic acids.
Binding Affinities
The affinity between a protein P and a ligand A is measured by the
association constant Ka for the binding reaction at equilibrium:
All species are presumed to be present at sufficiently low concentrations for
thermodynamic ideality to apply ‐The enthalpy of solution (or "enthalpy of mixing")
is zero as is the volume change on mixing; the closer to zero the enthalpy of
solution is, the more "ideal" the behavior of the solution becomes.; if not, activities
rather than concentration must be measured. Ka is a constant under a given set of
conditions and is measured experimentally by the dependence of binding on the
free ligand concentration.
The greater the value of Ka, the greater the affinity. The value of Ka has units of
(concentration)‐1, however, and it is often intuitively easier to consider the
dissociation constant Kd, which is simply the reciprocal of Ka with units of
concentration. We talk about ‘binding of 3 micromolar’ – that means Kd.
With concentrations of free ligand below Kd, little binding to the protein occurs.
With a concentration equal to Kd, half the protein molecules have bound ligand. An
occupancy of 90% requires a nine times greater concentration of free ligand,
whereas 99% occupancy requires that the concentration be 99 times Kd. Binding
equilibria are simplest when the ligand is present at a concentration much greater
than that of the protein binding sites.
Specific binding by a protein of one ligand, and not another, depends on their relative affinities,
their concentrations, and whether they bind at the same site.
Two ligands are present at a concentration of 10‐5M but have different values of Kd. Only the ligand
with the lower Kd is bound significantly.
If both are present at much higher concentrations both are bound to the protein to the maximum
extent if they bind at separate sites. In this case, the higher affinity of one ligand is almost
immaterial.
If the two ligands compete for the same site, the ligand with the higher affinity is bound to a
correspondingly greater extent when the ligands are present at the same concentration.
Weaker affinity can always be overcome by a higher concentration of that ligand, so binding
affinities should always be considered relative to the concentration of the ligand.
Therefore,
If you increase the affinity, the stronger the Kd, the tighter the binding
complex, less dissociation.
A lower Kd means a tighter binding.
Increase the concentration to overcome a weak Kd.
Energetics Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC)
is a physical technique used to
∆Gbind = ‐RT ln Ka = RT ln Kd determine the thermodynamic
parameters of interactions in solution.
ITC is a quantitative technique that can directly measure the binding
affinity (Ka/d), enthalpy changes (∆H), and binding stoichiometry (n) of
the interaction between two or more molecules in solution. From these
initial measurements Gibbs energy changes (∆G), and entropy changes
(∆S), can be determined using the relationship:
∆G = -RTlnKa = ∆H-T∆S
(where R is the gas constant and T is the absolute temperature).
An isothermal titration calorimeter is composed of two
identical cells made of a highly efficient thermal
conducting and chemically inert material surrounded by
an adiabatic jacket. Sensitive thermocouple circuits are
used to detect temperature differences between the
reference cell (filled with buffer or water) and the sample
cell containing the macromolecule. Prior to addition of
ligand, a constant power (<1 mW) is applied to the
reference cell. This directs a feedback circuit, activating a
heater located on the sample cell. During the experiment,
ligand is titrated into the sample cell in precisely known
aliquots, causing heat to be either taken up or evolved
(depending on the nature of the reaction). Measurements
consist of the time-dependent input of power required to
maintain equal temperatures between the sample and
reference cells.
In an exothermic reaction, the temperature in the sample
cell increases upon addition of ligand. This causes the
feedback power to the sample cell to be decreased in
order to maintain an equal temperature between the two
cells. In an endothermic reaction, the opposite occurs;
the feedback circuit increases the power in order to
maintain a constant temperature (isothermic/isothermal
operation).
DNA binding proteins
Generally involved in replication or expression of genetic information
– stopping or starting things
Proteins mainly bind to very specific sites on DNA defined by a specific
sequence of the 4 nucleotides A, T, C and G at a few adjacent
positions.
For a protein to distinguish among different nucleotide sequences in dsDNA is not easy since the
nucleotides of the 2 anti‐parallel strands are base‐paired (A—T, T—A, C—G, G—C) in the interior of
the double helix. Hard to find specific spot because similar environment all way through
The exterior of the DNA double helix is
almost independent of its sequence being
composed of the constant phosphate‐ sugar
backbone. Only the edges of the
nucleotides are accessible to the solvent and
to the protein – primarily in the major
groove. The nucleotides are distinguished
mainly by the accessible polar groups. How
does a protein recognize which major
groove to bind to?
If a protein is to discriminate among DNA base pairs by interacting with their edges in the major
groove, it needs to have interacting groups that protrude substantially from its surface, to be able
to contact the nucleotides at the base of the groove.
The best characterized structural motif that accomplishes this is the helix‐turn‐helix, which
protrudes from the protein surface.
It is observed in a number of proteins that have no other
structural similarities. This motif seems to have
sufficient intrinsic stability to be able to exist as a
protuberance, with few interactions with the rest of the
protein structure, in order to penetrate the DNA major
groove.
To stabilize the helix‐turn‐helix, hydrophobics pack between the helices.
You can predict HTH’s from sequence info based on this.
HTH motifs come in pairs and sit adjacent in major grooves. There are lots
of hydrophobic in middle to stabilize. What residues do the work? Arg and
Lys mainly.
The specificities of the various HTH motifs for binding to different DNA sequences
arise mainly from the different amino acids side chains that protrude from the amino
end of the 2nd helix – known as the recognition helix. These enter the major groove
of the DNA. MAKE SPECIFIC INTERACTIONS
The other α‐ helix lies across the major groove making non‐specific contacts.
Recognition helix– 2nd of
HTH
The residues that interact with the DNA are primarily polar, especially those with multiple
hydrogen bonding side chains.
Asn, Gln, Arg, Asp, Glu and Lys
These direct interactions involve flexible side chains.
Different HTH’s interact with DNA in a variety of geometries – there is no simple code relating
the amino acid sequence to the nucleotide sequence it recognizes.
Non‐recognition helix:
Peptide bond of 1st helix binds to phosphate
backbone weakly inducing structural changes
Use backbone NH groups to
H‐bond to phosphate group
of DNA
1st helix doesn’t go into groove
Specific affinities and interactions seem to be determined by the ability of the
DNA to undergo specific structural changes so that complementary surfaces
are formed between the proteins and the DNA.
Interactions between the DNA sugar‐ phosphate backbone and the proteins
are important for establishing such structural changes and so for positioning
the recognition helix correctly in the major groove.
Often it’s H‐bonds between the DNA phosphate groups and the peptide
backbone NH groups that help establish the recognition helix for specific
interactions. Shuffling.
Zinc Finger
Another structural source of putting an α‐ helix in the right place to
interact with nucleotides in the major groove is the Zinc Finger
The most conspicuous feature of which:
Zn2+ which is chelated by 2 His, 2 Cys
Characteristic motif:
X3 – C – X2‐4 – C –X12 –H – X 3‐4 – H – X 4
X‐ can be anything
Very big in gene regulation in eukaryotes
helix XFIN – 31
Hydrophobics Multiple Zn fingers are
In middle usually present in
tandem along a
polypeptide chain linked
by a few residues,
frequently
Thr – Gly – Glu – Lys
β‐ hairpin
An individual finger only
binds to DNA weakly but
many together bind very
well.
Each Zn finger contacts 3 adjacent nucleotide bp’s in the major groove.
Direct interaction between the protein and the DNA nucleotides is a major factor in the
specificity of binding, but another factor is thought to be the deformability of the DNA
double helix. DNA is observed to bind to some proteins in conformations that are
distorted to varying extents from the classical linear double helix. The DNA structure, not
that of the protein, is perturbed in these cases, indicating that the DNA is more pliable
structurally than is the protein. An exception is the Cro protein, in which binding to DNA
causes the two monomers to rotate 40o relative to each other by twisting of the two β‐
strands that connect one monomer with the other.
There is considerable evidence for the plasticity of the DNA double‐helix structure, and
the extent and nature of this plasticity vary with the nucleotide sequence. Regions
which are rich in A and T nucleotides appear to want to bend more – are more flexible.
Some DNA‐binding proteins are thought to discriminate among different nucleotide
sequences by binding their specific sequence in a distorted conformation that is
energetically favorable for that sequence but not for others to which the protein might
otherwise bind.
Proteins that bind to DNA irrespective of nucleotide sequence, or with little
sequence specificity recognize primarily the DNA backbone of phosphate and
sugar groups. Bind non‐specifically.
Electrostatic interactions and the release of counter ions and bound water
molecules appear to be the driving force for binding DNA to proteins like this.
DNA is polyanionic with one ionized phosphate group per nucleotide.
Even with proteins that bind specifically, the initial binding is non‐specific – the
protein binds loosely to the DNA and it can search along the essentially 1D
molecule for its specific binding site to which it binds more tightly Kd of 10‐3 –
10‐6 is non‐specific mainly.
10‐6 – and lower = specific, 2nd stage of binding.
Interactions between DNA and proteins are usually measured by band‐shift
electrophoresis and ‘footprinting’ in which the band protein protects the DNA
from chemical modification.
The presence of DNA – binding proteins – tightly bound – causes the
electrophoretic mobility of the DNA segment to be shifted – good assay.