eBook Management Information System DPB20043

DPB 20043
MANAGEMENT INFORMATION

SYSTEM

JABATAN PERDANGANGAN, POLITEKNIK MERSING

SARATULL NOR NATASHA BINTI SAFRI
FATINSYUHANA BINTI ABDUL GHANI

Published in Malaysia.
First Printing, 2021
e-ISBN: 978-967-2904-19-9

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
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Published by:
Jabatan Perdagangan
Politeknik Mersing Johor, Jalan Nitar,
86800 Mersing
Johor Darul Ta'zim
Malaysia
Tel : 07-798 0001 Faks : 07-798 0002
Laman Web : http://www.pmj.edu.my

Writer and Editorial :
Saratull Nor Natasha Binti Safri, Fatinsyuhana Binti Abdul Ghani

Graphic designer:
Saratull Nor Natasha Binti Safri, Fatinsyuhana Binti Abdul Ghani

Copyright ©2021

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PREFACE

The course of Management Information System provides an
overview of Management Information System that show to the student the
need and important of Management Information System in business
operation nowadays. Towards Industrial Relation 4.0 (IR4.0) student need
to know and alert the usage of technologies in information systems.

This book ‘Module of Management Information System’ is a
compilation of notes from multiple sources for this course DPB20043 -
Management Information System. There are notes, exercise and activity to
help student to understand better purposely for this course. All the notes,
exercise and activity were compiled, structure and edited by Madam
Saratull Nor Natasha binti Safri and Fatinsyuhana Binti Abdul Ghani.
Both are lecturer from Commerce Department ,Polytechnics of Mersing.

The objectives of this book are to help commerce students to use
as their references and gain good result in their examination. Most of the
reference in the market are general and do not align with the polytechnic’s
syllabus. Therefore, this module are followed current syllabus of
DPB20043 – Management Information System for the diploma students.

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NO TITLE PAGES
1-16
1 CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT 17- 57
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
58 - 73
2 CHAPTER 2: MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS 74- 93
BASIC: HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, NETWORKING &
SECURITY. 94-105
106-126
3 CHAPTER 3:DATA & DATABASE

4 CHAPTER 4: INFORMATION SYSTEMS

& ORGANIZATION STRATEGY

5 CHAPTER 5: INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

6 CHAPTER 6: INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN SOCIETY & THE
WORLD

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

❖ Discuss the overview of Information Systems
❖ Describe the dimension of Information System
❖ Identify system innovation in business today
❖ Difference between Information Technology

vs. Information Systems

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 Introduction
Defining Information Systems
Almost all programs in business require students to take a course in
something called information systems. But what exactly does that term
mean? Let’s take a look at some of the more popular definitions, first from
Wikipedia and then from a couple of textbooks:

• “Information systems (IS) are the study of complementary networks
of hardware and software that people and organizations use to
collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data.

• “Information systems are combinations of hardware, software, and
telecommunications networks that people build and use to collect,
create, and distribute useful data, typically in organizational
settings.”

• “Information systems are interrelated components working together
to collect, process, store, and disseminate information to support
decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in
an organization.
As you can see, these definitions focus on two different ways of
describing information systems: the components that make up an
information system and the role that those components play in an
organization. Let’s take a look at each of these.

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Defining Management Information System

Now after you know, information system definition, let’s see Management
Information System definition.

Wikipedia has defined as an information system used for decision-making,
and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information
in an organization; especially in a company.

Different from Webopedia broadly refers to a computer-based system that
provides managers with the tools to organize, evaluate and efficiently
manage departments within an organization.

The term MIS and "Information System" are often confused. Information
systems, by themselves, are differentiated from the decision-making
process. Of course, the data within them may facilitate the decision-
making process.

Defining Information Technology (IT)

Information technology (IT) is the use of any computers, storage,
networking and other physical devices, infrastructure and processes to
create, process, store, secure and exchange all forms of electronic data.

According to ND Century Code, Information Technology means the use
of hardware, software, services, and supporting infrastructure to manage
and deliver information using voice, data, and video.

Included in Information Technology

➢ All computers with a human interface.
➢ All computer peripherals which will not operate unless connected

to a computer or network.
➢ All voice, video and data networks and the equipment, staff and

purchased services necessary to operate them.
➢ All salary and benefits for staff whose job descriptions

specifically includes technology functions, i.e. network services,
applications development, systems administration.
➢ All technology services provided by vendors or contractors.
➢ Operating costs associated with providing information technology

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➢ All costs associated with developing, purchasing, licensing or
maintaining software.

➢ Agencies may wish to include other costs at their discretion. For
example, an agency may wish to include digital cameras in their
IT budget even though they can be operated stand-alone. Data
entry personnel may be included if they are considered part of the
technology staff. Costs that are excluded above may be included
if they are an integral part of a computer applications or would be
difficult to break out because the costs are included with other
information technology costs.

Examples of Information Technology

➢ Telephone and radio equipment and switches used for voice
communications.

➢ Traditional computer applications that include data storage and
programs to input, process, and output the data.

➢ Software and support for office automation systems such as word
processing and spreadsheets, as well as the computer to run them.

➢ Users' PCs and software.
➢ Server hardware and software used to support applications such as

electronic mail/groupware, file and print services, database,
application/ web servers, storage systems, and other hosting
services.
➢ Data, voice, and video networks and all associated communications
equipment and software.
➢ Peripherals directly connected to computer information systems
used to collect or transmit audio, video or graphic information,
such as scanners and digitizers.
➢ Voice response systems that interact with a computer database or
application.
➢ The state radio communications network.
➢ Computers and network systems used by teachers, trainers, and
students for educational purposes
➢ "Open/integrated" computer systems that monitor or automate
mechanical or chemical processes and also store information used

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by computer applications for analysis and decision-making, such
as a building management system.
All operating costs, equipment and staff time associated with supporting
the technology infrastructure of the agency, possibly including items
excluded above, such as video equipment used for technology training that
is included in the information systems cost center for the agency.
What is the difference between Information Technology vs.

Information Systems?
Both information technology and information systems deal with computer-
based systems to an extent, but require different education and training.
Think of information technology as a subset of information systems—
while IS covers the set of information as a whole, IT refers specifically to
the technology aspect within that system.
The field of information systems works as the bridge between technology
and people, whereas information technology focuses on helping them
utilize and make sense of that system. The two disciplines are related, but
have distinct sets of learning and career paths.

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 History of Management Information System

Many MIS pundits divide the history of MIS into the five eras, first
chronicled by Kenneth and Jane Laudon, authors of the
textbook Management Information Systems:

• First era: Mainframe and minicomputer computing
• Second era: Personal computers
• Third era: Client/server networks
• Fourth era: Enterprise computing
• Fifth era: Cloud computing

First Era

The first era, pre-1965, was the period of huge mainframe computers that
were housed in special temperature-controlled rooms and required
computer technicians to operate. IBM was the one-stop supplier of
hardware and software. Computer time-sharing was common due to the
enormous cost of owning and operating mainframes. As computer
technology advanced and computers shrank in size, companies could
afford minicomputers, still enormously expensive by today's standard but
sufficiently affordable for large companies to own and do their own in-
house computing.

Second Era

The second era of personal computers started in 1965 with the introduction
of the microprocessor. By the1980s, it was in full bloom with the
proliferation of the low-cost Apple I and II and the IBM personal
computer, or PC. The introduction of VisiCalc spreadsheet software
empowered ordinary employees with the ability to do tasks that companies
paid huge sums to do 10 years earlier.

Third Era

As computing power and autonomy devolved to ordinary employees in the
1980s, a simultaneous need arose to share computer information with other
employees within the business enterprise. This need advanced the
transition to the third era MIS client/server networks. Employees at all

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levels of the organization could share information in a variety of formats
through computer terminals linked to computer servers over common
networks called intranets.

Fourth Era

The fourth era, enterprise computing, consolidated disparate single-
application software applications used by different departments onto one
integrated enterprise platform that was accessed over high-speed
networks. Enterprise software solutions integrate essential business
operations -- marketing and sales, accounting, finance, human resources,
inventory and manufacturing -- to harmonize work and facilitate
cooperation across the entire enterprise. Although the application modules
used and information accessed differ by departments and levels of
authority, enterprise computing allows a 360-degree view of the entire
business operation.

Fifth Era

The exponential growth in Internet bandwidth consumption is ushering in
the fifth era of MIS, cloud computing. According to Cisco Systems,
worldwide Internet traffic is expected to reach 2 zettabytes annually by
2019. For context, one zettabyte equals 1,000 exabytes, and one exabyte
equals 1 billion gigabytes. Cloud computing unchains everybody from
office-bound PCs, allowing access to enterprise MIS from anywhere with
mobile devices.
The fifth era is also the time of the knowledge worker's ascendancy. As
decision-making pushes to the lowest levels of organizations, MIS is
expected to increasingly empower workers not only as producers of
information but also as consumers of the same information. In effect,
knowledge workers, as producers and consumers of MIS information, will
determine precisely what information MIS generates.

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 The Dimension of Information Systems
An information system is a set of interrelated components that work
together to collect, process, store, and disseminate information to support
decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an
organization. Information systems are the foundation for conducting
business today. It plays a critical role in increasing productivity and
industrial survival thus making it hard for an organization to continue to
exist without extensive use of it. With information system existence it
ensures improved decision making, Operational excellence, and
Competitive advantage, Customer and supplier intimacy and total overall
organizational survival. Information systems may help managers and
workers analyze problems, visualize complex subjects, and create new
products.
An information system is a set of interrelated components that collect or
retrieve process, store, and distribute information to support decision
making and control in an organization. Information systems can also be
used to analyze problems, visualize complex subjects, and create new
products.
Information is data, or raw facts, shaped into useful form for humans.

FIGURE 1.1: Data and Information

Data and Information
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Raw data from a supermarket checkout counter can be processed and
organized to produce meaningful information, such as the total unit sales
of dish detergent or the total sales revenue from dish detergent for a
specific store or sales territory.
Input, processing, and output are the three activities in an information
system that produces the information an organization needs. Input captures
or collects raw data from within the organization or from its external
environment. Processing converts this raw input into a meaningful form.
Output transfers the processed information to the people who will use it or
to the activities for which it will be used. Information systems also require
feedback, which is output that is returned to appropriate members of the
organization to help them evaluate or correct the input stage.

FIGURE 1.2: function of an Information System

Functions of an Information System
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An information system contains information about an organization and its
surrounding environment. Three basic activities—input, processing, and
output—produce the information organizations need. Feedback is output
returned to appropriate people or activities in the organization to evaluate
and refine the input. Environmental actors, such as customers, suppliers,
competitors, stockholders, and regulatory agencies, interact with the
organization and its information systems.

It is important to distinguish information systems, which are designed to
produce information and solve organizational problems, from the
computer technology and software that is typically used to create and
manage information systems.

Computer literacy focuses primarily on knowledge of information
technology. Information systems literacy, the understanding of
information systems, includes a behavioral and technical approach to
understanding the broader organization, management, and information
technology dimension of systems and their power to provide solutions. The
field of management information systems (MIS) tries to achieve this
broader information systems literacy.

Information System Terminologies

There are four terminologies student should know, such as:

i. Data VS Information
There is a subtle difference between data and information. Data are
the facts or details from which information is derived. Individual
pieces of data are rarely useful alone. For data to become
information, data needs to be put into context.

Data Information

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Meaning Data is raw, When data is processed,
Example unorganized facts that organized, structured or
need to be processed. presented in a given
Data can be something context so as to make it
simple and seemingly useful, it is called
random and useless until information.
it is organized.
Each student's test score The average score of a
is one piece of data. class or of the entire
school is information
that can be derived from
the given data.

Table 1.1 : Differences between Data and Information

Figure 1.3 : Data and Information

ii. Knowledge
Is a familiarity, awareness, or understanding of someone or
something, such as facts, information, descriptions, or skills, which
is acquired through experience or education by perceiving,
discovering or learning. In information technology, knowledge is,
to an enterprise or an individual, the possession of information or
the ability to quickly locate it.

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In the context of the business enterprise or the personal computer
user, knowledge tends to connote possession of experienced
"know-how" as well as possession of factual information or where
to get it. Enterprises have recently begun to treat their accumulated
knowledge as an asset and to develop knowledge
management plans and applications.

iii. Knowledge Base
Is a technology used to store complex structured and
unstructured information used by a computer system. The initial
use of the term was in connection with expert systems which were
the first knowledge-based systems. First evolution in knowledge
base is database. Next evolution was internet. With the rise of the
Internet, documents, hypertext, and multimedia support were now
critical for any corporate database.

In general, a knowledge base is a centralized repository for
information: a public library, a database of related information
about a particular subject, and whatis.com could all be considered
to be examples of knowledge bases. In relation to information
technology (IT), a knowledge base is a machine-readable resource
for the dissemination of information, generally online or with the
capacity to be put online. An integral component of knowledge
management systems, a knowledge base is used to optimize
information collection, organization, and retrieval for an
organization, or for the general public.

iv. Information System
An information system is software that helps you organize and
analyze data. This makes it possible to answer questions and solve
problems relevant to the mission of an organization. While
information systems may differ in how they are used within an
organization, they typically contain the following components:

1. Hardware: Computer-based information systems use
computer hardware, such as processors, monitors, keyboard
and printers.

2. Software: These are the programs used to organize process and
analyze data.

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3. Databases: Information systems work with data, organized
into tables and files.

4. Network: Different elements need to be connected to each
other, especially if many different people in an organization use
the same information system.

5. Procedures: These describe how specific data are processed
and analyzed in order to get the answers for which the
information system is designed.

 The Components of Information Systems
Many students understand that an information system has something to do
with databases or spreadsheets. Others mention computers and e-
commerce. And they are all right, at least in part: information systems are
made up of different components that work together to provide value to an
organization.

The first way I describe information systems to students is to tell them that
they are made up of five components: hardware,
software, data, people, and process. The first
three, fitting under the technology category, are
generally what most students think of when asked
to define information systems. But the last two,
people and process, are really what separate the
idea of information systems from more technical
fields, such as computer science. In order to fully

understand information systems, students must understand how all of these
components work together to bring value to an organization.

Technology

Technology can be thought of as the application of scientific knowledge
for practical purposes. From the invention of the wheel to the harnessing
of electricity for artificial lighting, technology is a part of our lives in so
many ways that we tend to take it for granted. As discussed before, the first
three components of information systems – hardware, software, and data
– all fall under the category of technology. Each of these will get its own
chapter and a much lengthier discussion, but we will take a moment here
to introduce them so we can get a full understanding of what an
information system is.

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Hardware

Information systems hardware is the part of an information system you can
touch – the physical components of the technology. Computers, keyboards,
disk drives, iPads, and flash drives are all examples of information systems
hardware.

Software
SoftSwSaorefitswa aserteowf instructions that tells the hardware what to do. Software
is not tangaibrlee – it cannot be touched. When programmers create software

programs, what they are really doing is simply typing out lists of
instructions that tell the hardware what to do. There are several categories
of software, with the two main categories being operating-system software,
which makes the hardware usable, and application software, which does
something useful. Examples of operating systems include Microsoft
Windows on a personal computer and Google’s Android on a mobile
phone. Examples of application software are Microsoft Excel and Angry
Birds.

Data
TheStShoirdftcwomaproenent is data. You can think of data as a collection of facts.
For exwamaprlee, your street address, the city you live in, and your phone

number are all pieces of data. Like software, data is also intangible. By

themsPeleveosp, lpeieces of data are not really very useful. But aggregated,

indexed, and organized together into a database, data can become a
powerful tool for businesses. In fact, all of the definitions presented at the
beginning of this chapter focused on how information systems manage
data. Organizations collect all kinds of data and use it to make decisions.
These decisions can then be analyzed as to their effectiveness and the
organization can be improved.

SSoftware
ware

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When thinking about information systems, it is easy to get focused on the
technology components and forget that we must look beyond these tools
to fully understand how they integrate into an organization. A focus on the
people involved in information systems is the next step. From the front-
line help-desk workers, to systems analysts, to programmers, all the way
up to the chief information officer (CIO), the people involved with
information systems are an essential element that must not be overlooked.

Process

The last component of information systems is process. A process is a series
of steps undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or goal. Information
systems are becoming more and more integrated with organizational
processes, bringing more productivity and better control to those
processes. But simply automating activities using technology is not enough
– businesses looking to effectively utilize information systems do more.

UsiSngSotefcthwnoalroegy to manage and improve processes, both within a
companwy aanrdeexternally with suppliers and customers, is the ultimate goal.

 The Role of Information Systems

Now that we have explored the different components of information
systems, we need to turn our attention to the role that information systems
play in an organization. So far we have looked at what the components of
an information system are, but what do these components actually do for
an organization? From our definitions above, we see that these components
collect, store, organize, and distribute data throughout the organization. In
fact, we might say that one of the roles of information systems is to take
data and turn it into information, and then transform that into
organizational knowledge. As technology has developed, this role has
evolved into the backbone of the organization. An information system can
help you manage your company and improve performance, but you have
to know what functions you need to get the full benefits. Make sure the
system you want can fulfill the three fundamental roles that an information
system can play in your business.

There are three role of information system in business such as :

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Business •Increase in wireless technology use, Web sites
Transformation •Shifts in media and advertising
•New federal security and accounting laws

Global •Internet has drastically reduced costs of operating
Opportunities on global scale

•Presents both challenges and opportunities

Digital Firms •Significant business relationships are digitally
enabled and mediated

•Core business processes are accomplished
through digital networks

•Key corporate assets are managed digitally

•Digital firms offer greater flexibility in organization
and management

•Growing interdependence between ability to use
information technology and ability to implement
corporate strategies and achieve corporate goals

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

❖ Identify the computer hardware and software
❖ Discuss communications networks and types

of network
❖ Discuss threat to information security
❖ Describe information security

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 Introduction to Hardware and Softwar

Figure 2.1: Hardware vs Software

Hardware

The physical parts of computing devices – those that you can actually touch
– are referred to as hardware. In this chapter, we will take a look at
this component of information systems, learn a little bit about how it
works, and discuss some of the current trends surrounding it.
As stated above, computer hardware encompasses digital devices that you
can physically touch. This includes devices such as the following:

• desktop computers
• laptop computers
• mobile phones
• tablet computers
• e-readers
• storage devices, such as flash drives
• input devices, such as keyboards, mice, and scanners
• Output devices such as printers and speakers.
Besides these more traditional computer hardware devices, many items
that were once not considered digital devices are now becoming
computerized themselves. Digital technologies are now being integrated
into many everyday objects, so the days of a device being labeled

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categorically as computer hardware may be ending. Examples of these
types of digital devices include automobiles, refrigerators, and even soft-
drink dispensers. In this chapter, we will also explore digital devices,
beginning with defining what we mean by the term itself.
1. Processing Data: The CPU
As stated above, most computing devices have a similar architecture. The
core of this architecture is the central processing unit, or CPU. The CPU
can be thought of as the “brains” of the device. The CPU carries out the
commands sent to it by the software and returns results to be acted upon.
The earliest CPUs were large circuit boards with limited functionality.
Today, a CPU is generally on one chip and can perform a large variety of
functions. There are two primary manufacturers of CPUs for personal
computers: Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). Many CPU chips
now contain multiple processors per chip. These chips, known as dual-core
(two processors) or quad-core (four processors), increase the processing
power of a computer by providing the capability of multiple CPUs.
2. Motherboard

Figure 2.2 : Motherboard

The motherboard is the main circuit board on the computer. The CPU,
memory, and storage components, among other things, all connect into the
motherboard. Motherboards come in different shapes and sizes, depending
upon how compact or expandable the computer is designed to be. Most

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modern motherboards have many integrated components, such as video
and sound processing, which used to require separate components.
The motherboard provides much of the bus of the computer (the
term bus refers to the electrical connection between different computer
components). The bus is an important determiner of the computer’s speed:
the combination of how fast the bus can transfer data and the number of
data bits that can be moved at one time determine the speed.
3. Random-Access Memory
When a computer starts up, it begins to load information from the hard disk
into its working memory. This working memory, called random-access
memory (RAM), can transfer data much faster than the hard disk. Any
program that you are running on the computer is loaded into RAM for
processing. In order for a computer to work effectively, some minimal
amount of RAM must be installed. In most cases, adding more RAM will
allow the computer to run faster. Another characteristic of RAM is that it
is “volatile.” This means that it can store data as long as it is receiving
power; when the computer is turned off, any data stored in RAM is lost.

Figure 2.3 : Memory DIMM

RAM is generally installed in a personal computer through the use of
a dual-inline memory module (DIMM). The type of DIMM accepted into
a computer is dependent upon the motherboard.

4. Hard Disk

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Figure 2.4 : Hard disk enclosure

While the RAM is used as working memory, the computer also needs a
place to store data for the longer term. Most of today’s personal computers
use a hard disk for long-term data storage. A hard disk is where data is
stored when the computer is turned off and where it is retrieved from when
the computer is turned on. Why is it called a hard disk? A hard disk consists
of a stack of disks inside a hard metal case. A floppy disk (discussed
below) was a removable disk that, in some cases at least, was flexible, or
“floppy.”
5. Removable Media
Besides fixed storage components, removable storage media are also used
in most personal computers. Removable media allows you to take your
data with you. And just as with all other digital technologies, these media
have gotten smaller and more powerful as the years have gone by. Early
computers used floppy disks, which could be inserted into a disk drive in
the computer. Data was stored on a magnetic disk inside an enclosure.
These disks ranged from 8″ in the earliest days down to 3 1/2″.

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Figure 2.5 :Floppy-disk evolution (8″ to 5 1/4″ to 3 1/2″)

Around the turn of the century, a new portable storage technology was
being developed: the USB flash drive (more about the USB port later in
the chapter). This device attaches to the universal serial bus (USB)
connector, which became standard on all personal computers beginning in
the late 1990s. As with all other storage media, flash drive storage capacity
has skyrocketed over the years, from initial capacities of eight megabytes
to current capacities of 64 gigabytes and still growing.
6. Input and Output

Figure 2.6 : USB connector

In order for a personal computer to be useful, it must have channels for
receiving input from the user and channels for delivering output to the user.
These input and output devices connect to the computer via various
connection ports, which generally are part of the motherboard and are
accessible outside the computer case. In early personal computers, specific
ports were designed for each type of output device. The configuration of
these ports has evolved over the years, becoming more and more
standardized over time. Today, almost all devices plug into a computer
through the use of a USB port. This port type, first introduced in 1996, has

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increased in its capabilities, both in its data transfer rate and power
supplied.

a. Input Devices

All personal computers need components that allow the user to
input data. Early computers used simply a keyboard to allow the user
to enter data or select an item from a menu to run a program. With the
advent of the graphical user interface, the mouse became a standard
component of a computer. These two components are still the primary

input devices to a personal computer, though variations of each
have been introduced with varying levels of success over the years. For
example, many new devices now use a touch screen as the primary
way of entering data.

Besides the keyboard and mouse, additional input devices are
becoming more common. Scanners allow users to input documents
into a computer, either as images or as text. Microphones can be used to
record audio or give voice commands. Webcams and other types of video
cameras can be used to record video or participate in a video chat session.

b. Output Devices

Output devices are essential as well. The most obvious output
device is a display, visually representing the state of the computer. In some
cases, a personal computer can support multiple displays or be connected
to larger-format displays such as a projector or large-screen television.
Besides displays, other output devices include speakers for audio output
and printers for printed output.

7. Bluetooth

Besides USB, some input and output devices connect to the computer via
a wireless-technology standard called Bluetooth. Bluetooth was first
invented in the 1990s and exchanges data over short distances using radio
waves. Bluetooth generally has a range of 100 to 150 feet. For devices to
communicate via Bluetooth, both the personal computer and the
connecting device must have a Bluetooth communication chip installed.

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Digital Devices

A digital device processes electronic signals that represent either a one
(“on”) or a zero (“off”). The on state is represented by the presence of an
electronic signal; the off state is represented by the absence of an electronic
signal. Each one or zero is referred to as a bit (a contraction of binary
digit); a group of eight bits is a byte. The first personal computers could
process 8 bits of data at once; modern PCs can now process 64 bits of data
at a time, which is where the term 64-bit processor comes from.

1. Other Computing Devices

A personal computer is designed to be a general-purpose device. That is,
it can be used to solve many different types of problems. As the
technologies of the personal computer have become more commonplace,
many of the components have been integrated into other devices that
previously were purely mechanical. We have also seen an evolution in
what defines a computer. Ever since the invention of the personal
computer, users have clamored for a way to carry them around. Here we
will examine several types of devices that represent the latest trends in
personal computing.

2. Portable Computers

In 1983, Compaq Computer Corporation developed the first commercially
successful portable personal computer. By today’s standards, the Compaq
PC was not very portable: weighing in at 28 pounds, this computer was
portable only in the most literal sense – it could be carried around. But this
was no laptop; the computer was designed like a suitcase, to be lugged
around and laid on its side to be used. Besides portability, the Compaq was
successful because it was fully compatible with the software being run by
the IBM PC, which was the standard for business.

In the years that followed, portable computing continued to improve,
giving us laptop and notebook computers. The “luggable” computer has

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given way to a much lighter clamshell computer that weighs from 4 to 6
pounds and runs on batteries. In fact, the most recent advances in
technology give us a new class of laptop that is quickly becoming the
standard: these laptops are extremely light and portable and use less power
than their larger counterparts. The MacBook Air is a good example of this:
it weighs less than three pounds and is only 0.68 inches thick!

Finally, as more and more organizations and individuals are moving much
of their computing to the Internet, laptops are being developed that use “the
cloud” for all of their data and application storage. These laptops are also
extremely light because they have no need of a hard disk at all! A good
example of this type of laptop (sometimes called a netbook) is Samsung’s
Chromebook.

3. Smartphones

The first modern-day mobile phone was invented in 1973. Resembling a
brick and weighing in at two pounds, it was priced out of reach for most
consumers at nearly four thousand dollars. Since then, mobile phones have
become smaller and less expensive; today mobile phones are a modern
convenience available to all levels of society. As mobile phones evolved,
they became more like small computers. These smartphones have many of
the same characteristics as a personal computer, such as an operating
system and memory. The first smartphone was the IBM Simon, introduced
in 1994.

In January of 2007, Apple introduced the iPhone. Its ease of use and
intuitive interface made it an immediate success and solidified the future
of smartphones. Running on an operating system called iOS, the iPhone
was really a small computer with a touch-screen interface. In 2008, the first
Android phone was released, with similar functionality.

4. Tablet Computers

A tablet computer is one that uses a touch screen as its primary input and
is small enough and light enough to be carried around easily. They
generally have no keyboard and are self-contained inside a rectangular

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case. The first tablet computers appeared in the early 2000s and used an
attached pen as a writing device for input. These tablets ranged in size from
small personal digital assistants (PDAs), which were handheld, to full-
sized, 14-inch devices. Most early tablets used a version of an existing
computer operating system, such as Windows or Linux.

These early tablet devices were, for the most part, commercial failures. In
January, 2010, Apple introduced the iPad, which ushered in a new era of
tablet computing. Instead of a pen, the iPad used the finger as the primary
input device. Instead of using the operating system of their desktop and
laptop computers, Apple chose to use iOS, the operating system of the
iPhone. Because the iPad had a user interface that was the same as the
iPhone, consumers felt comfortable and sales took off. The iPad has set the
standard for tablet computing. After the success of the iPad, computer
manufacturers began to develop new tablets that utilized operating systems
that were designed for mobile devices, such as Android.

Software

The second component of an information system is software. Simply put:
Software is the set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do.
Software is created through the process of programming. Without
software, the hardware would not be functional.

Types of Software

Software can be broadly divided into two categories: operating systems
and application software. Operating systems manage the hardware and
create the interface between the hardware and the user. Application
software is the category of programs that do something useful for the user.

1. Operating Systems

The operating system provides several essential functions, including:

a. Managing the hardware resources of the computer;
b. Providing the user-interface components;

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c. Providing a platform for software developers to write applications.
- All computing devices run an operating system. For
personal computers, the most popular operating systems are
Microsoft’s windows, apple’s os x, and different versions
of Linux. Smartphones and tablets run operating systems as
well, such as apple’s Ios, Google’s Android, Microsoft’s
windows mobile, and Blackberry.

Early personal-computer operating systems were simple by today’s
standards; they did not provide multitasking and required the user to type
commands to initiate an action. The amount of memory that early
operating systems could handle was limited as well, making large
programs impractical to run. The most popular of the early operating
systems was IBM’s Disk Operating System, or DOS, which was actually
developed for them by Microsoft.

In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh computer, featuring an operating
system with a graphical user interface. Though not the first graphical
operating system, it was the first one to find commercial success. In 1985,
Microsoft released the first version of Windows. This version of Windows
was not an operating system, but instead was an application that ran on top
of the DOS operating system, providing a graphical environment. It was
quite limited and had little commercial success. It was not until the 1990
release of Windows 3.0 that Microsoft found success with a graphical user
interface. Because of the hold of IBM and IBM-compatible personal
computers on business, it was not until Windows 3.0 was released that
business users began using a graphical user interface, ushering us into the
graphical-computing era. Since 1990, both Apple and Microsoft have
released many new versions of their operating systems, with each release
adding the ability to process more data at once and access more memory.
Features such as multitasking, virtual memory, and voice input have
become standard features of both operating systems.

A third personal-computer operating system family that is gaining in
popularity is Linux (pronounced “linn-ex”). Linux is a version of the Unix
operating system that runs on the personal computer. Unix is an operating
system used primarily by scientists and engineers on larger minicomputers.
These are very expensive computers, and software developer Linus
Torvalds wanted to find a way to make Unix run on less expensive personal

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computers. Linux was the result. Linux has many variations and now
powers a large percentage of web servers in the world. It is also an example
of open-source software, a topic we will cover later in this chapter.

2. Application Software

The second major category of software is application software.
Application software is, essentially, software that allows the user to
accomplish some goal or purpose. For example, if you have to write a
paper, you might use the application-software program Microsoft Word. If
you want to listen to music, you might use iTunes. To surf the web, you
might use Internet Explorer or Firefox. Even a computer game could be
considered application software.

3. Cloud Computing

Historically, for software to run on a computer, an individual copy of the
software had to be installed on the computer, either from a disk or, more
recently, after being downloaded from the Internet. The concept of “cloud”
computing changes this, however.

To understand cloud computing, we first have to understand what the cloud
is. “The cloud” refers to applications, services, and data storage on the
Internet. These service providers rely on giant server farms and massive
storage devices that are connected via Internet protocols. Cloud computing
is the use of these services by individuals and organizations.

You probably already use cloud computing in some forms. For example,
if you access your e-mail via your web browser, you are using a form of
cloud computing. If you use Google Drive’s applications, you are using
cloud computing. While these are free versions of cloud computing, there
is big business in providing applications and data storage over the web.
Salesforce (see above) is a good example of cloud computing – their entire
suite of CRM applications are offered via the cloud. Cloud computing is
not limited to web applications: it can also be used for services such as
phone or video streaming.

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a. Advantages of Cloud Computing
✓ No software to install or upgrades to maintain.
✓ Available from any computer that has access to the
Internet.
✓ Can scale to a large number of users easily.
✓ New applications can be up and running very quickly.
✓ Services can be leased for a limited time on an as-
needed basis.
✓ Your information is not lost if your hard disk crashes or
your laptop is stolen.
✓ You are not limited by the available memory or disk
space on your computer.

b. Disadvantages of Cloud Computing
✓ Your information is stored on someone else’s computer
– how safe is it?
✓ You must have Internet access to use it. If you do not
have access, you’re out of luck.
✓ You are relying on a third-party to provide these
services.
✓ Cloud computing has the ability to really impact how
organizations manage technology. For example, why is
an IT department needed to purchase, configure, and
manage personal computers and software when all that
is really needed is an Internet connection?

4. Using a Private Cloud

Many organizations are understandably nervous about giving up control of
their data and some of their applications by using cloud computing. But
they also see the value in reducing the need for installing software and
adding disk storage to local computers. A solution to this problem lies in
the concept of a private cloud. While there are various models of a private
cloud, the basic idea is for the cloud service provider to section off web
server space for a specific organization. The organization has full control
over that server space while still gaining some of the benefits of cloud
computing.

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5. Open-Source Software

When the personal computer was first released, it did not serve any
practical need. Early computers were difficult to program and required
great attention to detail. However, many personal-computer enthusiasts
immediately banded together to build applications and solve problems.
These computer enthusiasts were happy to share any programs they built
and solutions to problems they found; this collaboration enabled them to
more quickly innovate and fix problems.

As software began to become a business, however, this idea of sharing
everything fell out of favor, at least with some. When a software program
takes hundreds of man-hours to develop, it is understandable that the
programmers do not want to just give it away. This led to a new business
model of restrictive software licensing, which required payment for
software, a model that is still dominant today. This model is sometimes
referred to as closed source, as the source code is not made available to
others.
There are many, however, who feel that software should not be restricted.
Just as with those early hobbyists in the 1970s, they feel that innovation
and progress can be made much more rapidly if we share what we learn.
In the 1990s, with Internet access connecting more and more people
together, the open-source movement gained steam.

Open-source software is software that makes the source code available for
anyone to copy and use. For most of us, having access to the source code
of a program does us little good, as we are not programmers and won’t be
able to do much with it. The good news is that open-source software is also
available in a compiled format that we can simply download and
install. The open-source movement has led to the development of some of
the most-used software in the world, including the Firefox browser, the
Linux operating system, and the Apache web server. Many also think
open-source software is superior to closed-source software. Because the
source code is freely available, many programmers have contributed to
open-source software projects, adding features and fixing bugs.

Many businesses are wary of open-source software precisely because the
code is available for anyone to see. They feel that this increases the risk of
an attack. Others counter that this openness actually decreases the

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risk because the code is exposed to thousands of programmers who can
incorporate code changes to quickly patch vulnerabilities.
There are many arguments on both sides of the aisle for the benefits of the
two models. Some benefits of the open-source model are:

The software is available for free.
The software source-code is available; it can be examined and
reviewed before it is installed.
The large community of programmers who work on open-
source projects leads to quick bug-fixing and feature additions.

Some benefits of the closed-source model are:

By providing financial Technical support from the
incentive for software company that developed the
development, some of the
brightest minds have chosen software.
software development as a

career.

Today there are thousands of open-source software applications available
for download. For example, as we discussed previously in this chapter,
you can get the productivity suite from Open Office. One good place to
search for open-source software is sourceforge.net, where thousands of
software applications are available for free download.

 Additional Info : The Rise of Mobile
Computing

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Mobile computing is having a huge impact on the business world today.
The use of smartphones and tablet computers is rising at double-digit rates
each year. The Gartner Group, in a report issued in April, 2013, estimates
that over 1.7 million mobile phones will ship in the US in 2013 as
compared to just over 340,000 personal computers. Over half of these
mobile phones are smartphones. Almost 200,000 tablet computers are
predicted to ship in 2013. According to the report, PC shipments will
continue to decline as phone and tablet shipments continue to increase.

1. Integrated Computing

Along with advances in computers themselves, computing technology is
being integrated into many everyday products. From automobiles to
refrigerators to airplanes, computing technology is enhancing what these
devices can do and is adding capabilities that would have been considered
science fiction just a few years ago. Here are two of the latest ways that
computing technologies are being integrated into everyday products:

• The Smart House
• The Self-Driving Car

2. The Commoditization of the Personal Computer

Over the past thirty years, as the personal computer has gone from
technical marvel to part of our everyday lives, it has also become a
commodity. The PC has become a commodity in the sense that there is
very little differentiation between computers, and the primary factor that
controls their sale is their price. Hundreds of manufacturers all over the
world now create parts for personal computers. Dozens of companies buy
these parts and assemble the computers. As commodities, there are
essentially no differences between computers made by these different
companies. Profit margins for personal computers are razor-thin, leading
hardware developers to find the lowest-cost manufacturing.

There is one brand of computer for which this is not the case – Apple.
Because Apple does not make computers that run on the same open
standards as other manufacturers, they can make a unique product that no

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one can easily copy. By creating what many consider to be a superior
product, Apple can charge more for their computers than other
manufacturers. Just as with the iPad and iPhone, Apple has chosen a
strategy of differentiation, which, at least at this time, seems to be paying
off.

 Communication Networks and Types of Network

Modern world scenario is ever changing. Data Communication and
network have changed the way business and other daily affair works. Now,
they highly rely on computer networks and internetwork.

A set of devices often mentioned as nodes connected by media link is
called a Network.

A node can be a device which is capable of sending or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network like a computer, printer etc. There
are five types of network such as :

 Type of Network

Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

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3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Wireless
5. Inter Network (Internet)

Figure 2.7 : Type Of Network

Local Area Network (LAN)

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an
office, group of buildings or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy
to design and to troubleshoot. Personal computers and workstations are
connected to each other through LANs. We can use different types of
topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc. LAN can be
a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and
network among each other while it can also be as complex as
interconnecting an entire building. LAN networks are also widely used to
share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.

Characteristics of LAN :

 LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other
regulatory controls.

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 LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the
typical WAN.

 There are different types of Media Access Control methods in
a LAN, the prominent ones are Ethernet, Token ring.

 It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e.
they work in a restricted geographical area.

Applications of LAN :
 One of the computers in a network can become a server serving

all the remaining computers called clients. Software can be
stored on the server and it can be used by the remaining clients.
 Connecting locally all the workstations in a building to let them
communicate with each other locally without any internet
access.
 Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common
applications of LAN.

Advantages of LAN
 Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems,

DVD-ROM drives and hard disks can be shared with the help
of local area networks. This reduces cost and hardware
purchases.
 Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same
software over network instead of purchasing separate licensed
software for each client a network.
 Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can
easily be transferred over networked computers.
 Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved
on hard disk of the server computer. This will help users to use
any workstation in a network to access their data. Because data
is not stored on workstations locally.
 Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer
centrally, it will be easy to manage data at only one place and
the data will be more secure too.
 Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to
share a single internet connection among all the LAN users. In
Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing system keeps the
internet expenses cheaper.

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Disadvantages of LAN :
 High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time

due to shared computer resources, but the initial setup costs of
installing Local Area Networks is high.
 Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to
check personal data files of each and every LAN user.
Moreover he can check the internet history and computer use
history of the LAN user.
 Data Security Threat: Unauthorized users can access
important data of an organization if centralized data repository
is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.
 LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN
Administrator because, there are problems of software
installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in Local
Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time
job.
 Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small
area like one office, one building or a group of nearby
buildings.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also
called MAN and uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to
extend over the entire city. It can be means to connecting a number of
LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is mainly hold
and operated by single private company or a public company.

Characteristics of MAN :
 It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers,

cables etc.
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN :
 Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-

speed carriers, such as fibre optic cables.

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 It provides a good back bone for large network and provides
greater access to WANs.

 The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in
both directions simultaneously.

 A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an
entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN :
 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to

another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and

industrial espionage (spying) graphical regions.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased
network. It is used for the network that covers large distance such as cover
states of a country. It is not easy to design and maintain. Communication
medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN operates on low
data rates.

Characteristics of WAN :
 It generally covers large distances (states, countries,

continents).
 Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone

networks which are connected by routers.

Advantages of WAN :
 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can

connect on the one network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the

network. These messages can have picture, sounds or data
included with them(called attachments).
 Expensive things (such as printers or phone lines to the
internet) can be shared by all the computers on the network
without having to buy a different peripheral for each computer.

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 Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids
problems where some users may have older information than
others.

Disadvantages of WAN

 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and
disrupting the network.

 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated.
The bigger the network the more expensive it is.

 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which
requires network supervisors and technicians to be employed.

 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability
to use information from other computers. Protection against
hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.

Wireless Network

Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code was
used to implement wireless networks. Modern digital wireless systems
have better performance, but the basic idea is the same. Wireless Networks
can be divided into three main categories:

1. System interconnection
2. Wireless LANs
3. Wireless WANs

1. System Interconnection

System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a
computer using short-range radio. Some companies got together to design
a short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect various
components such as monitor, keyboard, mouse and printer, to the main
unit, without wires. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets,
scanners and other devices to connect to a computer by merely being
brought within range. In simplest form, system interconnection networks

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use the master-slave concept. The system unit is normally the master,
talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc. as slaves.

2. Wireless LANs
These are the systems in which every computer has a radio
modem and antenna with which it can communicate with other systems.
Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly common in small offices and
homes, where installing Ethernet is considered too much trouble. There is
a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, which most systems
implement and which is becoming very widespread.

3. Wireless WANs
The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-
bandwidth wireless WAN. This system has already gone through three
generations:

➢ The first generation was analog and for voice only.
➢ The second generation was digital and for voice only.
➢ The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.

Figure 2.8 : WiFi Network Connection

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Inter Network

Inter Network or Internet is a combination of two or more networks. Inter
network can be formed by joining two or more individual networks by
means of various devices such as routers, gateways and bridges.

Figure 2.9 : Inter Network

Analog Signal

An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal for which the time
varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other
time varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time varying signal. It
differs from a digital signal in terms of small fluctuations in the signal
which are meaningful. Analog is usually thought of in an electrical context;
however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also
convey analog signals.

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Digital Signal

A digital signal is a chemical signal that is a representation of a sequence
of discrete values (a quantified discrete-time signal), for example of
arbitrary bit stream, or of a digitized (sampled and analog-to-digital
converted) analog signal. The term digital signal can refer to :

1. A continuous-time waveform signal used in any form of digital
communication.

2. A pulse train signal that switches between a discrete number of
voltage levels or levels of light intensity, also known as a a line coded
signal, for example a signal found in digital electronics or in serial
communications using digital baseband transmission in,or a pulse code
modulation (PCM) representation of a digitized analog signal.
A signal that is generated by means of a digital modulation method (digital
pass band transmission), produced by a modem, is in the first case
considered as a digital signal, and in the second case as converted to an
analog signal.

Figure 2. 10 : Analog Signal Vs Digital Signal

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Internet

The internet is a globally connected network system that uses TCP/IP to
transmit data via various types of media. The internet is a network of global
exchanges – including private, public, business, academic and government
networks – connected by guided, wireless and fiber-optic technologies.

The terms internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably,
but they are not exactly the same thing; the internet refers to the global
communication system, including hardware and infrastructure, while the
web is one of the services communicated over the internet.

World Wide Web (www)

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online content that is
formatted in HTML and accessed via HTTP. The term refers to all the
interlinked HTML pages that can be accessed over the Internet. The World
Wide Web was originally designed in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee while he
was a contractor at CERN. The World Wide Web is most often referred to
simply as "the Web."

Difference Internet & World Wide Web ( WWW)

Internet World Wide Web
1993
Estimated year of 1969, though opening of the
Origin network to commercial interests NSFnet

began only in 1988 Files, folders &
documents stored in
Name of the first ARPANET various computers
version

Comprises Network of Computers, copper
wires, fibre-optic

cables & wireless networks

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Internet World Wide Web

Governed by Internet Protocol Hyper Text Transfer
Dependency Protocol

Nature This is the base, independent of It depends on Internet to

the World Wide Web work

Hardware Software

 Threats to Information Security

Malicious Software

Is any software that gives partial to full control of your computer
to do whatever the malware creator wants.

Malware types can be categorized as follows: viruses, worms, Trojans, and
backdoors seek to infect and spread themselves to create
more havoc. Adware and spyware seek to embed themselves
to watch what the user does and act upon that data.

Categorized or types of Malware:

1. Viruses

A virus is a program or programming code that replicates by being copied
or initiating its copying to another program, computer boot sector or

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document. Viruses can be transmitted as attachments to an e-mail note or
in a downloaded file, or be present on a diskette or CD. Viruses need an
already-infected active operating system or program to work. Viruses are
typically attached to an executable file or a word document. Most people
are probably aware that a .exe file extension could lead to issues if it’s not
from a trusted source. But there are hundreds of other file extensions that
denote an executable file. Usually spread via infected websites, file
sharing, or email attachment downloads, a virus will lie dormant until the
infected host file or program is activated. Once that happens, the virus is
able to replicate itself and spread through your systems. For computer
viruses, your contact list is the equivalent of a packed train for the common

cold. It hijacks your applications and uses your own apps to
sneeze all over everyone, sending out infected files to your
colleagues, friends and clients. Because it looks like it’s
coming from a trustworthy source (you!), it has a much
higher chance of spreading.

2. Worms

A worm is a self-replicating virus that does not alter files but duplicates
itself. It is common for worms to be noticed only when their uncontrolled
replication consumes system resources, slowing or halting other tasks.
Worms are spread via software vulnerabilities or phishing attacks. Once a
worm has installed itself into your computer’s memory, it starts to infect
the whole machine and in some case, your whole network. Depending on
the type of worm and your security measures, they can do serious damage.
These worms able to:

✓ Modify and delete files
✓ Inject malicious software onto computers
✓ Replicate themselves over and over to deplete system resources
✓ Steal your data
✓ Install a convenient backdoor for hackers

They can infect large numbers of computers fast, consuming bandwidth
and overloading your web server as they go.

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3. Trojan Horses

A Trojan horse is a program in which malicious or harmful code is
contained inside apparently harmless programming or data in such a way
that it can get control and do its chosen form of damage, such as ruining
the certain area on your hard disk. A Trojan horse may be widely
redistributed as part of a computer virus. Trojans themselves are a
doorway. Unlike a worm, they need a host to work. Once you’ve got the
Trojan on your device, hackers can use it to:

✓ Delete, modify and capture data
✓ Spy on your device
✓ Gain access to your network
4. Spyware

Spyware is any technology that aids in gathering information about a
person or organization without their knowledge. On the Internet (where it
is sometimes called a Spybot or tracking software), Spyware is
programming that is put in someone's computer to secretly gather
information about the user and relay it to advertisers or other interested
parties. Spyware can get in a computer as a software virus or as the result
of installing a new program. Once on your computer, spyware relays your
data to advertisers or cyber criminals. Some spyware installs additional
malware that make changes to your settings.

Computer Crime

Is an act performed by a knowledgeable computer user,
sometimes referred to as a hacker that illegally browses
or steals a company's or individuals private information.

Types of computer crime:

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1. Hackers

In simple words, hacking is an act committed by an intruder by accessing
your computer system without your permission. Hackers (the people doing
the ‘hacking’) are basically computer programmers, who have an advanced
understanding of computers and commonly misuse this knowledge for
devious reasons. They’re usually technology buffs who have expert-level
skills in one particular software program or language. As for motives, there
could be several, but the most common are pretty simple and can be
explained by a human tendency such as greed, fame, power, etc. Some
people do it purely to show-off their expertise – ranging from relatively
harmless activities such as modifying software (and even hardware) to
carry out tasks that are outside the creator’s intent, others just want to cause
destruction.

Greed and sometimes voyeuristic tendencies may cause a hacker to break
into systems to steal personal banking information, a corporation’s
financial data, etc. They also try and modify systems so that they can
execute tasks at their whims. Hackers displaying such destructive conduct
are also called “Crackers” at times. They are also called “Black Hat”
hackers On the other hand; there are those who develop an interest in
computer hacking just out of intellectual curiosity. Some companies hire
these computer enthusiasts to find flaws in their security systems and help
fix them. Referred to as “White Hat” hackers, these guys are against the
abuse of computer systems. They attempt to break into network systems
purely to alert the owners of flaws. It’s not always altruistic, though,
because many do this for fame as well, in order to land jobs with top
companies, or just to be termed as security experts. “Grey Hat” is another
term used to refer to hacking activities that are a cross between black and
white hacking.

Some of the most famous computer geniuses were once hackers who went
on to use their skills for constructive technological development. Dennis
Ritchie and Ken Thompson, the creators of the UNIX operating system
(Linux’s predecessor), were two of them. Shawn Fanning, the developer
of Napster, Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook fame, and many more are also
examples. The first step towards preventing hackers from gaining access

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