Vedanta Social Studies Book 8 Final (2078)

Glossary

competent : capable
supervise : check, inspect
tribunal : a type of court with the authority to deal with a particular

testimony problem or disagreement

: a thing that shows that something else exists or is true

ACTIVITIES

(1) Prepare a short speech on the role of judiciary to protect human
right and freedom, and deliver it in the class.

(2) Prepare a list of qualifications required for the appointment of
the chief justice and the judges of three tiers of the judiciary and
share in the class.

EXERCISE

(1) Give very short answers to the following questions.
(a) What is judiciary?
(b) Who appoints the judges of the supreme court?
(c) Why is the supreme court called the court of record?
(d) What is the retirement age of the judges in the high court?
(e) Name the authentic body to recommend for the appointment of
the chief justice and other judges in the high court.

(2) Give short answer to the following questions.

(a) Make a list of the courts in the judicial hierarchy from top to bottom?
Write about the supreme court in brief.

(b) What rights should be given to the judiciary for the successful and
effective democratic practices in our country? Write in six points.

Vedanta 151 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

(c) Do you think the judiciary should be free from any political pressure?
Write your opinion in a short paragraph.

(d) Write the functions of district courts according to the present
constitution.

(e) Explain the following picture highlighting the role of judiciary in
your own words.

(3) Give long answer to the following questions.
(a) "The independent, impartial, competent and powerful judiciary
makes democracy effective and successful in the country.” Explain
this statement in your own words.
(b) Explain the functions of judiciary in six points and evaluate the
functions done by our judiciary in two points.

COMMUNITY WORK

Collect some pieces of news regarding the functions of judiciary from
newspapers in your library and share some important highlights to
your teachers, senior citizens and other few educated people of your
locality. Ask their feeling after they hear the news and prepare a short
report based on your work.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 152 Unit Four:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Civic Sense

Revisiting the Unit

(1) Answer the following questions.

(a) How do social rules help to organise our society?
(b) What are human rights?
(c) Mention the reasons why women are lagging behind in Nepalese

society?
(d) How can civic obligations be fulfilled?
(e) What are the functions of the executive organ of the government?

(2) Make a list of the functions of the judiciary and present it to the class.

(3) Write a conversation between two friends concluding that their
classroom rules are also social rules.

(4) Conduct a debate competition for and against the fact that inclusion is
the basis of national unity.

Project Work

Go to any five houses in your community and find out whether the people
have fulfilled their responsibilities in the following areas. Make a list of the
following situations and present the findings to the class.
House number:
Head of the family:

SN Responsibilities Situation of fulfillment
of responsibilities
1 Following laws
2 Taking part in elections Always Sometimes Never
3 Paying tax
4 Participation in development work
5 Protecting public properties

Vedanta 153 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

UNIT

5 OUR EARTH

Learning On the completion of this unit, we will be able to:
Outcomes • introduce the longitude, latitude and antipode, and mention their effects;
• explain the weather and climate;
• present the effects of changes in season;
• describe the effects of earthquakes and storms;
• trace the map of Nepal and identify districts and provinces;
• clarify the physical and socio-cultural life of Africa, North America and South

America; and fill the geographical facts in it;
• shed lights the effects of the climate change.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 154 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Lesson

51..11 Change of Season

The earth is a planet in the solar system. It moves around the sun as other
planets do. The earth has an elliptical path called orbit to move around the
sun. Its axis tilts at an angle of 66 ½° in one direction. It brings changes in the
seasons and variation in the lengths of day and night in both hemispheres.
The hemisphere that inclines to the sun has the summer season. Similarly,
the hemisphere that tilts away from the sun has the winter season. The
hemisphere that experiences summer has longer day and shorter night with
a hot climate. There is a cold climate with shorter day and longer night in the
hemisphere experiencing the winter season. It happens as the hemisphere
that tilts to the sun receives more rays of the sun. The hemispheres have
just the opposite seasons and climatic condition in the same period. When
the northern hemisphere has summer, there is winter in the southern
hemisphere and vice versa.

The earth takes 365 days and 6 hours to complete the revolution in its
orbit. As a result, there is one more day in each four years interval. That is
why there are 366 days in the year every four years. The year having 366
days is called a leap year. February has 29 days in the leap year.

March 21

Summer Season Spring Season

June 21 December 22

Autumn Season September 23 Winter Season

Vedanta 155 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Due to the shape of orbit and inclination of the axis, the equator, tropic
of cancer and tropic of Capricorn become overhead to the sun at different
times. The sun is overhead to the equator on 21 March. After three months,
the sun rises vertically on the tropic of cancer on 21 June. Similarly, the sun
again comes to be overhead to the equator on 23 September and to the tropic
of Capricorn on 22 December.
The day when the sun is overhead to the equator is called equinox. The
length of day and night is equal in the equinox. The day of 21 March is
called summer equinox as the summer begins from this day in the northern
hemisphere. The 23 September is called winter equinox in the northern
hemisphere. The northern hemisphere has the longest day and the shortest
night on 21 June. It is called summer solstice here. The 22 December is
called winter solstice as it is the day with the longest night and shortest day
in the northern hemisphere.
There are four seasons, each consisting of three months in both hemispheres.
The northern hemisphere has a summer season from 21 March to 21
June and an autumn season from 21 June to 23 September. Similarly,
this hemisphere experiences the winter season from 23 September to 22
December and the spring season from 22 December to 21 March. However,
geographers claim that there are six seasons in Nepali calendar. They are
Bashanta, Grishma, Barsha, Sharad, Hemanta and Shishir. They change at
an interval of two months.

21 March to 21 June - summer season
21 June to 23 September - autumn season
23 September to 22 December - winter season
22 December to 21 March - spring season

Glossary

revolution : a complete rotation of the earth around the sun
rotation
: the earth spins in its axis once in a day, this process is
known as the revolution

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 156 Unit Four:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Civic Sense

ACTIVITY

(1) Discuss in the class and say what would happen, if:
(a) The earth was flat.
(b) The earth did not move around the sun.
(c) The earth did not tilt at 66 ½° angle.

EXERCISE

(1) Write very short answers to the following questions.
(a) What is the main cause of the season change?
(b) How much time does the earth takes to complete its revolution?
(c) When do the rays of the sun fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer?
(d) Write the duration of the autumn season in the northern hemisphere.
(e) Name the seasons according to the Nepali calendar.

(2) Write short answers to the following questions.
(a) What are the effects of the season change? Write in short.
(b) Write about the different types of seasons.
(c) "The hemispheres have just the opposite seasons." Explain this
statement with reasons.

(3) Write long answers to the following questions.
(a) Explain the seasonal change in the southern hemisphere with a
diagram.

COMMUNITY WORK

Consult one of your relatives or neighbours living abroad. Ask about
the current climatic conditions of the place and compare them with the
existing climate of Nepal. Make a list of similarities or differences in
climatic conditions.

Vedanta 157 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Lesson

51..21 Weather and Climate

Weather

We can observe several changes in the
atmosphere. Sometimes, we can notice a clear
sky during the daytime, cloudy after some time,
and rainfall after that. Such kind of frequent
change in the atmospheric conditions within a
very short period of time is called weather. In
other words, it is the state of the atmosphere at
a particular location over a very short period.
Wind force, wind direction, precipitation,
temperature, sunshine, visibility, and clouds
are some major elements of weather.
We can listen to the weather forecast on the radio or watch the news on
the weather forecast on the television. They help to predict the weather
conditions of the whole day. People need information about temperatures,
humidity, and rainfall to find out about the weather conditions. These kinds
of information help us to make our daily life systematic. We can manage our
daily routine by listening to the weather forecast. If there is a probability
of rainfall during the day, we can manage an umbrella or raincoat while
going out from home. The following table shows the weather condition of
Kathmandu on 17 June 2021 AD.

Weather Maximum Minimum Humidity Rainfall Visibility Wind direction
elements Temp. Temp. Cloudy
west to east
Measurement 27°C 18°C 79 % 2.8 mm speed: 15 km/hrs
units

Climate

The earth experiences different kinds of atmospheric conditions in different
places. Polar Region is always cold. The temperate region is mild, and the
tropical region is hot. There is hot in summer and cold in winter in our country.
The climate of a place does not frequently change like the weather. Climate

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 158 Unit Four:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Civic Sense

is known as the average atmospheric conditions for a long period of time.
In other words, it is the atmospheric condition relatively over a long period
of time in a large area. Tropical climate, Temperate climate, Mediterranean
climate, Desert climate and Tundra climate are the major types of climate on
the earth.

Weather and Climate

People often regard weather and climate as similar words, but there are
differences between them, as mentioned below:

Weather Climate

(1) Weather is the change in (1) Climate is the average
atmospheric conditions within atmospheric conditions for the
a very short period of time. long period of time.

(2) It changes several times in a (2) It remains the same for a longer
day. time.

(3) Sunny day, windy day, cloudy (3) Hot summer, cold winter, rain
day and rainy day are the in the rainy season, and cold in
elements of the weather. the polar region are the major
elements of the climate.

Glossary

precipitation : the amount of rain, snow, etc. that falls

humidity : the amount of water in the air

Mediterranean : connected with the Mediterranean Sea or the countries

and regions that surround it

ACTIVITY

(1) Observe the weather conditions of a day in your locality. Record it
in the given table with reference to the report forecast by the local
media. Then, present it in your class.

Weather Maximum Minimum Humidity Rainfall Visibility Wind
elements direction
temperature temperature

Measurement
units

Vedanta 159 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

EXERCISE

(1) Write very short answers to the following questions:
(a) Define weather in your own words.
(b) What is weather forecasting?
(c) Write any two weather conditions that you have experienced in
your locality.
(d) What is climate?

(2) Write short answers to the following questions.
(a) Write any six benefits of the weather forecast presented from
various media.
(b) Prepare a list of any six chief elements of the weather.
(c) Write a short description of the climate of your area.
(d) Write any three major differences between weather and climate.

COMMUNITY WORK

Listen to the radio or watch the television for seven days and collect
the information about the weather forecast of your nearest city. Then,
present it in your class.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 160 Unit Four:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Civic Sense

Lesson Factors Affecting the
Temperature of the Earth
51..31

The climatic condition of all places in the world is not the same. Some places
are very hot, and some are very cold. The climate between 30° latitudes in
both hemispheres from the equator is hot. It is also known as the tropical
climate. Similarly, the climate beyond 60° latitudes to the pole is freezing.
On the other hand, the climate between 30° to 60° latitudes in both
hemispheres is moderate. Various factors bring a change in the temperatures.
Some of them are discussed below.

Latitude (Distance from the Equator):

The earth is not perfectly round. It is flat at the
tops and bulging at the centre. Sunrays directly
fall on the equator and travel to the north and
south from it. Therefore, if we travel towards the
north or south from the equator, the temperature
decreases gradually. It means places near the
equator are hotter than the places near the poles.
Therefore, latitude is one of the factors that
affects the climate of a place.

Altitude (Height above Sea Level):

Due to the gravity of the earth, the density of the air is thicker on the plains
than in the mountains. The air at the lower altitude has more dust particle and
water vapour. Therefore, air at a lower altitude can absorb more heat than the
air at a higher altitude. The temperature decreases while height increases, at
the ratio of 1° C temperature in every 165 m height. Thus, plains are hotter
than mountains.

Distance from the Sea:

The sea breeze blows from sea to land during the day while the land breeze
blows from land to sea along the sea coast due to the distinct heating
nature of land and sea. As a result, the climate in places near the seacoast
is moderate. It is neither too hot nor too cold. This condition, on the other

Vedanta 161 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

hand, does not exist in areas away from the coast. The places very far from
the sea or ocean have extreme climate. These places are very cold in winter
and very hot in summer. So, the distance from the sea is a determinant
factor to the climate.

Ocean Currents:

The movement of water from one place to another, like the river on the
ocean, is known as an ocean current. Ocean currents flow in a definite
direction. Oceanic currents originating in the equatorial region are warmer,
while those originating near the poles are cooler. The climatic condition
of the places along which the warm currents get warmer. Therefore, some
of the coastal areas lying in the polar or cold regions have warm climates
due to the influences of the warm ocean currents. Likewise, the tropical
reason may experience a cool climate due to the influences of the cold ocean
current. Thus, ocean current is also a determining factor that affects the
temperature of a place. .

Effects of Wind

Wind also influences the temperature of a place. The hot winds blowing
from the Thar Desert called Loo influence Nepal's western parts during
Chaitra and Baisakh. Therefore, Western Nepal is quite hotter than other
places. Similarly, the upper part of the hilly region of our country is cold due
to the effects of the mountain wind blows from the Himalayas called ‘Sireto’.
Thus, wind also affects the temperature of a place. .
Besides these factors, vegetation, soil, mountain barriers, ocean current are
the other factors to bring change in temperatures on the earth surface. As
a consequence of the factors mentioned above, there are variations in the
temperatures in different parts of the earth.

Glossary

extreme climate : very hot, very cold, or very dry climate
ocean current : the continual flow of surface ocean water in a prevailing

direction

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 162 Unit Four:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Civic Sense

ACTIVITIES

(1) Discuss in the class and find out the reasons for the following
statements.
(a) Places away from the sea coast have extreme climate.
(b) The places near the equator are hotter than the places away from
the equator.
(c) Western Nepal is hotter in comparison to other places during the
summer.

(2) Make a list of the factors that influence the climate of Nepal with
figures in a chart paper and paste it on the display board of your
classroom.

EXERCISE

(1) Give very short answers to the following questions.
(a) What is the latitudinal extension of the temperate region?
(b) Which climatic region has a hot climate?
(c) What type of climate is found in the polar region?
(d) How many types of currents are there?
(e) What type of climate is found in the coastal areas?

(2) Write short answers to the following questions.

(a) How does the latitude affect the climate of a place? Explain.
(b) "Plains are hotter than mountains." Explain this statement with

reasons.
(c) Write the effects of the ocean currents on climate.
(d) 'Distance from the sea is an affecting factor to the climate’. Justify

this statement.

Vedanta 163 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Lesson

51..41 Longitudes and Latitudes

There are vertical and horizontal lines on the globe which are known as
longitudes and latitudes. They are the geometric lines drawn on the globe.
Some are drawn from the top of the globe to the bottom. Among them, there
is a dark blue line of 0°, which is called the prime meridian. It is also known
as the Greenwich line. It divides the earth into the eastern and the western
hemispheres. Likewise, we can see other horizontal lines on it. Among them,
there is a dark blue line at the centre. It is called the equator. It divides the
earth into two equal halves to the north and south.

Longitudes

The imaginary lines which join the North
Pole and the South Pole are known as the
longitudes. 'International Meridian Conference’
in 1884 decided Royal Greenwich observatory
as Prime Meridian and arranged the world time
accordingly. This is 0° longitude and is also
called the Greenwich line. The part of the world
to the east of this line is called the eastern hemisphere, and the western
part is called the western hemisphere. There are 180 lines to the east and
180 lines to the west. They are drawn at the interval of 1° from each. The
180° meridian is called International Date Line as the date of east and west
of it becomes different. The longitudes have the following effects.
(a) Determination of the time of a place
In 24 hours, the earth completes one full rotation on its axis, travelling
all 360 lines of longitude. Similarly, it travels 1° longitudes in 4 minutes,
so if there is a difference of 1° longitudes between two places, they have a
4-minute time difference. There is a one-hour difference between the two
locations having a difference of 15° longitudes.
(b) Determination of date
There is a one-day difference between the places that lie on either side of the
International Date Line.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 164 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Latitudes

Latitudes are the geometrical lines drawn
from the east to the west of the earth. They are
extended towards the east and west and parallel
to the equator. The equator is considered as the
0° latitude. It divides the earth into two equal
halves to the north and south. These northern and
southern parts of the earth are called northern
and southern hemispheres, respectively. There
all together 180 latitudes. Among them, there
are 90 lines to the north, and 90 lines are to the south from the equator.
They are drawn at the interval of 1° from each. The 90° north latitude is
called the North Pole. It lies to the extreme north of the earth, whereas The
90° south latitude is called the South Pole. It lies to the southernmost part
of the earth. The latitudes have the following effects on the earth.
(a) Effects on the climate of the world
The equator is hotter than the poles. Temperature decreases when one goes
to the north and south from the equator. Thus, the places on the latitude
near the equator have a hot climate.
(b) Effects on the length of day and night
The length of day and night is equal at the equator as direct sun rays fall on
it. The length of day and night varies in places away from the equator. The
nights are longer, and the days are shorter at the poles.
Latitudes and longitudes assist us in determining the location of a place on
a world map. It will be easy to find a place on the map if we know its latitude
and longitude. On a world map, Nepal is located between latitudes 26°22'
north and 30°27' north, and longitudes 80°04' east and 88°12' east.

Antipode

The term antipode comes from the Latin words 'anti' and 'pode'. In this
context, 'anti' refers to the exact opposite and 'pode' refers to the leg. As a
result, the leg of the person standing on the antipode of us faces to us. Thus,
the place that is on the opposite side of the earth's diameter from a location
on the earth's surface is called an antipode. It is often used of Australia and
New Zealand as contrasted to the western hemisphere.

Vedanta 165 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Glossary

prime meridian : the imaginary line from the North Pole to the South Pole
that passes through Greenwich in England and marks 0°
longitude, from which all other longitudes are measured

International Date Line: an imaginary line between the most northern and
southern points on earth that goes through the Pacific
Ocean. The date on the west side of the line is one day
earlier than the date on the east side of the line.

ACTIVITIES

(1) Look at the world map in your atlas, write the approximate
longitudes and latitudes of the following places of the world.
Canberra, Sacramento, Montevideo, Moscow, and East London.

(2) Draw a model of a globe with the lines of longitudes and latitudes
on it.

EXERCISE

(1) Write very short answers to the following questions.
(a) How many latitudes are there altogether?
(b) Which part of the earth is called the western hemisphere?
(c) Which line of the longitude is called the international date line?
(d) What is the 0° latitude called?
(e) What is the 90° latitudes called?
(f) What is antipode?

(2) Write short answers to the following questions.

(a) Explain the importance of longitudes in brief.
(b) If it is 4 pm at a city in Japan located at 140° East longitude, what is

the time of a city in India located at 80° East longitude?
(c) How do latitudes affect the climate of a place? Explain.
(d) Distinguish between longitude and latitude in your own words.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 166 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Lesson Districts and States of
Federal Nepal
51..51

According to the topographical structures, there are three main geographical
regions in Nepal. Likewise, it is divided into different administrative
regions. Bir Shumsher divided Nepal into 35 districts. They were called
Tahasils. Later, King Mahendra divided the entire nation into 75 districts
and 14 zones on 1st Baisakh 2018 BS. In 2029 BS, Nepal was divided into
the four development regions during the tenure of King Birendra. Again, it
was divided into five development regions in 2037 BS.
After the restructuring of our nation, it has been divided into seven provinces.
The number of districts also reaches 77 after restructuring of the nation.
Nawalparasi and Rukum districts have been divided into two districts each.

Karnali

Gandaki N

Sudurpashchim Bagmati Province 1

Lumbini

Province 2

Among seven provinces, four provinces are linked with both China and
India. But, Province no. 2 and Lumbini province are linked only with India
and Karnali province is linked only with China. All the districts of province
no. 2 lie in the Terai region only. However, the districts of the Karnali
Province lie in the Hilly and Himalayan regions only. Similarly, the other
five provinces lie in all the topographical regions.

Vedanta 167 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

The administrative division of Nepal has been changed after the restoration
of democracy. After adopting the federal system, Nepal has three levelled
administrations. There are 7 provinces, 77 districts, and 753 local units,
including metropolitan, sub-metropolitan, municipality and rural
municipalities.

Provinces Name of Districts
Province No 1
Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Ilam, Panchthar, Taplejung,
Province No 2 Terhathum, Sankhuwasbha, Dhankuta , Bhojpur,
Solukhumbhu, Okhaldhunga, Khotang, Udayapur
Bagmati
Province Saptari, Siraha, Mahottari, Dhanusha, Sarlahi, Rautahat,
Bara, Parsa

Sindhuli, Ramechhap, Dolakha, Kabhrepalanchok,
Nuwakot, Sindhupalchok, Rasuwa, Dhading , Kathmandu,
Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Chitwan, Makawanpur

Gandaki Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahu, Kaski, Manang, Mustang,
Province Syangja, Parbat, Baglung, Myagdi, Nawalpur

Lumbini Parasi, Rupandehi, Kapilbastu, Gulmi, Arghakhanchhi,
Province Palpa, East Rukum, Rolpa, Pyuthan, Dang, Banke, Bardiya

Karnali West Rukum, Salyan, Surkhet, Dailekh, Jajarkot, Kalikot,
Province Jumla Humla, Mugu, Dolpa

Sudurpaschim Kailali, Kanchanpur, Doti, Achham, Bajhang, Bajura,
Province Baitadi, Dadeldhura, Darchula

Glossary

topographical : related to the physical feature of an area
restructuring : the act of organising a system in a new way to make it

operate more effectively

ACTIVITIES

(1) Draw a map of Nepal and divide it into seven provinces and use
different colours to separate them, and write the name of their
headquarters.

(2) Draw a map of your province and show the districts in it.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 168 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

EXERCISE

(1) Fill in the blanks with suitable names of provinces or districts.

(a) The district which has its shape just like the shape of Nepal is
.......................

(b) The largest district of Nepal in size .......................

(c) The smallest district of Nepal in size .......................

(d) The district that lies to the east of your district ......................

(e) The province with the largest number of districts .......................

(f) The province with the least number of districts .......................

(2) Give very short answers to the following questions.
(a) How many districts are there in Nepal at present?
(b) Which provinces are bordered by China only?
(c) Which is the largest province of Nepal by its area?
(d) How many districts are there in Gandaki Province?
(e) Which province has a high density of population?

(3) Write short answers to the following questions.

(a) Draw the map of your district and also show its neighbouring
districts with directions.

(b) Look at the map of Nepal with the districts and find out the districts
that border with India only, China only, and with both India and
China.

Karnali

Gandaki N

Sudurpashchim Bagmati Province 1

Lumbini

Province 2

Vedanta 169 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Lesson

51..61 Measuring Distance on Map

A map is a drawing of the earth or a portion of the earth on a flat piece of
paper or cloth. It is the proportional representation of the land on paper. If
we represent the details of the land on paper in a proper ratio by using a
various scale, it is called a map. However, it is impossible to draw all of the
objects on the earth's surface in their actual size on a piece of paper. We
need to use a scale to represent the shape and size of a place on a piece of
paper accurately. You may be wondering what a scale is. The scale is the
ratio of an object's or place's distance on a map to the distance of the same
object or place on the ground. There are three types of scale in practice. They
are verbal scale, linear scale or graphic scale and representative fraction
scale.

Verbal or Statement Scale

If the ratio of land and paper is directly expressed in 1 unit, this type of
scale is known as a verbal or statement scale. In practice, if 1 cm = 25 km, it
shows that 1 centimetre in the map represents 25 kilometre distance in the
real field. It means if the scale on the map of the Kathmandu Valley is given
1 cm = 7 km, it shows the distance of 1cm in the map is 7 km in the real
field. In the given map of the Kathmandu Valley, if the distance between
Nagarkot to Thankot is 6 cm on the map, the real distance between these
two places is 6 cm = 6×7 = 42 km in the real field.

1 cm = 25 km

Linear Scale or Graphic Scale

If the scale of the map is shown in the form of lines or graphs, it is called
the linear scale. It is also known as the graphic scale. This type of scale is
more practical in real life. If we enlarge or reduce the size of the map while
taking the xerox copy of the map, there is no difference in the distance in
this type of map. But in other types of scale, we have to change the scale
at the ratio of enlargement or reduction. In the linear scale, one side of the
scale represents the distance on the map, and another side represents the
true distance of the objects.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 170 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Representative Fraction (RF)

This is another type of scale used in the map where the scale is given in the
ratio or fraction. Somewhere, the scale is given in the map like 1: 25 00 000.
It is a very easy types of scale, where 1cm in the map represent 25 00 000
cm in the real field. Let's see the calculation:
1 cm = 25 00 000 cm

= 25 00 000 ÷100 m
= 25 000 m = 25000 ÷ 1000 km = 25 km
It means 1cm = 25 km or 1: 25 00 000 are similar values but their expressions
are different.

1: 25 00 000

ACTIVITY

(1) Look at the school atlas you have and find the verbal, linear, and graphic
scale and show the process of the calculating distance between any
two places by using each type of scale.

EXERCISE

(1) Give very short answers to the following questions.

(a) What is a map
(b) What is scale?
(c) Define linear scale.
(d) Write the name of different types of scale.
(e) Convert 1:35,00, 000 into the verbal scale.

(2) Write short answers to the following questions.

(a) Define map in your own words and write its uses in our daily life.

(b) Differentiate between linear and representative fraction scale.

Vedanta 171 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Lesson

51..71 Map of Nepal

There are several methods of drawing maps. Freehand, tracing, carbon,
triangular, pantographic, and graphic or square methods are commonly
used. They are the traditional methods of drawing or copying map. We use
different modern techniques to draw a real and original map. Different
surveys, GIS, GPS, and aerial photography are used commonly.

Basic Requirements for the Map
(a) Attractive Title ( in capital letters)
(b) The scale at the right/left corner of the bottom ( It should be

present in 1 unit, i.e. 1 cm/1 mm/1 inch)
(c) International boundary
(d) North line
(e) Index/ Legend
(f) Boarder line
Among them, we are going to use the graphic method to draw the map of
Nepal below:
Let’s practise drawing the map of Nepal with the help of the given techniques.
(1) Firstly, we have to draw a rectangle of 20 × 12 square cm.

20 cm

12 cm

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 172 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

(2) Now, mark at the interval of 4 cm horizontally and vertically to draw a
graph as shown here.

4cm 4cm 4cm 4cm 4cm

scale: 1cm = 40km

(3) Look at the graphs and mark them in the different places as shown
inside the graph and mark in the different corners of the rectangle as shown
in the picture.

4cm 4cm 4cm 4cm 4cm

scale: 1cm = 40km

Vedanta 173 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

(4) Finally, joint all the parts as shown in the graph to draw the complete
map of Nepal.

4cm 4cm 4cm 4cm 4cm

scale: 1cm = 40km

(5) After drawing the map of Nepal, give the attractive title at the top of
the map, put the north line at the right side of the top of the map and
put appropriate scale, legends, international boundary and borderline
to complete the map work of Nepal.

N

scale: 1cm = 40km 174 Unit Five:
Our Earth
Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur

Some of the Conventional signs or symbols used in map

River District boundary
Zonal/Regional
Lakes , boundary
, International boundary
Mountain Peaks
Mountain range Roadway/Highway
Mountain chain
Glacier Railway
Waterfall , Ropeway
Dam
Canal Grassland
Industry
Temple
Airport Cities
Settlement areas

Church Desert

Stupa Sea/Ocean
Mosque Highlands

Pass Rift valley
Goldmine
NP, WLR Diamond mine
(Protected HR,
CA Areas)

Bridge

Glossary

GIS : Geographical Information System
GPS : Global Positioning System
aerial : in or from the air, especially from an aircraft

Vedanta 175 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

ACTIVITIES

(1) Prepare a chart showing different symbols used in the map from your
school atlas and paste it on the display board of your classroom.

(2) Form at least five groups in your class and draw at least one map of
Nepal by each. Use the graphic methods to draw the map and show
the following facts by group A, B, C, D, and E, respectively.

(a) Rivers: Saptakoshi, Narayani, Karnali, and their tributaries

(b) Protected areas: Kanchanjungha CA, Koshi Tappu WLR, Sagarmatha NP,
Chitwan NP, Parsa WLR, Rara NP, Dhorpatan HR, Banke NP, Shuklaphanta
WLR, and Api-Nampa CA.

(c) Major Highways: Mid hill Highway, Madan Bhandari Highway, BP
Highway, Tribhuwan Highway, Siddhartha Highway, East-west Highway, and
Araniko Highway

(d) Mountain Peaks: Mt Api, Mt Saipal, Mt Gorakh, Mt Kanjirowa, Mt
Mustang, Mt Manasalu, Mt Ganesh, Mt Gaurishankar, Mt Everest, Mt Janak,
and Mt Kanchanjungha

(e) Religious Places: Pathibhara, Chhinnamasta, Gadimai, Lumbini,
Gosainkunda, Pashupatinath, Barahakshatra, Muktinath, Chandannath, and
Shaileshwori Temple

EXERCISE

(1) Write very short answers to the following questions.

(a) What is a map?

(b) What are the different methods of drawing the map?

(c) What are the conventional symbols?

(d) Draw the conventional symbols for the followings:

(i) Ropeway (ii) Industry

(2) Draw an outline map of Nepal, and fill the following facts in it.
Kathmandu, River Mechi, Lake Fewa, Lumbini, and Mt Api

(3) Draw another map of Nepal to show the following facts in the map.

Mt Makalu, Nepalgunj, River Tinau, Khaptad National Park, and
Janakpurdham

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 176 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Lesson

51..81 Earthquake

Disaster

A sudden event which causes great damage, harm, suffering, serious diffi-
culty or death is called disaster. Various natural factors and human fac-
tors cause disasters. They result in terrible damage, suffering, devastation,
misery and death. Most of the disasters are sudden, unexpected and un-
predicted.

Disasters can be natural and non-natural. Earthquakes, volcanoes, famines,
landslides, floods, droughts, hurricanes, wildfire and bushfire are natural
disasters, and snake bites, road accidents, mine accidents, and gas explosion
are non-natural disasters.

Disasters

Non-natural Disasters Natural Disasters

epidemics, pandemic flu, snake bite, earthquakes, volcanoes, famines,
animal terror, road accidents, mine landslides, droughts, hurricanes, tornados,
accidents, fire, poisonous gas leakage,
extreme temperature (heat and cold)
gas explosion, and so on. wildfires, lightning

Earthquake

A sudden movement and vibration of the crust of the earth is called an
earthquake. The land shakes so violently that roads break up, forming huge
cracks, and buildings and bridges collapse, causing many deaths in the
earthquake. It can destroy lives and properties.

There is no single cause of earthquakes. Of the many reasons, the movement
of the tectonic plate system is the major cause. According to this theory, the
rocks below the surface of the earth are in melted form due to excessive
pressure and heat. Such very hot liquid rock found below the surface of the
earth is called magma. A layer of hard rock surrounds magma.

Vedanta 177 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

The layer of hard rock is not a single cluster.
It is divided into different blocks. These
piles keep on moving very slowly. When
such two blocks of the crust of the earth
slip past each other, an earthquake occurs.
The place where this happens is called a
fault. The shifting rocks release energy in
the form of shock waves. The waves spread
through the rock in all directions, causing
an earthquake.

Nepal is equally at risk due to its seismic Earthquake

activity. The gradual movement of the
Indian tectonic plate towards the Eurasian (Tibetan) plate has been
continually pushing the Himalayas upwards since its formation millions
of years ago, making it geographically unstable. Therefore, earthquake
occurs time and again in Nepal. The place where the earthquake occurs is
called the hypocentre, and the point on the earth's surface directly above
an earthquake is called the epicentre. Earthquakes are measured on the
Rector scale. A seismograph is an instrument that measures and records
information about earthquakes.

There was a great earthquake in Nepal on Magh 2, 1990 BS. A large
earthquake hit the eastern region of Nepal on Bhadra 5, 2045 and Ashoj
1, 2068 BS. Nepal also suffered huge financial losses due to the great
earthquake that struck on Baisakh 12 and Baisakh 29 in 2072 BS. More
than 9000 people lost their lives and nearly 22,000 people were injured in
the disaster. Even now, it is estimated that energy has been accumulated in
the region that can occur an earthquake at any time in Nepal. Therefore, we
have to start preparing for safety right from today.

The following precautions should be taken to be safe from earthquakes:

Things to Do Before, During and After an Earthquake

(1) Pre-earthquake Activities

(a) Make safety plan together with teachers, parents, students and
management committee. Identify all safe places where you can stay and
reconstruct risky places. Form teams and assign the responsibilities of
the work as per the plan. Make a seismic transfer map and post it in the
visible place of the school and in the classroom.

(b) Keep emergency materials and attendance book in a place where everyone
can access.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 178 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

(c) Conduct seismic safety rehearsal after the completion of each quarterly
examination.

(2) During the Earthquake
All students and teachers should sit under the desk bench and hold the legs of the
desk bench. If there is not a desk, bench or table, cover your head with your hands
or bag or book and stay in a safe place. Make the body as small as possible. If you
are in a place where there is nothing, drop to the ground in front of your seat or
lean over as much as possible, then cover your head with your arms (as best as
possible), and hold on to your neck with both hands until the shaking stops.
(3) After the Earthquake

(a) Don't shout, panic or run. Be calm and careful so that you can gather your
sense.

(b) Get out quickly without making any noise and without running in line. Go
to the designated safe place. Stay in a line without making noise. Inform
your teacher if any of your friends is missing. Assist the rescue teams.

(c) Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who
needs it.

(d) Do not move from there or go home unless you get instructions from the
teacher.

(e) In case you are trapped or detained, you should wait patiently for the rescue
team. Stay away from damaged structures as they may get collapsed and
hurt you. Expect and be prepared for aftershocks.

Glossary

devastation : damage and destruction

misery : great unhappiness

famine : a situation in which many people do not have enough food

cluster : a group of similar things that are close together, sometimes
surrounding something

seismic : relating to or caused by an earthquake

rehearsal : an event at which a person or group practices an activity

designated : chosen or selected

detained : delayed someone for a short length of time

Vedanta 179 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

ACTIVITIES

(1) Practise seismic safety in schools under the guidance of your
teacher.

(2) Inform your family and neighbours about measures to be safe
from earthquake. Practise them with family members at home.

EXERCISE

(1) Give very short answers to the following questions.
(a) What is a disaster?
(b) What are the two types of disasters? Give two examples of each.
(c) What is an earthquake?
(d) Write the major cause of the earthquake.
(e) Define magma and fault.
(f) What are epicentre and hypocentre?
(g) Why do earthquake occur time and again in Nepal?
(h) When have massive earthquakes hit Nepal? Mention any two of
such events.
(i) What is a seismograph?

(2) Write short answers to the following questions.
(a) Give short introduction to disaster with its types and examples.
(b) How does an earthquake occur? Describe in brief.
(c) What should we do before, during and after an earthquake? Write
in points.
(d) The earthquake is common in many parts of the world. However,
its effects is more in least developed countries than developed
countries. Why? Give our logics in a short paragraph.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 180 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Lesson Storm

15..91

A storm is an extreme weather condition with very strong wind, heavy
rain or snow, and often thunder and lightning. It is a disturbance in the
atmosphere, or air. Thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes and cyclones are
powerful and dangerous types of storms. People also use the word ‘storm’ to
describe strong winds or other forms of severe weather.

There is a thick layer of air around the
earth. It is known as atmosphere. If the
air in the atmosphere moves quickly due to
natural force, it is called wind. If the wind
blows fast, it is called storm (Huri Batas). If
the speed of the wind increases further and
it becomes violent, it is called hurricane
(Aadhi).

The wind always has the same pressure Storm

everywhere. But this is not possible due to the difference in temperature.
In order to balance the pressure, the air flows from high pressure zone to
low pressure zone. Sometimes you may have seen paper and dust particles
spinning in the air and flying towards the sky. If the temperature suddenly
rises in a place and the air pressure decreases rapidly, air flows towards that
place from all sides. Once the wind comes from all around, the amount of
air suddenly increases. Then the wind blows upwards violently. It is called
cyclone (Bhumari). It is also called tornado (Chakrawat).

Cyclones that occur in coastal regions are very large and powerful. They
are known as hurricanes. There is a lot of rain and strong winds when a
hurricane occurs. People living in the beach area should always be alert.
They should always listen to the weather forecast broadcast on radios or
televisions. They can receive early warnings of hurricanes and other types
of disasters. They can prevent the loss of money and lives by listening to
the information and taking precautions. One should not leave the house
during the storm. Even after it has stopped, she or he should not walk
around indiscriminately. The Americans call tornados and hurricanes to
such strong and powerful winds. The Japanese call them typhoons and they
are known as cyclones in India and Bangladesh.

Vedanta 181 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Wind starts blowing from noon even in the mountainous region of our
country because of wind blowing from the mountains. By noon the air in the
basin heats up and moves upwards. As it is cold in the mountain, the air
pressure is also higher. As the air rising from the valley is also added, the
air pressure increases and the wind blows from the mountain towards the
valley.

Safety Measures to Be Safe from a Storm
(1) Do not keep any objects near the doors or windows.
(2) Turn off all the electrical appliances to avoid shocks and firing.
(3) Close all the doors and windows so that air doesn’t enter inside and

blows off the roof.
(4) Stay in the strongest part of the building and don’t leave the place until

the storm stops.
(5) Don't go under a tree, under an electric wire or a pole and on a narrow

street. If you are at such place, immediately move to a nearby safer
location.
(6) Don't run unnecessarily and stay away if there is a cyclone.
(7) Beware of electric poles as they can cause electric shocks and fires.
(8) Do not go inside the house immediately and do not walk here and there
as a storm may occur again.
(9) Protect yourself from broken glass and electric wires.
(10) Shift to a safer location only when the storm calms down.

Glossary

thunderstorm : a storm with lightning and thunder

severe : very bad, serious, or unpleasant

coastal : the land along or near a sea or ocean

precautions : something that is done to prevent possible harm or trouble
from happening in the future

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 182 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

ACTIVITY

(1) Divide the class into four or five groups. Discuss the precautions
to be taken before, during, and after a storm. Write them on a
sheet of chart paper and present it in the class.

EXERCISE

(1) Give very short answers to the following questions.
(a) What is a storm?
(b) What do you mean by hurricane?
(c) Define cyclone.
(d) Why does wind start blowing from noon in the mountainous region?
(e) What do you mean by tornado?

(2) Write short answers to the following questions.
(a) Give a short introduction to a storm with its causes.
(b) Make a list of any six measures to be safe from a storm.

Vedanta 183 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Lesson North America

51.1.10

Stretching from the Arctic Circle to the tropics,
North America is the third-largest continent.
It is nearly twice the size of Europe. Two large
countries, Canada and the United States, take up
three-quarters of the continent, which also includes
Mexico, seven Central American countries, and the
Caribbean Islands. It lies in Northern and Western
hemisphere.

The total area of North America is 24,393,717
sq. km. It covers nearly 16.5 per cent of Earth’s
land area. There are 23 countries in the continent,
Canada being the largest one and St. Kitts and
Nevis being the smallest one. It is located directly North America

west of the continent of Europe. It is bordered to
the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the
west by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America, and the
Caribbean Sea.

The countries in North America can be divided into five regions.

Region Number of countries

Canada and Greenland 1 country (Greenland is a territory of Denmark)

United States of America 1 country

Mexico 1 country

Central America 7 countries

Caribbean 13 countries and many small island territories

North America is almost completely surrounded by water and is connected to
South America by only a thin strip of land. It has many spectacular natural
features. Because of large size of the continent, it has a variety of diverse
landforms, from island volcanoes to frozen tundra.

North America has several mountain ranges, the longest of which is the
Rocky Mountains. Many of the peaks in the Rocky Mountains are over 4267

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 184 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

m tall and stretches for 4,800 km through Canada and the United States.
However, the tallest mountain in North America is not located in the Rocky
Mountains. It is Alaska’s Mount McKinley, also known as Denali, which is
6194 m tall. The mountainous parts of North America contain large areas of
thick forests. Douglas fir, redwood, cedar, pine, and coniferous trees grow in
the region. Many people of northern regions of North America are involved in
lumbering. It is the business or trade of cutting, transporting, preparing, or
selling timbers. People produce paper, furniture, pulp, and other materials
from wood. The coniferous forests in the northern parts of the continent
support lumbering. Tropical hardwood forests grow in Mexico and Central
America. Few plants grow in the desert and cold northern regions.
There are flat and wide areas of land in the central parts of North America.
There aren’t many trees and are originally covered with grass. Such plain
lands are called prairies. People cultivate wheat commercially in such
fields. They export wheat produced in the regions to Europe, South America
and Africa. The grasslands of Prairies were the home of native Americans
often called “Red Indians”. They were the actual habitant of the continent.
Scientific methods of cultivation and use of tractors, harvesters and
combines has made North America a surplus food producer. The Prairies
are also known as the ‘Granaries of the world’ or ‘Breadbasket of the world’
due to the huge surplus of wheat production. Animal husbandry is also an
important occupation of the people living in this region.
North America has four major deserts. They are the Chihuahuan, Sonoran,
Mojave and Great Basin. These deserts are located in the south-west United
States and Mexico. Three of them are hot deserts, while one, the Great Basin
Desert, is a cold desert. Other landforms include grassy plains in the central
United States, huge evergreen forests, which cover much of Canada, and
tropical rainforests in Central America. Very little grows in the far northern
part of the continent, where the land is frozen tundra.

Rocky Mountains Grand Canyon Death Valley

North America is bordered by the Arctic, Pacific and Atlantic oceans. It
is also bordered by many seas, including the frigid Bering, Beaufort and
Labrador seas to the north, and the warm Caribbean Sea to the south. In

Vedanta 185 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

addition, there are several large gulfs and bays bordering the continent. It
is also home to the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes is a group of five lakes
namely Lake Superior, Huron, Erie, Ontario and Michigan. Of these, Lake
Superior is the largest one. This lake only a little smaller than Nepal. These
lakes make up the largest system of freshwater lakes in the world. About
one-fifth of the world’s freshwater supply is in the Great Lakes.

There are many rivers in North America. The Missouri River is the longest
river on the continent. It is 4023 km long. The Missouri, Mississippi and
Ohio river system is one of the largest river systems in the world. This
continent has a varied landscape. There are frozen tundra in the far north,
where the land is covered in snow and ice for much of the year. There are
tall mountains in the west and hot deserts in the south-west.

The northern regions of North America are very cold. They stretch all the
way into the Arctic Circle, which is an area that surrounds the North Pole.
In the winter, temperatures in the northern part of the continent may
reach as low as -50° C. The land in the coldest regions of the north is called
tundra. Tundra is a Finnish word meaning “treeless heights.” it describes
the landscape of Alaska, where the only vegetation is lichens, mosses, turf,
and low-lying shrubs.

There are no permanent human settlements
in the northern Arctic region of North
America. However, a race of people lives in
the cold northern areas of North Canada,
Alaska, and Greenland. They have lived in
that place for centuries. They are known as
the Eskimo. They survive by hunting fish,
seals, walruses, and whales. They are also
known as the Inuits or Yupiks. They live in
a small dome-shaped circular round house Wheat farming in the Prairies

built from blocks of hard snow. Such house is known as an igloo. However,
many Inuits live in towns or small settlements these days. A large number
of polar bears, penguins, seals and walruses are found in this region.

Agriculture, industry, trade and tourism have developed well in North
America. Although there is a large number of white people, people from
all over the world live here. The leading products of North America are
chemicals, food products, electronics, transportation equipment, and other
machinery. North America produces much of the food of the world. People
produce wheat, corn, soybeans, fruits, vegetables, and dairy products in
various regions of the United States and Canada. Sugarcane, corn, bananas,

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 186 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

and other tropical fruits and vegetables grow well in Mexico. North America
is also rich in many kinds of natural resources. There are large deposits of
fossil fuels, abundant fish in the oceans and extensive forests full of plants
and animals.

Glossary

strip : a long, narrow piece of land
spectacular : very impressive
Douglas fir : a tall and slender coniferous tree
redwood : a very tall evergreen tree
cedar : a very tall evergreen tree
pulp : a soft material that is made mostly from wood and is used

frigid in making paper
tundra : very cold
: a large area of flat land in northern parts of the world
turf
extensive where there are no trees and the ground is always frozen
: short grass

: large in size or amount, very full or complete

ACTIVITIES

(1) Observe the maps of North America in the atlas and fill in the
table below.

Major Major Major Major Major Others
mountains rivers lakes seas cities

(2) Fill in the following facts in the map of North America.

Alaska, Colorado River, Great Basin Desert, Gulf of Mexico, Lake
Superior, Missouri River, Mount McKinley, New York, Niagara
Falls, Ottawa, Pacific Ocean, Prairies, Rocky Mountains, Toronto,
and Washington DC.

Vedanta 187 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

EXERCISE

(1) Write very short answers to the following questions.
(a) Name any four major countries of North America.
(b) What is lumbering?
(c) What are prairies?
(d) Why are prairies also known as the granaries of the world?
(e) Who are the Red Indians?
(f) Why is the northern part of North America very cold?
(g) Who are the Inuits or Eskimos?
(h) Name any four animals that are found in the northern region of
North America.

(2) Give short answers to the following questions.
(a) Describe the physical features of North America.
(b) What are the major economic activities of people from North
America? Describe in a paragraph.

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 188 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Physical Map of North America

Vedanta 189 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Political Map of North America

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 190 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Outline Map of North America

Vedanta 191 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Lesson

51.1.11 South America

South America is the fourth largest continent in
the world. It contains the world’s longest above-
water mountain range (the Andes with 7250
km), biggest rain forest (Amazon), driest desert
(Atacama), and highest waterfall (Angel Falls
in Venezuela). Lake Titicaca lies 3,812 m above
sea level, making it the world’s highest navigable
lake. Therefore, this continent is often called the
land of superlatives. It is also home to a vast range
of plants and animals. Many kinds of plants and
animals are found in the Amazon River basin.
This continent covers nearly 12 per cent of land
area of the earth.

The area of South America is 17,824,370 sq km. It South America

stretches from the sunny beaches of the Caribbean
Sea to icy waters near the Antarctic Circle. It borders the Atlantic on the
east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Panama Canal separates South
America and North America. The countries of South America are also part
of a larger cultural region known as Latin America. Most of the people speak
Spanish or Portuguese in Latin America. There are twelve countries in this
continent, being Brazil the biggest and Surinam the smallest one.

The 12 countries in South America can be divided into three regions:

Region Number of Countries Fast Facts
Western 4 includes the third-largest country in
size – Peru
Northern 4 includes the second most populated
country – Colombia
Eastern 4 includes the largest country in size
and population – Brazil

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 192 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Brazil is the largest South American country in size, and it is also the most
heavily populated. In fact, Brazil has nearly the same number of people as
the 11 other countries of South America combined.

Native Americans

The first peoples of South America were native Americans. In the lowlands
native Americans lived in small villages and gathered food from the forest.
However, they built great civilisations in the Andes. The arrival of European
explorers destroyed these great cultures. Only a few remote tribes still live
in the forest as their ancestors did at present. However, the destruction of
the rain forest for farming and mining threatens to eliminate even these
last traces of native American society.

Features of South America

South America has many interesting natural features. It has three main
types of physical features: mountains, highlands and lowlands. The Andes
mountain system is the longest mountain chain in the world. It extends
for about 7250 km. The tallest mountain in the Andes is Mount Aconcagua
(6962 m).

The Guiana Highlands and the Brazilian Highlands have rounded hills and
flat-topped mountains called tepuis or tepuy. Most of this area is sparsely
populated. Further south is an area of highlands called Patagonia.

The lowlands separate the highlands from one another. They run from the
Llanos Plains in the north and then south through the largest rainforest in
the world, the Amazon. The lowlands of the Gran Chaco and the Pampas are
south of the Amazon. The Pampas are large flat areas of land covered with
grass in some parts of South America. People grow wheat and read animals
in the pampas.

The Pacific Ocean borders South America on the west and the Atlantic Ocean
on the east. The Caribbean Sea is located to the north of the continent. The
second-longest river in the world is the Amazon River (after the Nile) with
length over 6440 km. It flows through the rainforest in Brazil. One of the
highest lakes of the world, Lake Titicaca, is also located in South America.
There are beautiful waterfalls including the Angel Falls, the highest
waterfall in the world in South America.

South America is rich in many kinds of natural resources. There are large
deposits of oils and other types of minerals. There are large deposits of oil

Vedanta 193 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

in Venezuela. People mine valuable metals such as iron, copper, lead, tin
and mercury in South America. In fact, the larger copper mine in the world
is the Escondido mine in Chile. Thousands of various types of plants and
animals are found in rainforests of South America. People cultivate various
crops such as wheat, soya beans, maize, banana, coffee, kiwi, mango, cocoa,
pineapple, capsicum and quinoa, and raise livestock in various regions of
the continent. Brazil and Argentina produce large number of cattle. People
raise the llama and the alpaca in the Andes Mountains for wool and carrying
loads. Both of these animals come from the camel family.

Andes Mountain Gran Cha Co Lowlands Campos Grassland

There are many interesting landmarks to visit in South America. Those
sites attract millions of tourists every year. Thousands of tourists visit
South America to see the ruins of the Inca city of Machu Picchu in Peru.
Some tourists love to travel to the isolated Easter Island in Chile. The large
statue of Christ the Redeemer draws thousands of tourists each year. It
is in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Almost all people across South America enjoy
football, Brazilians are passionate about the sport. In fact, Brazil has won
the World Cup five times – more than any other country. South America is
home to some of the greatest footballers of all time.

Glossary

navigable : deep and wide enough for boats and ships to travel on or
through
native
: used to refer to the place where a person was born and
eliminate raised
sparsely
: to remove something
quinoa
: with only small amounts or numbers of something, often
spread over a large area

: a South American plant, grown for its seeds, used as food
and to make alcoholic drinks

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 194 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

landmarks : something, such as a large building, that you can see
isolated clearly from a distance and that will help you to know
where you are

: far away from any others

ACTIVITIES

(1) Consult various authentic sources and write a couple of
paragraphs on South America to present it in the classroom.

(2) Insert the following places or facts in the map of South America.
Amazon Basin, Andes Mountain Range, Angel Falls, Atacama
Desert, Brazil, Guinea Highlands, Lake Titicaca, Mt Aconcagua,
Pampas, and Rio de Janeiro.

EXERCISE

(1) Give very short answers to the following questions.
(a) Why is South America also known as the land of superlatives?
(b) Introduce Latin America in a sentence.
(c) What separates North America and South America?
(d) Who are Native Americans?
(e) What is a tepuy or tepui?
(f) What are the pampas?
(g) What are the llama and the alpaca?

(2) Write short answers to the following questions.
(a) Describe the physical features of South America in a paragraph.
(b) What are the major economic activities of people in South America?
(c) How can you say that South America is rich in minerals? Justify in a
paragraph.

Vedanta 195 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Physical Map of South America

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 196 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Political Map of South America

Vedanta 197 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Outline Map of South America

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 198 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth

Lesson Africa

51.1.12

Africa is the second largest continent in the
world after Asia. It is roughly triangular in
shape and covers nearly 20% of the landmass of
the world. The continent is surrounded by the
Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Isthmus of
Suez and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian
Ocean to the southeast and the Atlantic Ocean
to the west. The equator divides the continent
into two halves. So its southern part falls in
the Southern Hemisphere and its northern part Africa

lies in the Northern Hemisphere. Africa is situated between 37° N to 35° S
latitudes and 17° W to 51° W longitudes. The area of this continent is about
30,247,722 sq. km. 54 independent nations make up this continent.

Five Regions of Africa

The United Nations has divided the 54 countries of Africa into five political
regions.

Region No of countries Fast Facts

Northern Africa 7 bordered by the Mediterranean and Red Seas

Western Africa 16 has the most populated country–Nigeria

Central Africa 9 also called Middle Africa

Eastern Africa 17 has the largest island nation – Madagascar

Southern Africa 5 contains the southernmost country – South Africa

Features of Africa

The equator runs through the middle of Africa. This means that about 90%
of the continent lies within the tropics, giving most of Africa a warm or
hot climate. The amount of rainfall varies greatly from region to region,
resulting in diverse landscapes – from dry deserts to grassy rainforests.
Africa has a wide variety of landforms. Deserts, grasslands, forests and
mountains cover this continent. It has three major deserts. The Sahara

Vedanta 199 Approved by Curriculum Development Centre,
Integrated Social Studies and Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Population Education - Book 8

Desert in the northern part of the continent is the largest nonpolar desert
in the world. “Sahara” comes from the Arabic word for “desert.” The Sahara
stretches across North Africa and covers parts of 11 countries. This region
doesn’t receive rainfall. So, people do not live in majority part of this region.
Much of it consists of vast seas of sand. There are human settlements in the
region where water is available near an oasis. The other two deserts are the
Kalahari and Namib deserts in the south.
Grasslands and forests cover the majority of the continent. There are large
areas of wide-open grasslands with a few scattered trees and shrubs in
Africa. Such grasslands are called Savannahs (also savanna). These types of
land covers 28 countries in Africa – almost half of the continent. Savannah
region is also known as the ‘Zoo of the World’ because of the variety of
animals found in the area. Adventurers are animal-lovers go on safaris or
overland journeys to see these animals in person. The people of this region
are engaged in animal husbandry and agriculture. There is extreme poverty.
Nowadays, tourism business has also flourished due to the establishment of
large national parks in various countries such as Namibia, Kenya, Tanzania,
South Africa and Zimbabwe. Besides these national parks and grasslands,
the major tourist destinations in Africa are Pyramids of Giza and Great
Sphinx in Egypt.
The umbrella-shaped acacia tree and cactus are common trees in the
savannah. Most of the forest in Africa are tropical rainforests, which are
mainly found in the Congo basin. The Congo Basin Rainforest is the second-
largest rainforest in the world. It has tall and large trees. Only the Amazon
Rainforest in South America is larger.
Volcanic activity created most of the highest mountains of the continents.
The two tallest peaks are Mt Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and Mt Kenya in
Kenya. Kilimanjaro (5895 m high) is called the ‘roof of Africa’ because it is
the highest point in Africa. In fact, it is the tallest freestanding (meaning
not part of a range) mountain in the world. The Atlas Mountains, a non-
volcanic range found in northwest Africa, is the longest mountain system in
the continent. Drakemsberg mountains lie to the southeast of the continent.
Water surrounds the continent of Africa on nearly all sides. It has the longest
river in the world – the Nile. One of the world’s earliest civilisations, ancient
Egypt, developed in the lower Nile River valley nearly 5,000 years ago. Other
major rivers of the continent are the Congo, the Niger and the Zambezi.
There are many lakes in the Rift Valley of Eastern Africa. The three largest
lakes are Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Nyasa. Eastern Africa
has a chain of lakes known as the great lakes. A world-famous waterfall

Approved by Curriculum Development Centre, 200 Unit Five:
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur Our Earth