Demonstrate a Positive Attitude • Never underestimate the power of proper attitude. • Attitude determines how successful we will be. • Attitude determines altitude.
Appear Self-confident Self-confidence is prerequisite to success • Willing to learn new skills • To take opportunities • To grow
Have Realistic Expectations of Self Setting realistic goals, and working to achieve them, helps us to continually grow and develop
6. Productivity • Follows directions and procedures • Observe established policies on safety • Notify proper authorities of circumstances or situations presenting potential safety hazards • Maintain equipment and supplies • Keeps work area neat and clean • Conserves materials • Do not use or knowingly permit others to use tools and equipment improperly • Make up missed assignments in a timely manner • Stay on task and utilize time constructively
7. Organizational skills • Prioritize and manage time and stress effectively • Demonstrate flexibility in adapting to changes
Time Management Techniques Ask for help • Many are scared to ask for help • Fear being seen as intrusive or dumb • Help comes in many forms • People all around you are paid to help
Time Management Techniques Techniques Set timetables • Measure how you’re doing • Pocket, wall, or desk calendar • Mark activity due dates appropriately • Prior to the activity due date, fill in other days with activities that will help you accomplish the mini steps that it will take to complete the big assignment
8. Communication • Communicate accurate information to others in a professional and courteous manner • Displays appropriate nonverbal (eye contact, body language) and oral (listening, telephone etiquette, grammar) skills • Listen attentively to others • Good technology etiquette
Communication The worst assumption a sender of a message can make is that the message will be received as intended Language it self can be a barrier • Unclear wording • Slang • Jargon • Tone Another barrier is body language
9. Cooperation • Convey a willingness to assist others • Work to resolve conflicts and to identify solutions in which all parties benefit • Demonstrate concern for treating • people fairly and equitably • Follow the chain of command in resolvingconflicts • Displays leadership skills • Appropriately handles criticism, • conflicts, and complaints • Demonstrates problem-solving capability • Maintains appropriate relationships with supervisors and peers
10. Respect • Treat instructors, staff and fellow students with respect, courtesy, and tact • Do not engage in harassment of any kind • Know the legal definitions of sexual harassment • Deal appropriately with cultural/racial diversity
2.4 Elaborate the concept of moral development in an ethical perspective
Moral development refers to the process whereby people form a progressive sense of what is right and wrong, proper and improper.
• Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) was an American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. ▪ Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1969) ▪ Kolhberg’s theory of moral development states that we progress through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development. ▪ Expanded on Piaget’s three stage framework of cognitive development ▪ 1) Stage 1 (Pre-Conventional) • Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?) • Self-interest orientation (What’s in it for me? aiming at a reward • 2) Stage 2 (Conventional) • Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms, good boy – good girl attitude) • Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality) • 3) Stage 3 (Post-Conventional) • Social contract orientation (Justice and the spirit of the law) • Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)
▪ In this model, an individual’s ethical behavior depends on his/her moral reasoning ▪ The individual’s level of cognitive moral development strongly influences his/her decisions regarding what is right and what is wrong : the rights, duties and obligations involved in a particular ethical dilemma
1. PRE-CONVENTIONAL – where judgment is based solely on a person’s own needs and perceptions - Preconventional morality – young children under the age of 9 2. CONVENTIONAL – where the expectations of society and law are taken into account. Conventional morality – older children, adolescents, and most adults 3. POST –CONVENTIONAL – where judgements are based on abstract, more personal principles that are not necessarily defined by society’s law. • – rare with adolescents and few adults *each level contains two stages,the second of which is the more advanced and organized form from the general perspective of each level. *an individual makes advanced moral decisions when he/she is atthe more developed stages LEVEL OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ▪ In this model, an individual’s ethical behavior depends on his/her moral reasoning ▪ The individual’s level of cognitive moral development strongly influences his/her decisions regarding what is right and what is wrong : the rights, duties and obligations involved in a particular ethical dilemma
▪ STAGE 1, HETERONOMY/ OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT (CONDUCT TO AVOID PUNISHMENT)/ OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT ORIENTATION ▪ The first stage highlights the self-interest of children in their decision making as they seek to avoid punishment at all costs. In relation to our example above, the man should not steal the medication from the pharmacy as he may go to jail if he is caught. ▪ Similar to the first stage in Piaget’s theory, Kohlberg reflects on the moral thought of children. At a young age, they believe that rules are meant to be followed and those in charge will undoubtedly follow through with punishment. A child’s reasoning to the above example may include “it’s bad to steal,” or “it’s against the law,” without assessing the perspective of the man whose wife is sick. ▪ This stage is labeled preconventional due to the limited association that children have with the outlined principles. They view the ethics taught as something that society implements, not as something they internalize themselves.
▪ Continue… ▪ STAGE 1, HETERONOMY/ OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT (CONDUCT TO AVOID PUNISHMENT) / OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT ORIENTATION ▪ The child is predominantly egotistical and will do everything possible to enjoy pleasure and remove pain. The child is at a very early moralstage.Itwill behave well purely in its own interest, to avoid being punished. Thus the moral journey begins.Some go no further,while others do not even start. ▪ Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so thatthe person refrainsfrom doing the action and continuesto obey the rules.For example,we follow the law because we do not wantto go to jail.
▪ STAGE 2 : INSTRUMENTAL AND RELATIVE/ CONFORMITY TO GROUP BEHAVIOR (ACTIONS TO GAIN PERSONAL REWARDS) / INDIVIDUALISM AND EXCHANGE • This stage observes how children begin to adopt the views taught, but also recognize that there is more than one point of view for each matter. Each person is different and will, therefore, have a unique outlook according to their interests. In terms of our example above, they may reason that “he may think that it is right to take the drug, but the pharmacist would not.” • The second stage relies heavily on the exchange of favors and can be summarized with the common marketing saying “what’s it in for me?” Children at this stage are not motivated by friendship or respect but by the personal advantages involved. For example, if a parent asks their child to complete a chore around the house, the child may ask what the benefit would be to them. Parents often recognize the “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours” mindset at this stage and offer a reward, such as an allowance.
▪ Continue… ▪ STAGE 2 : INSTRUMENTAL AND RELATIVE/ CONFORMITY TO GROUP BEHAVIOR (ACTIONS TO GAIN PERSONAL REWARDS) / INDIVIDUALISM AND EXCHANGE ▪ As the stone fallsin the water itmakes a first circle.Thisis whatis immediate to the child, referring to the people closest to it,such as mother and those who educate it. The child will try to please them with its behavior, to be rewarded and praised for being well-behaved.Thisstage represents a small move forward in moral development.Many people reach thissecond stage. ▪ In thisstage,the person is said to judge themorality of an action based on how it satisfies the individual needs ofthe performer. Forinstance,a person steals money fromanother person because he needs thatmoney to buy food for his hungry children.In Kohlberg’stheory,the children tend to say thatthis action is morally right because ofthe serious need ofthe performer.
▪ Conventional represents a shift towards the ‘other’ ,meaning that altruism begins. Conventional morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality of an action. ▪ STAGE 3 : INTERPERSONAL CONFORMITY/ GOOD BOY-NICE GIRL ORIENTATION (CONDUCT TO AVOID DISLIKE AND REJECTION) / GOOD INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP ▪ This stage recognizes the desire to be accepted into societal groups as well as how each person is affected by the outcome. In terms of our example above, the man should take the medicine from the pharmacy in order to be a good partner to his wife. ▪ Children in the third stage are typically pre-teens or early teenagers and have now adopted the societal norms as their own. While they believe that people should behave appropriately in their communities, they recognize that there is no simple solution to moral dilemmas. In Kohlberg’s study per the example above, they accepted that he should steal the medicine and “he was a good man for wanting to save her.” They also reasoned that “his intentions were good, that of saving the life of someone he loves.”
▪ Continue… ▪ STAGE 3 : INTERPERSONAL C O N F O R M I T Y/ G O O D BOY-NICE G I R L ORIENTATION (CONDUCT TO AVOID DISLIKE AND REJECTION) / / GOOD INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP ▪ The ripples made by the stone fallen in the pond now make a wider circle.They now take in the family,schoolmates and workmates,with the individual trying to assimilate theirvalues. ▪ Here we can see a more advanced moral development. The person begins to question moral standards transmitted by the family and society, and adopts those of thegroup. ▪ In thisstage,a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social expectations before him.This is also known as the“interpersonal relationships”phase. For example,a child gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.
▪ STAGE 4 : SOCIAL SYSTEM, LAW AND ORDER/ DUTY ORIENTATION (CONFORMITY TO AVOID CENSURE BY AUTHORITY) /MAINTAINING THE SOCIAL ORDER ▪ In this stage, laws and social order reign supreme. Rules and regulations are to be followed and obeyed. In the above example, the man should not steal the medicine because it is against the law. ▪ Stage four shows the moral development of a person as a part of a whole society. Each person becomes more aware of the impact of everyone’s actions on others and focuses now on their own role, following the rules, and obeying authorities. While stage three highlights the close relationships with family and friends, stage four attempts to maintain social order in the community. Pertaining to the example above, participants in stage four would argue that while they understood why he wanted to steal the medication, they could not support the idea of theft. Society cannot maintain order if its members decided to break the laws when they thought they had a good enough reason to do so.
▪ Continue… ▪ STAGE 4: SOCIAL SYSTEM, LAW AND O R D E R / DUTY ORIENTATION ( C O N F ORM IT Y TO AVOID CENSURE BY AUTHORITY) /MAINTAINING THE SOCIAL ORDER ▪ The ripples have traveled further.The individual begins to be governed by the values of a larger group, seeking to maintain the ‘institution’ as all, and,‘if everyone were to do so’,preventing the system from fracturing. ▪ The nation’slaws are to be obeyed,unlessthey go against conscience.The person’s moral development is now greater. It is difficult to reach this level of moral development,butsome manage it. ▪ The level of questioning of mortalstandards is very strong and the standardsto be adopted in the adult ego state begin to be defined clearly. ▪ This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a person’s duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this stage.For instance,a policeman refusesthe money offered to him under the table and arreststhe offender because he believes thisis his duty as an officer of peacE
▪ This is mainly concerned with the universal principles that relation to the action done. ▪ STAGE 5 : SOCIAL CONTRACT (ABIDING BY RULES TO MAINTAIN THE C O M M O N GOOD)/ SOCIAL CONTRACT AND INDIVIDUAL RIGHT ▪ This stage acknowledges the introduction of abstract reasoning as people attempt to explain specific behaviors. In our example above, the man should steal the medication for his wife because she is deathly ill and the laws do not take the circumstances into account. ▪ In the fifth stage, members begin to consider “What makes for a good society?” They are able to step back and assess each situation as a whole, reflecting on what is good and just. Reflecting on the morals and ethics of their current community allows them to address inconsistencies in their values and attempt to fix what they do not agree with. A society that runs smoothly does not necessarily uphold their desired principles. This is one step ahead of stage four, where the main goal is to keep a society functioning at all costs.
▪ Continue… ▪ STAGE 5 : SOCIAL CONTRACT (ABIDING BY RULES TO MAINTAIN THE C O M M O N GOOD) / SOCIAL CONTRACT AND INDIVIDUAL RIGHT ▪ The social contract is a moment in moral development that is difficult to reach. It involves becoming aware of the variety of values that underpin the different social groups, even though itis the universal values underpinning social life, such as justice, freedom and the right to life, that must prevail. ▪ Now the person begins to live with the intention of contributing to building not the ‘other’ in isolation, but the community of people. The level of moral development is very high.This means that very few people reach this level. ▪ In this stage,the person is look at various opinions and values of different people before coming up with the decision on the morality of the action.
▪ STAGE 6 : UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES/ C O N S C I E N C E ORIENTATION (CONDUCT PREDICATED UPON A SENSE OF JUSTICE AND NOT RULES ALONE) ▪ The higheststage in moral development.Called “universal ethical principles”, ▪ The final stage of Kohlberg’s theory states that moral reasoning is based on personal values. In the above example, it is okay for the man to take the medication without paying as objects or property are not as valuable as his wife’s life ▪ The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers universally accepted ethical principles.The judgment may become innate and may even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes attached to his own principles ofjustice. ▪ Stage six was developed when Kohlberg discovered that elected processes do not always result in fair outcomes. Individuals at the fifth stage of moral reasoning recognized the importance of protecting human rights while also resolving challenges in a democratic way. Unfortunately, some majority votes resulted in regulations that actually hurt a minority group, leading to questions of an even higher level of reasoning.
▪ Continue… ▪ STAGE 6 : UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES/ CONSCIENCE ORIENTATION (CONDUCT PREDICATED UPON A SENSE OF JUSTICE AND NOT RULES ALONE) • The sixth stage was created to acknowledge the use of justice in moral reasoning. General, universal morals and ethics are used as a baseline for what is right and just. These are often abstract concepts that cannot be clearly defined, only outlined. Equality, justice, dignity, and respect are all ideas that form the basis of universal principles. Laws and rules are only effective if they support the universal principles, which each person at this stage works to uphold. • Similarly, they work on disobeying laws that are unfair, and feel guilty if they don’t obey the laws that they believe in. Individuals at this level of reasoning behaved in a certain way because it was the right thing to do, and were not motivated by laws or societal expectations. Kohlberg found it challenging to identify participants in his studies who could consistently display moral reasoning in the sixth stage. • The level of autonomy reachesits maximum expression.Here the person does not act out of obligation but on the total conviction that these are the values that serve to build the utopia that inspires each individual: ‘A Better World’, ‘The Kingdom ofGod’,‘A more just society’,etc.
LEVEL /STAGE EGOISM (Selfishness) ALTRUISM (Selflessness) SOLIDARITY (Unity) Pre-conventional Conventional Post-conventional Stage of orientation towards Heteronomous ‘Obedience and punishment’ Instrumental & relative Interpersonal conformity Social system, Law & Order Social Contract Universal Ethical Principles 1 2 3 4 5 6 What is good or correct ? Avoid breaking rules, fearing punishment, obedience purely for self-interest What serves to satisfy own needs, what is fair, agreed Being good is an important role according to the group’s expectations as a good child, sibling, student, friend etc. Fulfilling the duties assumed law are to be obeyed except those that are unjust Although there are conflicting values in society, life, liberty and justice prevail The universal ethical principles that one assumes are followed such a justice, human rights, the person as an end, utopia (heaven) Child : why don’t you steal ? Because my mom will hit me So they will reward me In this family, there are no thieves Agood citizen does not steal Self-obligation for the common good A person who acts for a utopia (heaven) does not steal
Summary In the first stage, children obey the rules taught and believe what society says is right. Avoiding punishment is a leading factor in their desire to obey authority. This has diminished by stage two, where children can see that they are multiple points of view to the matter in question. They tend to reason according their own self-interests, including bartering with others. In stage three, people value a supportive community and therefore have the desire to be a good, helpful member. This changes as they move into stage four, where they seek instead to meet the goals of the society, which includes maintaining law and order. Throughout both stages, we see how young teens value the morals and ethics of the group of which they are part. In stage five, people evolve from the idea of being ‘good’ into what would be the right thing to do. They seek to create morals and values for a good society instead of maintaining the society for the sake of doing so. They take these ideas one step further in stage six, where they work to incorporate justice and creating a fair society for all.
END OF CHAPTER 2 THANK YOU