How It Works-July 2021

DID YOU KNOW? About 30 per cent of all liquid freshwater is groundwater

Unconfined aquifer “Bodies of groundwater,
called aquifers, are
Having slowly worked through soaked up by the
the drier soil, the water reaches solid ground”
saturated ground, allowing it to
move more freely.

This groundwater drainage © Alamy
system is pictured newly installed

Stream exit Detecting
hidden sources
The movement from steams
or the ocean can draw out After particularly heavy and sustained
groundwater to rejoin the rainfall, water can flood the ground. If
water cycle above ground. you watch the pools and puddles closely,
you can see them vanish before your
Activity reduction eyes, draining away into the topsoil. The
transition from rainwater to groundwater
Water movement slows considerably occurs beneath our feet and out of sight.
with depth. When near the surface it For those attempting to source this
could move many meters in one day, water, how is an aquifer located?
while here some water becomes
stationary for long periods. The first place to look for aquifers is
near a stream, lake or river. These are
An attendant opens the valve on a discharge areas where water can
borehole pump in Zimbabwe eventually be released from the ground.
Next, you should head to an area where
rainwater is likely to accumulate. You’ll
want to search at a low point in the
landscape, rather than at the top of a hill.
At a chosen spot, specialist equipment
can fire signals into the ground and
monitor changes in resistance. Ground-
penetrating radars are machines that
send electromagnetic waves into the
ground to do this. The technology tells
scientists how much space is between
the rock in different areas, its density and
relative water volume.
© Ed Crooks
© Alamy

© Getty Ground-penetrating radars are used to detect
irregularities underground
www.howitworksdaily.com
How It Works 049

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SPACE

DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY MAKE UP
95 PER CENT OF THE UNIVERSE, YET WE CAN’T

SEE THEM. WHAT IS THIS STRANGE STUFF?

Words by Andrew May

052 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The dark matter in galaxies isn’t just a curiosity – it played an essential role in their formation

As telescopes became increasingly © NASA
powerful during the 20th century,
they started to reveal the true scale of A dense galaxy cluster interspersed with blue arcs,
the cosmos. Astronomers discovered that which are more distant, gravitationally lensed galaxies
there were billions of other galaxies like our
own, scattered throughout a vast, have a large ensemble of stars in a galaxy – or
continuously expanding universe. At the galaxies in a galaxy cluster – despite all the
same time, advances were made in complex physics that’s going on inside them,
theoretical cosmology, stemming from gravity is the only thing that determines their
Einstein’s theory of general relativity, which motion. Just as a spacecraft can attain ‘escape
showed in precise detail how objects move velocity’ from Earth orbit if it’s moving fast
under the influence of gravity. When those enough, there’s a maximum speed that stars
two developments – observational and can travel at – determined by the total
theoretical – were put together, researchers amount of gravitating matter in the galaxy
came to a startling conclusion. By the end of – before they fly off at a tangent. It turns out
the 20th century, it was clear that all those that the stars in the outer parts of most
billions of visible galaxies were just a small galaxies are moving too fast, at least if the
fraction of everything there is. visible matter was the only thing holding
them in. The concept of dark matter, which
The hidden 95 per cent of the universe goes supplies the missing gravity but is
by the names dark matter and dark energy – undetectable by any other means, is the
but these are two very different things. The simplest way to explain the observations.
word dark is appropriate in the sense that we
are ‘in the dark’ about them – we can’t Astronomers see evidence for dark matter
observe them directly, and we don’t know everywhere they look – here in our own
what they are. But it’s misleading to think of galaxy, and in other neighbouring galaxies.
them as being dark in colour. That’s true of
something like cosmic dust, which we can see
quite easily if it gets between us and a bright
object that it partially obscures, but dark
matter and dark energy are completely
transparent. Light across all wavelengths,
and all other matter, simply passes through
them as if they weren’t there.

Dark matter was discovered first – and the
underlying theory is easier to understand.
There’s no need for relativity here, just Isaac
Newton’s basic theory of gravity. When you

The constituents Relative proportions of dark energy
of the universe and matter – the latter split further
into ‘ordinary’ and ’dark‘

From observations of stellar and galactic motions,
astronomers know the universe must contain
around five times as much dark matter as ordinary
visible matter. Adding dark energy to the picture is a
little harder. It isn’t made up of material particles, as
dark matter presumably is, so we can’t simply
characterise its contribution as so many kilograms
per cubic metre. But thanks to Einstein’s theory of
relativity, we know that energy is equivalent to
mass, and cosmological observations allow us to
work out the amount of dark energy in a way that is
directly comparable to the other two. The result,
according to NASA’s latest estimate, is that the
universe is 68 per cent dark energy, 27 per cent dark
matter and just five per cent ordinary matter.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 053

SPACE AARRZZOONNEE!!

In contrast, dark energy only becomes Probing dark matter Light rays
apparent when we take a wider view of the
universe as a whole. For a century now we’ve Although it can’t be seen, dark matter can be Light from the distant
known that the universe has been expanding investigated using gravitational lensing galaxy doesn’t travel in
ever since the Big Bang. It’s common sense to straight lines; it’s bent by
assume that this expansion is gradually Distant galaxy the gravity of dark matter.
getting slower over time, pulled back by the
combined gravity of all the matter in the This is a bright, distant Rays we see
universe. But in the 1990s astronomers object that we can see
discovered that the exact opposite is true: the through a telescope. These two light rays,
expansion rate is actually accelerating, not following different
slowing down. Something is counteracting routes, both reach the
the effect of gravity, pushing galaxies apart observer, who sees
faster and faster. That ‘something’ – and no two images in
one knows what it is yet – has been dubbed different directions.
dark energy.
Intervening Computer analysis
One thing both dark matter and dark galaxy cluster
energy have in common is an absence of By comparing the distorted image of the galaxy
direct evidence. They’re assumed to exist This cluster is closer to us with computer models, astronomers can map
because they’re the simplest way to reconcile and is dominated by dark the distribution of intervening dark matter.
observations with theory. But it’s possible matter, which we can’t see.
that theory and observations are wrong, and
we don’t really need dark matter or dark Observer
energy after all. But the indirect evidence for
them is mounting up all the time, so most An observer sees the distant
astronomers believe they’re here to stay. galaxy and the intervening
cluster, but not the dark matter.
Dark matter
The accelerating universe Decelerating
It was in the 1930s that Fritz Zwicky first expansion
noticed a discrepancy between the visual Dark energy is speeding up the expansion of the universe
appearance of galaxies and the speeds As time went on, the
they were travelling at. When studying the The Big Bang
Coma galaxy cluster, he realised that in force of gravity began
order for it to be held together by gravity, Occurring about 13.8 billion
it had to contain far more mass than he years ago, this was the start to slow the expansion.
could see. He coined the term ‘dark of the universe, which has
matter’ for the unseen contribution. been expanding ever since.

By the 1960s, spectroscopy had
progressed to the point where high-
resolution measurements could be made
of stellar velocities inside a galaxy and
plotted against radius. One of the great
pioneers of these ‘galactic rotation curves’
was Vera Rubin. She discovered that the
outer parts of most disc galaxies rotate
much faster than would be expected from
the gravitational effect of visible matter.
The implication was that galaxies were
embedded in a ‘halo’ of dark matter, the
density of which dropped off more slowly
with radius than that of the visible disc.

© ESO Rapid initial “Something is counteracting
expansion gravity, pushing galaxies apart
Disc galaxies, like the Sculptor Galaxy shown here,
are embedded in a halo of dark matter Soon after the Big Bang, faster and faster”

054 How It Works the expansion rate was www.howitworksdaily.com

extremely rapid.

DID YOU KNOW? Einstein thought the cosmological constant was a mistake, referring to it as his biggest blunder

The Euclid An artist’s impression of Dark energy
mission the Euclid spacecraft in
Astronomers accidentally discovered
The European Space Agency’s its operational dark energy when they were looking for
(ESA) Euclid space telescope, configuration something else. They wanted to calculate
scheduled for launch next year, the total mass of the universe by
is designed to investigate both measuring the rate at which its
dark matter and dark energy. It gravitational pull slowed down the
will map gravitationally lensed expansion rate. They attempted to do this
galaxies, from which the by graphing recession speed versus
distribution of intervening dark distance for a special class of
matter can be deduced. It will astronomical objects called Type Ia
also study so-called ‘baryonic supernovae, but the result wasn’t what
acoustic oscillations’, which are they expected. The expansion of the
ancient patterns imprinted in the universe isn’t slowing down at all – in
large-scale distribution of fact, it’s speeding up.
galaxies. Like explosive
supernovae, these provide a It’s as though the universe is filled with
standard ruler which allows a mysterious something – dark energy –
astronomers to trace the that counteracts the pull of gravity on the
expansion history of the universe largest scales and pushes even harder in
– including the acceleration the opposite direction. This discovery
caused by dark energy. In a was in a different league from dark
mission lasting six years, Euclid matter, which may be a completely
will survey galaxies in visible and unknown substance, but at least obeys
infrared wavebands over an area the laws of Newton and Einstein. Dark
of sky covering more than 35 per energy, with its strange, antigravity-like
cent of the celestial sphere. behaviour, doesn’t even do that.

© ESA Or perhaps it does, if we look at an
obscure factor in Einstein’s equation
Dark energy kicks in Einstein included something called the cosmological constant. It has
similar to dark energy – the no counterpart in Newton’s theory, and
Around 5 billion years ago, dark cosmological constant – in for years was assumed to be zero. But if it
energy started to affect has a small positive value, it could explain
expansion, which began to speed his theory of relativity dark energy as a fundamental property of
up again. space itself.

© Alamy

© Getty

Brian Schmidt, Saul Perlmutter and Adam Riess,
whose supernovae measurements showed that
dark energy exists

The present

The rate of expansion is still
accelerating, so the universe
is larger than it would have
been without dark energy.

© NASA AARRZZOONNEE!!

SCAN HERE

The future

Scientists think that dark
energy will become
increasingly dominant, with
galaxies eventually becoming
extremely far apart.

How It Works 055

SPACE Artist’s rendering of the Giant Magellan
Telescope as it will look when completed
The Giant
MTslsaietkaeurleegetdisenKsycltelhoe’aspepxnlrcoeeeoprw-nil6naci2lnealeepn,tts © GMTO

© NASA

Giant Magellan
Telescope
Why build an
This new ground-based observatory will be enormous
ten times as powerful as Hubble Words by Andrew May telescope?

Work is underway on construction of a favoured location for astronomers. One reason is The size of an astronomical telescope is
huge new telescope. When it becomes the exceptionally dry climate, giving as many as expressed in terms of its diameter – or
operational in 2029, it will view the 300 clear nights per year. Another is the high aperture – and apertures are steadily
getting bigger. There are two reasons for
universe with a clarity and sensitivity never altitude, 2,550 metres above sea level, which this: astronomers want to collect as
much light as they can from faint
seen before. Called the Giant Magellan Telescope means there is less atmosphere for the telescope sources, and the light-gathering power of
a telescope increases with aperture. They
(GMT) after the 16th-century explorer Ferdinand to peer through. In astronomical jargon, the also want to see objects with the highest
possible resolution, which also improves
Magellan, it’s a collaboration ‘seeing’ – the lack of distortion with bigger apertures. Historically,
increases in aperture have often led to
“It will use abetween a consortium of science due to atmospheric turbulence new and unexpected discoveries, such as
– is extremely good. Lord Rosse’s Leviathan of Parsonstown,
institutions from the US, which showed that other galaxies are
Even so, the seeing isn’t vast star systems like our own.
revolutionaryAustralia, South Korea and Brazil.
Lord Rosse’s 1.8-metre Leviathan, finished in 1845,
In common with many of new trick perfect, as it is for Hubble way was the ancestor of today’s giant telescopes

today’s most powerful telescopes, above the atmosphere. This © Wiki/ Working Men’s Educational Union
could pose a problem for a
called adaptivethe GMT won’t use a single mirror

to collect light from distant optics” traditional telescope, but not the
objects, but a whole array of them. GMT. It will use a revolutionary

Seven equally sized mirrors with an 8.4-metre new trick called adaptive optics to make its

diameter will give it a total effective aperture of performance virtually as good as any space-

24.5 metres, ten times larger than the Hubble based telescope. This involves using flexible

Space Telescope. As a result the GMT will be able secondary mirrors – controlled by hundreds of

to discern details ten times smaller than Hubble actuators – to constantly tweak the mirrors to

can, as well as imaging much fainter objects. counteract the effects of turbulence,

The new telescope is being built in the transforming twinkling stars into sharp points

Atacama Desert in Chile, which has become a of light as steady as anything Hubble sees.

056 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The European Southern Observatory and Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array are also in Chile

Secondary Anatomy of a History of giant
mirrors giant telescope observatories

These seven smaller From enormous mirrors to The Leviathan Hooker Telescope
mirrors will use an adaptive optics, the GMT will have
innovative system of Location: Location:
adaptive optics to a groundbreaking design Birr Castle, Ireland Mount Wilson, California
compensate for Aperture size: 1.83 metres Aperture size: 2.5 metres
atmospheric distortion. Primary mirrors Date of first light: 1845
Date of first light: 1917
Hole in the There are seven of these –
central mirror each 8.4 metres in diameter
– to collect light from
This is needed so light distant objects in the sky.
from the secondary
mirrors can pass Hale Telescope Hubble Space
through to the Telescope
scientific instruments Location:
on the other side. Mount Palomar, Location:

California Earth orbit
Aperture size: 5.08 metres
Aperture size: 2.4 metres
Date of first light: 1949
Date of first light: 1990

Large Binocular Gran Telescopio
Telescope Canarias

Location: Location:

Mount Graham, Arizona La Palma, Canary Islands

Aperture size: 11.8 metres Aperture size: 10.4 metres

(effective) Date of first light: 2007

Date of first light: 2005

Telescope mount Science instruments Very Large Giant Magellan
Telescope Telescope
Standing 36 metres above the The cameras and spectrographs
observing floor, the optical that process the images are located Location: Location:
support structure moves on behind the primary mirrors.
almost frictionless bearings. Atacama Desert, Chile Atacama Desert, Chile
Aperture size: Aperture size:
© Science Photo Library
16 metres (effective) 24.5 metres (effective)
Science goals Date of first light: Date of first light:

The light collected by the telescope will be 1998 2029
channelled into an array of imagers and
spectrographs for scientific analysis. The GMT’s BLUE CAMERA
science goals cover a whole range of astronomical
interests, from star formation and supernovae RED CAMERA
explosions to supermassive black holes and the
tenuous gas filling intergalactic space. GMT data will ECHELLE GRATING COLLIMATOR © GMTO
also be used to shed light on the complex process of
galaxy formation and examine the very first objects Cutaway view of G-CLEF, an instrument designed
that formed in the universe. to probe the atmospheres of exoplanets

Arguably most exciting of all, the GMT will play an
important role in the search for exoplanets and life
beyond Earth. Thanks to its unprecedented
resolution and adaptive optics system, it will be able
to produce direct images of planets in the habitable
zones of other stars. Its spectroscopic capabilities,
including the GMT-Consortium Large Earth Finder
(G-CLEF) instrument, will also allow astronomers to
analyse the atmospheres of exoplanets in search of
key indicators of life.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 057

TRANSPORT

THERAIL REVOLUTION
DISCOVER THE INCREDIBLE TRAIN
© Getty TECHNOLOGY OF TODAY, AND SEE
WHAT THE FUTURE HOLDS
www.howitworksdaily.com
Words by Ailsa Harvey

When Richard Trevithick unveiled the
first steam locomotive in 1804, the
world’s first railway journey became
possible. This monumental breakthrough
marked the beginning of centuries of rail travel,
creating interconnected societies and an
expanding market for businesses. Transport by
rail remains the most efficient way to carry
goods around the world, including fertiliser,
grain, metals and chemicals, and when it comes
to passenger transport, trains are frequently
being updated for speed and comfort.

If someone had shown Trevithick the bullet
trains of today, reaching speeds over 300 miles
per hour, he might have failed to see any
resemblance to his humble invention, which
reached top speeds of five miles per hour. The
typical experience of a train journey was one of
unsteadiness, noise and unreliability, but as
technology has progressed, journeys have
become smoother and travel times shorter.

Currently, the fastest trains use magnetic
levitation (maglev) technology. Using powerful
electromagnets, these vehicles rise slightly
above guideways, reducing friction and allowing
passengers to soar over 370 miles in an hour.
Early advances in rail technology may have
occurred predominantly in the UK and US,
but the modern-day rail revolution is
being led by countries such as China
and Japan. China is home to the
world’s biggest high-speed rail
network, stretching around
24,850 miles – by 2035, China
Railway hopes to extend this to
43,500 miles. Rail travel is one of
the main modes of transport in
the country, with around 4 billion
passenger trips being made each year. As the
country leads the world’s railway development
and continues to push the limits of trains’
capabilities, how will the technology be
upgraded for the next leg of the rail revolution?

058 How It Works

DID YOU KNOW? Japan’s first bullet trains travelled 130 miles per hour and first ran alongside the 1964 Tokyo Olympics
5

7

2 4
6
1
3

© Getty

How to operate a train

Step inside the driver’s cab and learn

how these vehicles are kept in control

1Emergency stop with other crew and passengers and
Positioned at the side to avoid control the lights.

accidental pushes, the emergency 5In-car CCTV
stop button is used to apply the The driver can observe live
maximum brake force instantly.

2Power lever footage inside the train on this
Sliding this lever controls the screen. CCTV can also provide
exterior images of the train, such as

motor power of the train. By changing of the doors.

its position, the driver can accelerate

and decelerate the vehicle. 6Vigilance
push button
3Brake lever A vigilance button or foot pedal tests
Pulling this lever releases that a driver is still conscious and

compressed air onto the brake pads responsive. If a lack of activity is

along the train. These brake pads detected for 30 seconds, a light tells

push against the wheels to slow the driver to push this button.

them down. 7Radio control
Drivers can receive information
4Operation buttons about changes to tracks and news
These buttons are used to open
doors, sound the bell, communicate from railway stations over the radio.

Hazard ahead © Alamy

It’s important that a train driver takes note of signals and disruptions so that Automatic warning systems can also alert people working on the
the vehicle can be slowed or stopped in advance, or diverted to a safe track. tracks further down the line of an oncoming train
To make sure these signals have been acknowledged, sensors in the track
can respond to unexpected activity. For example, if motion is detected at a
time when a train isn’t supposed to be passing into a new section of the
track, or a train is moving faster than it should be, it will alert the driver by
sounding an alarm.

Usually only one train is allowed in each section of the track, and this
alarm will inform the driver that there is another train ahead. The driver has
to accept the warning within a few seconds by pressing a button, otherwise
the brakes are automatically applied.

This system is called the Automatic Warning System, but it has been
revised and updated since its induction. Bypassing the driver’s response in
order to act faster, the automatic train protection system stops all trains
passing danger signals. Brakes can also be automatically applied to
speeding trains. By recording the speed at each sensor, the machines can
determine if a train fails to slow down.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 059

TRANSPORT AARRZZOONNEE!! Diesel engine

The engine is the main power Start-up batteries
source. As the diesel is ignited,
the explosions push its pistons up These batteries are needed to start
and down, which are connected the engine initially, as well as to
to the main alternator. power lights and other electrical
features while the engine is off.

Cooling ventilators Turbocharger

These ventilators help to keep The more air there is in the
the water-based coolant at a low engine’s cylinders, the more fuel
temperature. The coolant, which can be burnt, and thus power
is stored below, regularly created. Turbochargers are small
circulates the engine to prevent pumps that channel extra air
it from overheating. into the cylinders.

AARRZZOONNEE!! Fuel tank Auxiliary alternator

SCAN HERE Underneath the floor of the train, Some of the electric power
the fuel tank carries the diesel made by the main alternator is
ready to be fed into the engine. passed to the auxiliary alternator.
This is compartmentalised so This energy is used for
that there is backup fuel if there power such as lighting, heating
is a leak in one section. and air conditioning on board.

AINSIDE DIESEL-ELECTRIC Main alternator
VEHICLE UNCOVERTHEMACHINERY
The movement from the engine’s
PROPELLING YOUR TRAIN pistons causes the alternator to
JOURNEY FORWARD turn. This mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy
as the stationary centre works
like a magnet to generate an
alternating current.

Understanding signalling What do these colour combinations tell the driver?

Clear Caution Caution Danger Diverging route
ahead
Green means go! A single yellow light A red light means If the white lights
As long as the Two yellow lights tell indicates that the the train must come extending 45 degrees
light is green, the a driver they will train needs to stop at to an immediate from the main signalling
train driver can need to stop soon. the next section of stop. This usually lights are lit, the train can
happily continue This is a warning the track. This gradual means there’s proceed, but must swap
on their journey that the next section procession of yellow another train or onto the alternative line,
with no known of the track will lights makes braking obstacle on the next branching in the direction
cautions ahead. show a yellow light. less sudden. section of track. of the signal.

060 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Turbocharging can double the engine power produced by a diesel-electric train

© Alamy
© Getty
Railway timetables are usually changed in the
Hazardous chemicals are transported summer and winter
in tanks along railroads that are no
How the timetable
longer used by the public is organised

© Illustration by Adrian Mann The first thing you probably do before
arriving at a train station is to check the
train timetable. You might simply glance
at the information board inside the
station, or maybe you plan your route
weeks in advance. But how is the timing
and frequency of each train plotted?

Firstly, each train operating company
makes a bid for its ideal timetable in the
area. These then need to be arranged,
and compromises made to meet
conflicting demands. Taking around 16
months, new timetables are made and
revisited before any necessary changes
to the track are added, and routes are
eventually made public to passengers.

This is the role of a train planner, with
the help of computer programming. An
algorithm will use data such as passenger
demand and train capacity to suggest the
regularity and timing of different trains.
This will ensure that there is enough time
between each train and room at each
platform for the designated vehicles. The
timetable is checked over by a human
train planner to reduce errors.

The L0 maglev train can reach
speeds of 374 miles per hour

Reductor gears

These control the power that’s
released to the wheels, based
on the gears being used.

Main route Multiple © Getty
routes
When the main light
is green and the When there are
white lamps multiple lines branching
extending from the from the main line, the
top of the main body lit-up arms reference
are switched off, the which line to take, as
train can proceed on their positions align
the main route. with the tracks.

www.howitworksdaily.com

TRANSPORT AARRZZOONNEE!! Railway drones

Energy-harvesting tracks Across the world, railway lines cover over
248,000 miles. This makes the world more
Every weekday in the UK alone, 24,000 connected, but how can such large areas of train
trains trawl the tracks. They may have tracks be monitored for safety? Some railways
reputations for releasing pollutants, but use drones to examine high-voltage electrical
what if these trains generated energy as lines, but in the future this technology could be
they moved? Italian company Greenrail has more widespread. Serving as eyes in the sky,
created energy-producing sleepers. A drones can analyse track conditions and provide
sleeper is the rectangular section between security through efficient surveillance.
tracks. As trains drive over these, the
kinetic energy exerted on the sleepers due
to the pressure of the trains’ weight can be
converted to electrical energy.

AR windows

What if the many hours of staring out the
window could be more entertaining? Taking
advantage of these large panels and the
latest in augmented reality (AR) tech, train
windows could soon become interactive.
Japanese company Salad has invented such
a product, letting passengers add digital
features to the real landscape behind them.
More useful functions to AR windows
include displaying news, weather, the time
and route information.

062 How It Works Underground freight

By 2050, freight activity could
increase by 250 per cent. Building
underground routes for
non-human transportation will
reduce congestion on the tracks.

www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? In the UK, over half of all train journeys are taken by people travelling to work or school

ONTRACK FOR THE FUTURE 5 RAILWAY
STATION
WHAT MIGHT RAILWAY STATIONS LOOK LIKE RECORDS
BASED ON EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES?
1 Highest
Intelligent robots Tanggula railway

Instead of human manual labour, station in Tibet is
intelligent robots are gaining the
capabilities to load cargo onto situated 5,068
trains, as well as fixing sections
of railway track. Limiting the metres above
number of people working on
the tracks will also make the sea level. Due to
process less of a risk to life.
the low oxygen,

the station is

unstaffed, and © Alamy
although some trains

stop there, passengers

are usually required to stay

on board.

2 Longest
A new platform

at Shree

Siddharoodha

Swamiji railway

station in the

southern Indian

city of Hubballi

has become the Source: Wiki/
world’s longest. Deepak Patil

Measuring 1,505 metres

in total, the platform has space for

around 10,000 passengers a day.

3 Biggest
When

measuring by

floor space,

Nagoya Station

in Japan takes

the title of

largest train

station. It covers © Getty
an area of 446,000
Driverless navigation
square metres and is
The number of driverless trains is
increasing around the world. Although the headquarters of Central Japan
countries such as Dubai and Australia are
ahead when it comes to driverless train Railway Company.
technology, other countries are likely close
behind. You might feel comforted by a 4 Busiest © Alamy
human presence at the front of the vehicle Shinjuku
keeping a lookout, but communications- Station in Tokyo,
based train control (CBTC) technology Japan, is the
means trains can detect other trains’ world’s busiest,
locations on the track to retain safety. It welcoming over
also aims to reduce energy usage, as 3.5 million
trains can be programmed to optimise people through
their acceleration and power efficiency. its doors each day.

Integrated smart tech AARRZZOONNEE!! © Illustration by Nicholas Forder 5 Oldest © Getty
Tanfield Railway
Technology is working to connect SCAN HERE in England is the
everyday objects to the internet, world’s oldest,
making them smarter and more having been in
interactive. By exchanging data about continuous use
the train and journey with passengers, from 1725 to
this method of transport will become 1964. Today a
much more reliable than depending vintage steam
only on station announcements. Train train takes tourists
operators can also use this along the route
connection to track people and better between its
understand passenger flow. four stations.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 063

TRANSPORT Car headrests were
invented in 1921

What’s inside © Getty Headrest Beneath
a car seat? the chair
This part of the seat limits the
movement of the head during How do these components
a crash, preventing whiplash. work to support your back?
Active headrests automatically
move forwards in collisions to Lumbar
reduce the distance between support
head and seat.
Seats are usually
More than just a place to park your bum, curved to fit the
shape of your lower
car seat technology improves a driver’s comfort and safety back. This area can
be adjusted to
H ow do you hope to feel when you test high-strength aluminium, reduces the weight of match the posture
drive a car, or place yourself in the some car seats by 30 per cent, as opposed to of the individual.
passenger seat? The first thing many of constructing the majority of the seat’s base in
us will automatically notice is comfort. As one of one heavier metal. Side
the most essential car features to consider when cushions
choosing a vehicle we hope to cover considerable A vital aspect to consider in any element of a
mileage in, car seats have evolved to perfect our car’s design is safety, and seat comfort can Supporting the
driving posture and support areas of the body directly correlate with this. The aim for the back, the side
under the most physical strain. driver is to be able to channel all their sections curve
attention onto the road ahead. If your forwards to hug
The choice of material used can greatly legs start to ache and your back begins the body and
influence the sensation of a car journey. Seats to stiffen, it can be difficult to stop this keep the person
typically contribute around six per cent of a car’s impacting the quality of your driving. sitting straight.
mass. Manufacturers are constantly striving to From controlling temperature to
use new lightweight materials that will assist in finding the most supportive
improving fuel efficiency. Opting for a selection materials, the technology behind
of lightweight car seat materials, such as carbon car seats can be both a luxury
fibre-reinforced plastics, magnesium and and a lifesaver.

Buckle up into the Ventilation
seats of tomorrow
Car seats are made
If you’re a driver, you’ll likely clock many using a permeable mesh
hours sitting over the steering wheel. In of material to allow air to
the future, your seat will become as circulate. Some seats
familiar with you as you will be with it. have air conditioning,
Biometric seats are in development, which uses an internal
aiming to monitor a driver’s stress during fan to blow air through it.
a journey. Extremely reactive sensors will
track physiological activity like your body Adding heat
temperature, breathing and heart rate, as
well as your body’s movements in the Sometimes heated
seat, such as any shifting during an coils are found beneath
uncomfortable, long drive. With all this the cover. As electricity
data, the smart seat will alert the driver if flows through the chair,
the information collected indicates that the coil resists the flow.
they are under too much pressure to The friction created by
safely drive. this is released as heat.

When autonomous driving
becomes widespread, engineers
are planning to design these seats
to detect whether the person
seated is driving or being driven.

© Audi

© Getty Thigh support Slide adjuster

A biometric car seat can detect tiredness by The lower section of the seat is To alter the seat’s distance
monitoring heart rate and muscle activity cushioned to support your legs, from the steering wheel, a lever
while also being raised to prevent releases the chair’s attachment
064 HowItWorks you sliding forwards as you break. to this metal railing so the
driver is able to slide forwards
or backwards along it.

www.howitworksdaily.com

EXPLORE THE SECRETS OF EARTH’S
INCREDIBLE UNDERWATER WORLD

Go on a journey beneath the waves to discover amazing marine wildlife,
fascinating facts and the challenges that face the planet’s oceans and what

you can do to help

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TECHNOLOGY

ANATOMY OF A

Explore the advanced sound technology
and special effects that keep live music

audiences wanting more

Words by Ailsa Harvey

066 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? The first-ever live rock concert, the Moondog Coronation Ball, took place in 1952

N o recording can replace the experience A band’s Drums
of standing before your favourite equipment
band, surrounded by many thousands The role of the drummer is to set
of like-minded fans as you shout back the What instruments can you the rhythm. Drums and cymbals
lyrics in time with the performers. For many, expect to see on stage? are hit with drumsticks and a
the unique sound of a live gig helps them to foot pedal to set the beat. Aside
connect with their idols. With less autotune Microphone from keeping time, the drummer
and editing to hide behind, the authenticity can add creative improvisation
of the raw music is often more appreciated. Held by the singer or attached to a and melodic variation.
The songs will sound slightly different to the stand, the microphone amplifies the
recordings you know inside out, as an vocals of any performer. This is vital
irreplicable and unique version is created for to balance the volume of quiet
vocals with louder instruments.

those inside the venue.

You might have come to the event to see the

band members, but there are many more

elements required to build a rock Bass guitar
concert. The stage before you isn’t
just an elevated platform for music to A bass guitar plays
be performed on. It’s also a carefully about an octave
calculated piece of art, designed to lower than a standard
encapsulate the crowd and guitar. The bassist
complement the sound in new and acts as a link between
exciting ways. Before the crowd the rhythmic and
melodic components
of the band.

arrives at a festival or event, the

stage’s technology is installed and tested.

Many weeks before the event, the production

manager works with lighting technicians to

choreograph and manufacture lighting and

visuals. The production manager relays to the Amplifier Lead guitar © Shutterstock
technicians the colours and effects needed for
the set, and it’s the job of the lighting For electric instruments, amplifiers convert the electric The lead guitar is
technician to carry out these transitions signals produced into a high-power replica. The loud sound usually an electric
behind the scenes. This might involve produced is played to the arena through concert speakers. one. This is used to
keeping lights flashing in time with the play the melodies of a
song and is often
used for guitar solos.

melody, explosions of smoke or fire at the

climax of a song or changing the colour A virtual experience
schemes of lighting between songs.

The evolving technology that musicians use As immersive technologies improve their
on stage enhances their performance and power to make virtual and augmented reality
makes them more memorable for the more believable, music concerts are becoming
audience. Even though the sound is being more diverse. Virtual-reality headsets are
played live, bands have experimented with giving more fans the opportunity to buy ‘front
bringing the recording studio on stage in the row’ seats and the illusion of standing before a
form of loop pedals. By recording sections of live performance without needing to leave the
vocals or instruments to be played house. For those who are put off by standing
continuously on a loop, they can layer their around for hours or are uncomfortable in large
baselines and melodies to add more depth to crowds, this provides the opportunity to watch
their performance without having to increase and listen in comfort and in their own space.
the number of musicians.
On other occasions, it might be the
performer who is virtually at the venue. © Getty
Hologram concerts are on the rise, allowing
© Getty iconic deceased performers to appear to take A hologram of deceased musician Roy Orbison
to the stage once more. Using recordings of old played a concert in Madrid in February 2021
performances, this allows their biggest fans to
remember what it was like to experience them
live, or attend one of their concerts if they
were never able to. Technically these are not
true holograms, however. A true hologram is a
freestanding, three-dimensional structure
which doesn’t require a material to be
projected onto. In these concerts the
‘holograms’ are light reflected onto a 2D glass
pane, but are often still referred to as
holograms as they create a similar effect.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 067

TECHNOLOGY AARRZZOONNEE!!

5 WAYS TO Haze
LIGHT THE
Haze machines vaporise water
SHOW and glycerin-based fluids. As
this vapour escapes the
1Spotlights machine, it hits the cold air and
These focus strong light directly condenses to form fog.
onto a performer. Often manually
controlled, spotlights allow tecThankeolaogtoyuernohfasnocmineg of the
performers to live gigs
remain visible
to the audience © Getty Motion graphic
and also work technology
to add contrast
when other The entire back wall of a stage is
lights are often a large digital screen. In
dimmed. some cases, a transfixing
animation will move in time to the
2 Lasers music, connecting the crowd’s
and strobes visual senses with the sound.
Flashing strobe lights and the
flickering narrow beams of lasers © Getty Pyrotechnic chemistry
can add a dramatic dynamic to a
rock concert Violent yet controlled fiery
stage. Fog explosions are bound to turn any
machines rock concert into an elaborate
provide spectacle. Small amounts of a
particles to flammable material, such as
scatter the light powdered aluminium, are brought
in, making the into contact with fuel and an oxidiser,
razor-sharp such as nitrate, in a cigarette-sized
light visible. tube to form this reaction.

3 LEDs © Getty Crowd syncing
These are popular, cheap lights
that can project a range of colours The crowd can also be utilised for
onto a stage. lighting effects. Many events
They are also involve wearing a wristband for
relatively access. These may have lights
energy- inside that can be programmed
efficient, using to flash in sync with the music.
less power and
producing less © Getty Fog machines are
heat than other primarily used to
lighting options. bhwceerhelspialeetleieghnhaabtzvseeitsamtuneaadrlclehafisfneeercsst,

4 Floodlights © Alamy
These lights are similar © Getty
to spotlights
but cover a
larger area.
When they
illuminate the
entire stage, it’s
called a wash.

5 Ellipsoidal
reflector
spotlight (ERS)
The ERS is a spotlight with added
special effects. The shape of
the light can
be changed
and unlimited
light patterns
can be added to
its projection.

© Getty

068 How It Works

DID YOU KNOW? The biggest rock concert in history had 4.2 million people in the crowd watching Rod Stewart perform

Truss Inside an Light source
ERS light
Made of metal triangles to distribute the Screwed into the back
weight, these structures are designed The popular ellipsoidal reflector compartment is a lamp. This
for lights and other equipment to be bright light has four filaments
attached to. Sometimes the entire stage spotlight is incredibly versatile to increase efficiency.
is constructed of trusses.
Attachment area
Sound system
This handle is where the ERS
The crowd has come to hear a attaches to the top or side
band perform their music, and of the stage. Once secured,
so sound quality is vital. The the angle can be adjusted.
size and output of the speakers
will vary based on the location. Shutter closure

Adjusting the shutters – by pulling
them in or out – alters the size of the
gap that the light can shine through,
and therefore the light’s width.

Focus adjustment Shadow effects

Depending on whether the Templates with a variety of
concert requires defined light patterns slide into this section.
or a subtle, atmospheric hue, When the light shines through
turning this bolt can make them from the back of the
the light softer or sharper. device towards the lenses at
the front, the template creates
shadows that project patterns
onto the stage.

Adding colour AARRZZOONNEE!! Illustration by © Adrian Mann

At the front of the light, a SCAN HERE
coloured gel can be placed into
a slot. These are quick and
easy to slide in and replace.

This audience has wristbands that are
programmed to light up at the same time,
utilising the crowd’s arm movement

© Getty

Crowd control How It Works 069

Infrared cameras and other
sensors can detect the most
populated areas of a crowd so
security can intervene before
danger arises. Wearable tech such
as radio-frequency identification
tags in wristbands can convey
data of a crowd’s movements.

www.howitworksdaily.com

TECHNOLOGY AARRZZOONNEE!!

How a fan
oven works
How do these electronic devices cook food evenly?

Words by Ailsa Harvey

As you turn the dial to your desired Cooking with © ALamy
temperature and set a timer, you don’t convection
have to give your food much thought
during its time in the oven. The specifications How does this appliance create a
are so controlled that you can relax away from controlled internal environment?
the kitchen, safe in the knowledge that your
meal will be cooked when you return. And the The fan usually sits right at the back
addition of a fan to these appliances has only of the oven
enhanced our confidence in cooking.

The core function of an oven is to transfer heat
energy to the food inside it. Before fans were
incorporated into some of their designs, the
main method of transferring this energy was to
heat the still air, filling the oven and allowing
this blanket of heat to be absorbed by the oven’s
contents. Although this method is quite effective,
conventional ovens can result in food at the top
of the oven being overcooked and food closer to
the bottom being undercooked. This is because
hot air rises, and while the oven door is closed,
the same action is occurring inside. The main
purpose of a fan is to better distribute this
energy, preventing uneven heating.

Fan ovens don’t enhance the cooking of all
foods. Fairy cakes need still air as they rise. Too
much movement can break apart their structure
as they swell, resulting in flat bakes. Many fan
ovens are designed with baking in mind, adding
controls that manage the strength of the airflow.

Oven evolution

Cooking hasn’t always been as straightforward as

flicking a switch. The earliest ovens consisted of

simple metal cases that were heated by fires

positioned below. During the Middle Ages, larger

and more sophisticated brick ovens were being

built, which featured chimneys to direct the smoke

away, while metal containers were hung above Source: Wikipedia Commons © William James Topley Air movement

the flames. As air is pushed around the
oven by the fan, heat is
Later, around 1795, cast-iron stoves began evenly distributed.

surging in popularity due to their ability to heat www.howitworksdaily.com

different pots at different temperatures. Gas ovens

first emerged in 1826, but this major step towards

modern ovens was limited until the 1900s, when

gas lines to houses became more common. Gas

ovens allowed temperatures to be controlled more

easily, but it was in the 1920s that electric ovens

became more popular, despite being available since

the 1890s. These electric ovens made cooking safer

and just as easy – if not easier – while the first

fan-assisted ovens became commercially available Thomas Ahearn patented the

in 1945. first electric oven

070 HowItWorks

DID YOU KNOW? Fan ovens cook food at temperatures around 20 degrees Celsius lower than conventional ovens

Thermostat Thermostat capillary gAlnowelseoctrraincgoevewnh’sengrhilol telement

When the oven reaches the This tube contains a gas. When
desired temperature, the heating heated, the pressure increases,
element is switched off. This is and air expands until the
monitored by the thermostat. switch reaches the
predetermined temperature.

© Alamy

Sensor bulb “The purpose
of a fan is to
Away from the oven walls, a better distribute
temperature-sensing bulb this energy”
measures the air temperature.

Fan © Adrian Mann USING ELECTRIC
FAN OVENS
AARRZZOONNEE!! The fan continues to turn for © Alamy
the entire time that the oven 1Consistency
SCAN HERE is on. The airflow circulates The circulation of air allows all
around the oven. food surfaces to be heated equally,
www.howitworksdaily.com no matter which shelf they’re on.
Heat source
2Speed
Heating elements are Moving air transfers heat more
found at the back of quickly than still air, as more hot air
the fan. These metal molecules can reach the food in a
coils are heated as an given time. This can cut cooking
electric current passes times by 25 per cent.
through them.
3 Quantity
Many electric fan ovens When more food is placed in an
allow the fan to be oven, the heat is distributed around
switched off if certain a larger mass, meaning cooking
foods don’t benefit from it times can be longer. In a fan oven,
the better distribution of heat
inside can reduce this effect.

4 Eco-efficiency
Faster heat transfer reduces
the time the oven has to be on, and
it can cook at lower temperatures.
When replacing a conventional
oven with a fan oven, you reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.

5 Safety
Ovens powered by electricity
reduce the risk of fires. Additionally,
it will eliminate the possibility of a
gas leak from the appliance.

How It Works 071

TECHNOLOGY

FLOATING RESEARCH
LABORATORIES
Words by Mark Smith

THESE GROUNDBREAKING
OCEAN-GOING VESSELS WERE
DESIGNED TO UNCOVER THE
MYSTERIES OF THE DEEP

Looking like something from a sci-fi The seafaring City of © Jacques Rougerie architects
movie, the SeaOrbiter was designed to Meriens was designed
tower above the waves as it made its way around one of the ocean’s City of Meriens
through some of the most unexplored parts of most recognisable
the world’s oceans. Featuring its own creatures: the manta ray SeaOrbiter isn’t the only groundbreaking
underwater platform, sophisticated science design from the mind of Jacques
labs and a sub-ocean ‘garage’ for submarines ocean. In fact, we know less about the ocean Rougerie. The City of Meriens is designed
and divers, the breathtaking vessel has been floor than we do about the surfaces of the to be nothing less than a floating city,
described as the ‘Starship Enterprise of the Moon and Mars. In addition to scientific measuring a gigantic 900 metres by 500
sea’. Work was due to begin on the ship in study, it was to function as a global metres and housing up to 7,000
2014, and it was designed to host a crew of up educational and communications platform, scientists and students from around
to 22 for long-term scientific missions lasting enabling scientists on board to share their the world.
over six months. It was intended to roam the findings with fellow experts and the public
oceans and deploy submersible vessels at alike, right around the planet, as well as raise Designed in the image of a giant manta
depths of up to 3.7 miles. awareness of environmental issues. ray, it will come equipped with labs,
classrooms, lecture theatres, living
Its scale when seen on the horizon would The brainchild of French architect Jacques quarters and areas for leisure activities
have been immense. While modern ships Rougerie ,who took his inspiration from Jules and sports, making it a long-term place to
usually sit flat to the surface and have most of Verne, Jacques Piccard and Jacques-Yves live and work in order to facilitate
their mass laid out horizontally, SeaOrbiter Cousteau, work on the $50 (£35) million research projects.
was to resemble a floating tower, casting an project has since stalled. Construction of the
imposing figure on the horizon like a much 1,000-tonne vessel had been due to start in The design was picked for its ability to
larger version of the galleons of old. It would 2014, but by May 2015 only the Eye of withstand harsh sea conditions, with
rise to a total height of 51 metres – the height SeaOrbiter, the first part of the construction most of its mass being below the water
of Nelson’s Column in London – with over half of the vessel, was successfully completed. to help keep it steady. At its centre will be
submerged below the ocean. Construction was made possible by a a large ‘lagoon’, where vessels such as
crowdfunding campaign. the SeaOrbiter could dock. There are no
Designed not just to roam the seas, but plans to build the city yet, but if it ever
also to explore their depths, six of the takes to sea it would mark a new era in
SeaOrbiter’s 12 decks were to sit below sea ocean research.
level, bringing the undersea realm to life and
perfect for providing uninterrupted
underwater observation for the scientists and
explorers aboard. Its goal was simple – to pull
back the curtain on one of nature’s most
unexplored habitats.

Despite covering 70 per cent of our planet,
but with only five per cent explored and less
than 20 per cent mapped, our oceans are still
largely a mystery. What’s more humans have
explored less than one per cent of the deep

072 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? NASA has an underwater facility off the coast of Florida to help prepare astronauts for space

SeaOrbiter 12
design 3
4
The design of this vessel is 5
inspired by the seahorse 6

1 Boat storage 7
8
Smaller research craft
are kept here when not 3 Diving room
being used.
This section is a scientific
2 Upper deck wet lab and diving room.

This area is where 5 Multidisciplinary lab
the engine rooms
and storage facilities This modular area is where you will
are located. find the medical zone and fitness area.

4 Command bridge

The central hub of the vessel is where
all ship operations are controlled.

6 Sleeping area

The captain’s room and
bunk areas for the rest of
the crew are located here.

French designer Jacques Rougerie with a 7 Communications area
model of his SeaOrbiter vessel
This section is below the waves and
www.howitworksdaily.com contains communications and
sanitation areas.

8 Underwater
research area

Pressurised living quarters, an

underwater garage and a

diving zone make this the hub

of underwater operations.
© Getty
© Jacques Rougerie

How It Works 073

TECHNOLOGY

Anatomy Unique design ISS of the sea
of Proteus
Proteus will have a Proteus is designed to
The proposed spiral design spanning follow a modular layout
370 square metres. like the International
underwater research Space Station (ISS).

lab is equipped for life

beneath the waves

Support craft

Underwater vessels will
be able to dock with the
lab for supply runs and
to transport crew.

Pod design

The pods around the sides
will contain crew quarters,
labs and medical bays.

Underwater working

Divers will be able to stay
underwater for days and weeks
at a time, as they will not have
to acclimatise before returning
to the surface.

© Jacques Rougerie Stilts for stability

The stilts will ground the base
to the seafloor so it can
withstand ocean currents.

Work on a the goal of its Once in place, it will allow scientists to dive
smaller scale was developers is for it and work for longer without having to return
also carried out. to become an to the surface.
The Norwegian underwater version
Marine Technology of the International Power for the station is expected to come
Research Institute Space Station (ISS). from solar energy and the movement of the
MARINTEK conducted The undersea laboratory ocean. It may also have what is thought to be
tank tests with a 1:15 scale will be a 370-square-metre the first underwater greenhouse in the world,
model. Advanced theoretical structure that can be a home for enabling the lab’s crew to grow some of their
studies and hydrodynamic tests were up to 12 people at a time – but that could own food.
carried out to improve SeaOrbiter’s just be the start. Like the ISS, Proteus is
seakeeping performance and to optimise its designed to be modular in nature, so more In some ways, working beneath the ocean
behaviour in waves and wind. But despite pieces could be added as time goes by, is every bit as challenging as working in
what appeared from the outside to be steady making it even bigger. space. Diving takes a toll on the human body
progress, as of today there is still no sign of Proteus will feature a two-storey circular because when it is underwater, pressure
any further work being carried out. While structure fastened to the ocean floor on stilts, causes nitrogen in the lungs to dissolve into
mystery may surround the apparent lack of with protruding pods that house labs, living the body. The longer a diver is underwater,
further progress on the vessel, projects to quarters, medical bays and a ‘moon pool’ – a the greater the build-up of nitrogen.
uncover the secrets of our oceans have hatch where divers can access the ocean
continued apace. floor. When constructed, it will sit on the If a diver comes back to the surface too
seafloor about 18 metres below the surface off quickly, the nitrogen can form bubbles in
One such development is the Proteus the island of Curaçao in the Caribbean Ocean. their blood, which can make them extremely
project. Designed to be an underwater lab, ill and confused, known as ‘the bends’. To
stop it happening, divers have to slowly come
074 How It Works back to the surface while they gradually

www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? An incredible 94 per cent of all living creatures on Earth call the oceans their home

The Aquarius Reef Base is an underwater
facility off the coast of Florida

The mysterious Source: NASA SeaOrbiter designer
Challenger Jacques Rougerie is a
Deep in the Fabien Cousteau, grandson of French architect and
Jacques Cousteau and the oceanographer who
Mariana Trench man behind Proteus specialises in underwater
is the ocean’s habitats. How it Works
deepest point speaks to him about
SeaOrbiter’s future and his
Source: Wiki/wallace thoughts on the future of
ocean exploration
© Getty
What is happening with SeaOrbiter at
acclimatise. The process can take hours, studying the ocean it will also allow the moment? Has the project stalled?
meaning all of that potential research time is scientists to research new ways of growing The SeaOrbiter project is in no way
lost. This is what makes an underwater food, creating energy and even carrying out stopped, especially since it is increasingly
research hub so potentially groundbreaking. medical research. anchored in major current issues on
If divers were able to stay underwater for long climate and ocean biodiversity. It is more
periods of time on a facility like Proteus, they If it is a success, Cousteau says there could relevant than ever. However, the
could undertake dives night and day. This one day be a whole network of underwater international situation due to the
would have huge benefits for their ability to habitats in different oceans around the coronavirus has slowed down the search
explore the deep. world. They would be able to warn of for funding. But more than ever we are
tsunamis and hurricanes, and also allow for determined to carry out this project on an
The man behind the Proteus project, pioneering research into things like robotics, international level.
conservationist, aquanaut and filmmaker sustainability and energy. While it may be  
Fabien Cousteau, is the grandson of trailblazing in both scope and ambition, Where did you get design inspiration
legendary ocean explorer Jacques Cousteau, Proteus will not be the first underwater lab. for SeaOrbiter?
one of the famous ‘musketeers of the sea’, Another facility called Aquarius has been SeaOrbiter is the synthesis of 30 years’ of
who was also an inspiration to the architects operational since 1986. experiences related to the realisation and
of the SeaOrbiter. the experimentation of underwater
Positioned off the coast of Florida, Cousteau habitats that we have carried out, such as
The structure itself was designed by previously set a record for living underwater the underwater houses Galathée,
industrial designer Yves Béhar. Together they when he worked there for 31 days in 2014. The Hippocampe or Aquabulle, or the
hope to raise the $135 (£95) million needed to 37-square-metre base can only accommodate semi-submersible vessels with
turn their dream into reality. If successful, it six people, while the Proteus lab will be ten transparent hulls like Aquascope and
will be operational by 2023. Cousteau says times bigger at 370 square metres, and can Aquaspace that we have also made.
that once it is up and running, as well as house double that number.
Given the specificity of the SeaOrbiter
www.howitworksdaily.com program to maintain crews for long
periods of time under the drifting sea, we
started with a concept of biomimetic
architecture: this vessel is vertical, like a
hippocampus [part of the brain
associated with learning and memory].
 
How does SeaOrbiter compare to
your other ocean projects? Which is
your favourite?
The different submarines or underwater
research boats around the world are not
able to do what SeaOrbiter does: an
international base that allows a crew to
constantly observe and listen under the
sea and which is able to exit directly
underwater at any time. 
 
What do you think of other sea projects
currently being undertaken, such as
the Proteus underwater lab?
I happen to work as an architect in
collaboration with Fabien Cousteau on
Proteus, which is a magnificent project
for an international fixed submarine
station. It is a research base with
versatile programs to develop a [ocean-
friendly] Blue Society on the scale of The
Blue Planet.

How It Works 075

SCIENCE

HOW WE
Forget artificial
intelligence, the
human brain is
the original
neural network
Words by Laura Mears

© Getty

076 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Changing the way you develop a new skill makes you learn faster than repeating the same action

T he brain is a collection of an estimated 86 Artificial neural
billion neurons, connected together in a networks
communications network more complex
than the internet. Neurons pass messages like AI works in almost the same way as the
human brain. Instead of thousands of
telephone wires, shooting electrical impulses at brain cells, machine learning algorithms
have thousands of nodes. Just like a
speeds of up to 180 miles per hour. They neuron, each node receives incoming
signals and has to decide whether to pass
exchange signals using packets of chemicals them on to the next node. To make this
choice, it gives each signal a weight,
called neurotransmitters, which can either tell which determines how important it is. A
higher weight means a higher chance the
the next neuron to pass the message along or to signal will be passed on. To begin with all
the weights are set at random, so the
stay quiet. The connections between neurons algorithm is essentially guessing what to
do with each signal. To learn, it makes
are the basis of memory, and making them is © Getty tiny changes to the weights, and then
sees whether its guess is better or worse
how we learn. than before. This trial and error tunes the
network, strengthening good connections
The theory of human learning is founded on Everything you know is stored in the and weakening bad ones – just like
human learning.
the idea that one brain cell can’t learn on its own connections between your brain cells
The most intelligent computer algorithms are
– it’s the connections between brain cells that modelled on the human brain

make learning possible. In the late 1940s, pass the message along. At first it’s not always

psychologist Donald Hebb explained that clear if the message is important, but if the cell

“nerves that fire together wire together”. This sends the same message again and again and

essentially means that when brain cells are again, something starts to change. The first cell

repeatedly activated at the same time, they starts producing more neurotransmitters so that

become physically and it can send a bigger
signal, and the second
“The theory of humanchemically linked.

learning is founded onLearning a new skill is all cell makes more

about strengthening the receptors so that it can
detect the signal more
the idea one brain cellconnections between the

can’t learn on its own”brain cells that send the easily. Together these

signals to perform changes strengthen the

that skill. connection between the cells, ensuring that the

This concept is called ‘Hebbian learning’, and message always gets through. © Getty

at a cellular level, it looks a bit like this: when In the real brain, the situation is a bit more

one brain cell sends a message to another brain complicated. It’s rare that communication

cell, the second cell has to decide whether to happens only between two cells. In reality, each

The brain’s Neocortex
learning centres
This is the brain’s main storage
These five brain areas are essential for bank. The hippocampus transfers
learning to the neocortex while
learning and memory we’re sleeping.

Prefrontal cortex

The very front of the brain is
responsible for working
memory. It provides short-term
storage while we’re learning.

Basal Amygdala © Getty
ganglia
This small structure is Hippocampus
This cluster of brain responsible for the emotional
cells manages content of memories. We Found in part of the brain called
motor learning – or learn better when experiences the temporal lobe, this structure
‘muscle memory’ are emotionally charged. records past events, allowing us
– and the formation to learn from experience.
of habits.
How It Works 077
www.howitworksdaily.com

SCIENCE

© Alamy Neuron

Neurons send messages
across the brain by passing
electrical signals down long,
thin structures called axons.

Synapse Receptors

Neurons pass signals to other Receptors detect the
neurons by sending chemicals neurotransmitters released
called neurotransmitters by other neurons and trigger
across microscopic gaps. fresh electrical impulses.
After learning, their
numbers also increase.

Tuning Neurotransmitter

Chemical messages pass
signals from one neuron to
the next. After learning, the
amount of these each
neuron releases goes up.

the brain’s

connections

On a microscopic level, learning
is all about the connections
between brain cells

Learning on a Astrocyte
molecular scale
Star-shaped support cells tune
Signals pass from one neuron to another the speed of communication by
across microscopic gaps called synapses. controlling the thickness of the
The first neuron releases small packets of insulation around each neuron.
chemicals called neurotransmitters,
which cross the gap and hit the second Myelin sheath Sheath thickening
neuron. Receptors on the second neuron
detect the neurotransmitters, and if the Wraps of myelin insulate the During learning, cells called
signal is strong enough, they trigger a electrical signals passing along oligodendrocytes coat nerve
fresh electrical impulse. Learning axons, allowing them to travel cells in extra myelin, increasing
increases the neurotransmitters the first faster and without interference. the speed of nerve conduction.
neuron releases, and boosts the number
of neurotransmitter receptors on the neuron makes up to 1,000 connections to others, quickly pull it away. This reflex normally doesn’t
second neuron. These changes
strengthen the connection between the and signals can arrive all at once. Each neuron happen if they feel a really gentle touch on their
two cells, making it easier for them to
exchange signals in the future. has to weigh up every message it receives and siphon. But they can learn to withdraw from this

078 How It Works decide whether to pass it along. Learning is the non-threatening situation if the connections

process of balancing those between their neurons

decisions. One of the “Each neuron are altered.
easiest ways to see this in makes up to 1,000 Researchers at the
action is to look at
University of California

connections to others”organisms with simpler attached electrodes to

nervous systems than sea slug neurons. They

our own. chose one neuron from the siphon and another

Sea slugs have an organ called a siphon, which from the tail, both of which pass messages to a

they use for moving, feeding and breathing. It’s third neuron that controls siphon movement.

quite delicate, so if they sense danger they Before the experiment, the movement neuron

www.howitworksdaily.com

DID YOU KNOW? Scientist Terje Lømo discovered the biology of learning in 1966 while experimenting on rabbit brains

1 2 YOUR
NEURONS
Unconscious Conscious
incompetence incompetence 1They have three parts
The cell body houses genetic
The learner is completely The learner becomes aware code and protein factories.
unaware that they lack the skill, that there is a gap in their Dendrites receive incoming signals,
and may even be overconfident understanding. This can either and the axon passes electrical
be motivating or demoralising. messages to other cells.
in their ability.
2There are three types
From zero Sensory neurons detect touch,
to hero taste, light, sound and smell. Motor
neurons send signals to the
4 Invented by Noel Burch in the 3 muscles and interneurons connect
1970s, the four stages of other neurons together.
Unconscious
competence competence explain how we 3They don’t live forever
think and learn Like us, nerve cells in the brain
The learner masters the and body get old and die. Loss of
skill. They are now so Conscious neurons contributes to diseases
good at it that they can competence such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s
do it without thinking. and Huntington’s.
The learner practises the
4They need support
skill and starts to learn, but Neurons rely on other cells to
do their job properly. Astrocytes
they need to concentrate maintain chemical balance,
oligodendrocytes insulate electrical
hard to be successful. signals and microglia guard
against infection.

5They can regenerate
Researchers once thought brain
cell regeneration was impossible.
Now we know that even in adults
there are stem cells capable of
creating new neurons.

© Science Photo Library © Getty

Oligodendrocyte Wwoituhlodunt’tsbcehogoalinleeadrnaisngq,ukicnkolywledge

These fatty cells wind
around the axons of
nerve cells like the plastic
around electrical wires.

didn’t really respond to messages from the © Getty
siphon neuron.
Adults find it easier to learn skills related to skills they have already mastered
To change this, the researchers passed
electrical impulses along the siphon neuron to
simulate a gentle touch. At the same time they
passed strong electrical impulses along the tail
neuron to simulate a danger signal. This taught
the synapse that the gentle touch signal meant
that danger might soon be coming. During the
experiment, the connection between the siphon
neuron and the movement neuron strengthened
so much that eventually a light touch on its own
was enough to trigger the withdrawal reflex
without any danger signal from the tail at all.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 079

INTERVIEW

Human, machine and
evolutionary learning

Dr Richard Watson is an associate professor at the University of
Southampton. He works at the interface between computer
science and theoretical evolutionary biology

Just because we’re made out of different © Sarah Rush of equivalence between learning and evolution
stuff doesn’t mean that humans learn in a has been noted many times.
different way to computers. Dr Watson’s Watson participated in the world’s largest project to
work on expanding the theory of evolution has update our understanding of evolution A further level of equivalence is a connection
given him great insight into the way animals, between evolution and the kind of connection-
machines and even evolution itself learns and your response more like what the answer based learning that I mentioned already. If you
adapts – and he has come to some quite ‘should’ be – but they both work by modifying produce an organism with not just a set of genes,
staggering conclusions. connection strengths. but a network of genes, then the effect of natural
selection acting on the connections between the
Can you explain how learning works? Your work suggests that evolution can learn genes acts in the same way that Hebb’s rule did
One of the key insights of neural models of brain too. What does that mean? in the previous examples. It strengthens the
learning is that intelligence is not in the neurons The kind of learning where you learn by connections between genes that are expressed
– it’s in the organisation of the connections changing the strengths of connections, natural at the same time, and it weakens the
between them. The way that they learn is by selection can do that too. Evolution works by connections between genes where one is
changing the strengths of these connections. making small random changes. If the change expressed and the other is not.
produces an improvement then it’s kept, and if it
There’s one particular model of how makes things worse then it’s not. That sounds a It means that evolution by natural selection
connections change which is sufficient to do bit like trial-and-error learning: you try stuff at can do the same kind of tricks that neural
some really interesting behaviours, and that is random and do more of the behaviours that work networks can do. It can evolve a network that
Hebbian learning. It says that if two neurons fire and less of the behaviours that don’t. That kind holds an associative memory of multiple
at the same time, or in quick succession, then the patterns it’s been exposed to in the past. It can
strength of the connection between them is improve its ability to solve problems with
increased. But if one fires without the other, the experience in the same way that a neural
connection is decreased. network can. And it can generalise; evolution
isn’t supposed to be able to anticipate which
That’s such a simple rule, but it’s capable of phenotypes will be well adapted for a new
many interesting behaviours: forming an environment. A neural network can do that: you
associative memory – storing multiple patterns train it on past data and you show it a situation it
that describe what things naturally ‘go together’ hasn’t seen before, and it produces an output
– generalising from past data to new situations suitable for that new situation. And that’s not
and improving its ability to solve problems magic – it’s called generalisation. The idea that
with experience. evolution can do that too expands our
understanding of how evolution works.
Is that the same as the way AI learns?
Artificial neural networks also learn by What do the links between human
changing the strength of the connections learning, AI and evolution tell us?
between neurons. The way that they change the These principles of learning can also operate in
strength of the connections is not the same in the other kinds of networks that are not brains and
details, but it’s similar in essence. not networks within organisms. Networks such
as the networks of friendships between people
In machine learning you often have an idea of in a society.
what the output is supposed to be. If it’s a picture
of a cat, you want it to say ‘cat’. If a network’s Artificial neural networks also learn by changing
output is a little bit wrong, you adjust the the strength of the connections
connections in the direction that makes it a little
bit less wrong. Hebb’s rule reinforces what your
response was already, whereas this rule makes

080 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com

An AI cat at the China International
Big Data Industry Expo in 2021. This
robot learns in a similar way to the
girl next to it

© Getty

Suppose that I’m doing some behaviour and and the organisation of that system is not © Getty
you’re doing some behaviour. When I behave the arbitrary. The organisation of that system is
same as you, we strengthen our friendship. And shaped by the past experience of the system and Charles Darwin laid the foundations for evolutionary
when I do the opposite of what you’re doing, we has knowledge in it which is valuable, theory, which Watson is expanding on with
weaken our friendship. If friendships change in knowledge which enables the system to adapt to evolutionary learning
that way, then that means that social networks future circumstances.
can do the same kind of learning that neural
networks and gene networks can do. This gives some scientific basis to the
ancient worldview that we’re part of a
It means that human organisations and harmonious web of life with relationships that
human society can learn in a way that’s greater deserve respect. That’s where the systemic
than the sum of the parts – a way that’s not just intelligence resides – not in us as individuals, but
about getting smarter because the people in the in the connections between us and with other
system get smarter, but about intelligence that’s living things. This is a more humble view where
held in the relationships between people. treating other people and the biosphere as
resources to be exploited is not natural, not
What do you think that means for healthy and not inevitable.
the future?
The conventional scientific view suggests that A neuron under the
survival of the fittest is how nature works. If you microscope at 400x
interfere with competition, you’ll make the magnification
system worse, not better. This supports a
worldview that says that life is about © Alamy
competition, selfishness and individualism.

But there’s a different worldview that says
we’re all part of a larger web of living things in
relationships with one another. That worldview
is more to do with cooperation and
connectedness, not winning.

If it’s the case that selection changes
relationships in a way that produces intelligence
at the system level, then it’s not just everyone
against everyone fighting for themselves.
Although they might not know what their role is
in the system, they are part of a larger system,

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A SMART GARDEN

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How It Works 083

Heart cramp is different to
other parts of the body

Because enquiring minds
need to know…

MEET THE
EXPERTS

Who’s answering
your questions
this month?

JO ELPHICK

AMY GRISDALE

ANDY EXTANCE

ANDREW MAY

SCIENCE © Getty

Can you get
cramps in your
heart muscles?

Ed Howell
Q Not the way you get cramps in your legs, arms,
hands or stomach. But the coronary artery that
supplies the heart with oxygen can spasm. Your
ribs can cramp too. AE

WANT How It Works magazine @HowItWorksmag [email protected]
ANSWERS?
www.howitworksdaily.com
Send your questions to…

084 HowItWorks

HISTORY © Getty

Why did America ENVIRONMENT
test so many
nuclear bombs? Why do badgers have
black and white faces?
Josh Ramis
Q The US tested over 1,000 Suzannah Wilson
nuclear bombs between 1951
and 1992, both atmospheric and Q There are two theories about badgers’
underground. The purpose of
these tests was to determine appearance. They might be warning stripes to
the effects of a nuclear attack on
the physical environment and let predators know not to mess with a badger
any human-made structures,
as well as studying the effects of because they’ll put up a fight. Scientists call this
nuclear fallout. As the Soviet
Union began building up its aposematism, and it’s the reason toxic
own atomic weapon arsenal
after World War II, America frogs are so vividly coloured. The
became intent on developing
the largest number of nuclear alternative idea is that variations
arms to reinforce US power
and control. JE DID YOU in the stripes help badgers
KNOW? recognise one another. AG
A beautiful but deadly
© Getty mushroom cloud towering The first US atomic
above Bikini Atoll bomb used in war

© Getty was called
‘Little Boy’
ENVIRONMENT
© Getty
Do birds have knees?
© Alamy TECHNOLOGY
Colin Powers
Q Yes, but not where you might think. The bend we see When will we stop using
in a bird’s leg may look like a knee bending backwards, physical money?
but it’s actually the ankle. Bird knees are inside the body,
hidden by skin and feathers. The long foot begins at the Alison Crowley
ankle joint, but it isn’t all used to stay in contact with the Q Despite today’s contactless payment
ground. All a bird’s weight is carried by its toes. AG technology and chip-and-pin devices, we may
never lose hard cash. Physical money is
Humans have mostly the same bones as stable, unlike Bitcoin. It’s also untraceable,
many animals, just in a different which might occasionally prove useful. Notes
configuration and coins are globally reliable and ultimately
convenient. The internet may crash, but you
www.howitworksdaily.com can still pay with cash. JE

How It Works 085

© Getty

ENVIRONMENT The Simpson Desert in SCIENCE
South Australia’s Northern
Why is the desert in Territory has large tracts of Why has no one
Australia so red? made strong alcoholic
orange-coloured sand ice cream?
Fu Wei
Q Two main factors give the deserts of Australia, which cover Isla-Rose Gray
nearly 20 per cent of the country, their characteristic tinge: Q It’s because the alcohol in drinks,
the hot and dry conditions are perfect for oxidisation, in technically called ethanol, freezes at a
which the iron-rich rocks react with the air to form large much lower temperature than water: -114
amounts of ferrous oxide. The red colour you see in the desert degrees Celsius. If you add too much ethanol
sand is rust. Australia has largely been unaffected by the ice to ice cream, it won’t freeze. You can’t get
ages in Earth’s recent history, so this rust has had the chance away with more than a few spoonfuls of
to pile up over millions of years. AE strong spirits, and even that makes it
much softer. AE
086 How It Works
ENVIRONMENT © Alamy

Do all ENVIRONMENT
animals
have Does starlight still hit
hearts? Earth during the day?

Matthew Foster Kallum Rogers
Q Jellyfish and corals Q Yes, the stars are just as bright during
don’t have hearts – or a the day as they are at night. But they are
circulatory system of much fainter than the Sun shining in
any kind. They absorb the daytime sky, so we can’t see them
all the nutrients they until after sunset. AM
need from the
surrounding water.
Starfish and sea urchins
don’t have hearts either,
but pump food-filled sea
water directly into
their bodies. AG

© Getty

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TECHNOLOGY© Getty SCIENCE
© Alamy
Can batteries discharge Why do muscles
themselves over time go soft if they’re
without being put in not exercised for
a device? a while?

Ferne Robson Anne Mikayla
Q Yes, it’s called self-discharge. Lithium-ion Q When you exercise a muscle
batteries lose about two per cent of their charge rigorously, your muscles achieve
per month if left charged. This is because what is known among bodybuilders
batteries are electrochemical, rather than as ‘the pump’: your heart pumps
purely electronic devices. That’s reflected in extra blood to the muscle, giving
their names. In lithium- the muscle tissue the extra
ion batteries, ions of the nutrients and oxygen it needs to
element lithium move perform. The increased blood flow
between electrodes, causes the muscle to swell up and
releasing electrical become much harder than before,
energy as they do so. like a football that has been fully
They do this quickly pumped up. ‘The pump’ only lasts
on demand when we for around 20 minutes after a
use our gadgets. But it workout, but if you don’t exercise
can also happen that muscle again for a long time
when the battery is then it will atrophy. This is when
left alone. AE the muscle shrinks, loses strength
and becomes softer, and is common
If you leave a device in older bodybuilders who have
switched off for a stopped lifting heavy weights. AE
long time, it can
self-discharge Bodybuilders have to train hard and
frequently or their muscles quickly
HISTORY lose mass and become softer

Why does How It Works 087
Britain’s
queen
have two
birthdays?

Chloe Brandon
Q She enjoys her
actual birthday on 21
April, and a second
‘official’ birthday in
June when the
weather is warmer so
that her subjects can
watch the Trooping of
the Colour parade in
good weather. JE

© Getty

www.howitworksdaily.com

There are only two animals
known to science that can
revert back to being babies,

and they’re both jellyfish

© Alamy

DID YOU © Alamy
KNOW?
SCIENCE
Immortal jellyfish can
grow a new body Why doesn’t injecting
every month deadly Botox for
beauty treatment
ENVIRONMENT harm the patient?

Do ‘immortal’ jellyfish Cathy Torres
really live forever? Q Botulinum toxin kills by paralysing
muscles, including the crucial ones that
Sid Blair adult again. This process is called work the lungs. But when it’s used in
Q It’s technically possible for these animals to transdifferentiation, and it’s extremely rare. If medical procedures under the name Botox,
live forever, but only in perfect lab conditions. there were no predators in the ocean the the dose is much too small to be dangerous.
Once the jellyfish has sustained an injury or immortal jellyfish would really live up to its The paralysing effects remain localised,
can’t find enough food to survive, it shrinks name, but jellyfish of all growth stages are for example in the muscles that cause
back down to its juvenile form. It reabsorbs its eaten by fish, turtles and sea slugs. The adults facial wrinkles. AM
tentacles and sinks to the seafloor as a polyp. It only have a weak sting, and the polyps are
begins maturing and eventually becomes an defenceless blobs ready for the taking. AG

King Kullen © Alamy
supermarkets
are still ‘piling it
high and selling

it low’ today

HISTORY TRANSPORT

When were supermarkets invented? Why did the
Victorians make
Anthony Edwards could load up their weekly shopping in one go © Getty penny-farthing bikes
Q The first supermarket appeared in New York without having to travel to different stores. The with a ridiculously
on 4 August 1930, named ‘King Kullen’ after its supermarket’s motto – ‘Pile it high. Sell it low’ huge wheel?
creator Michael J. Cullen. The store was an – became the blueprint for all supermarkets
instant hit, providing self-service, individual that followed. Cullen also started the concept Letitia Jordan
product departments and discount pricing. It of ‘chain stores’. By the time of his death there Q Two features of modern bicycles – the
also had a car park, which meant families were 17 King Kullens in operation. JE chain drive and pneumatic tyres – only
emerged in the 1880s. Before this, with solid
088 How It Works wheel rims, bikes were uncomfortable
‘bone-shakers’, while their speed was
limited by the lack of gearing between
pedals and wheel. The penny-farthing was
an attempt to get around these problems.
The large wheel meant the bike travelled
faster for a given rate of pedalling, while its
springy, extra-long spokes provided a
degree of comfort. AM

www.howitworksdaily.com

One piece of Moon DID YOU SPACE
junk, the lander KNOW?
Surveyor 3, was What space
visited by the Avocados are extremely junk has
Apollo 12 astronauts calorific, but are very been left on
good for you the Moon?
© NASA
Stuart Powell
SCIENCE Q Since the first lunar probe in 1959,
the Moon has seen more than 180
What makes high- tonnes of ‘space junk’ arrive from
GI foods more Earth. The bulk of this consists of
quickly digested space vehicles, over 70 in all, that
and absorbed? either soft landed or crashed. The
latter weren’t always accidents; this
Sarah A (@masarahrit) includes orbiters and rocket stages
Q A food’s glycemic index (GI) that were deliberately crashed after
rates how fast it raises glucose achieving their purpose. The Apollo
levels in your blood. Many things astronauts also left their share of junk
affect this. Sometimes food breaks behind, discarding unwanted items
down into small particles that are like tools, boots and cameras to save
easier to absorb. If food contains weight on the journey home. To top it
glucose as an ingredient, that all off, there are 96 small plastic bags
easily gets into blood. But food filled with human waste. AM
often contains starch instead,
which is a long, chain-shaped © Getty
molecule. The links in that chain
can be sugars like glucose. These How It Works 089
chains break down in different
parts of our guts, releasing
glucose more slowly. Foods also
contain fibre, containing complex
chains made of sugars like
glucose that break down even
more slowly in our guts. AE

Food contains sugar in simple
glucose form and more complex
forms like starch and fibre

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BOOK REVIEWS

The latest releases for curious minds

Fourteen The Atlas of
Wolves a Changing
Climate
A REWILDING
STORY OUR EVOLVING PLANET
VISUALISED WITH MORE
Q Author: Catherine Barr THAN 100 MAPS, CHARTS
Q Illustrator: Jenni Desmond AND INFOGRAPHICS
Q Publisher: Bloomsbury
Q Price: £12.99 / $21.59 Q Author: Brian Buma
Q Release: Out now Q Publisher: Timber Press
Q Price: £26.99 / £35
This is a story – a true one at that – with a Delivered with Q Release: 9 November
simple but profound lesson in how simple but This is very much a ‘does what it says on the
humans can drastically affect the particularly tin’ kind of reference book. Across nearly 300
ecological balance of a wilderness. Over the powerful pages, National Geographic explorer Brian
course of the 20th century, the wolves of language Buma takes the reader on a journey through
Yellowstone National Park in the US were the Earth’s atmosphere, water, land, cities
systematically hunted and driven from their Fourteen Wolves is the illustrated story of the and wildlife, discovering how it’s changed
native lands, until there were none left. first wolves that were brought back to the over time. What stands out the most,
stunning Yellowstone wilderness that spans unsurprisingly, are the impactful and varied
Incredibly, the removal of this one species, an nearly 3,500 square miles. Author Catherine Barr pieces of photography, illustrative maps and
apex predator, had a direct and diabolical effect delivers this tale with simple but particularly diagrams that any visual learner will relish.
on this national park. The population of elk powerful language, following the footsteps of
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check, and these huge, roaming herds of grazers content, it’s also written in a compelling way
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some way were diminished. Even the rivers and the land they inhabit. No species exists in a future will hold.
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anchor them, river banks collapsed and fish natural habitat and, like a giant game of www.howitworksdaily.com
stocks dwindled. taxonomical Jenga, you could bring the whole
ecosystem tumbling down.
Then, in 1995, the wolves were reintroduced to
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The elk population was brought under control
once more, trees were given a chance to grow
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090 HowItWorks

The Book of BOOK REVIEWS
Amazing Trees
The Secret Life
FROM THE BEAUTIFUL of Viruses
BEECH TO THE
REGAL REDWOOD INCREDIBLE SCIENCE
FACTS ABOUT GERMS,
Q Author: Nathalie Tordjman VACCINES AND WHAT YOU
Q Illustrators: Isabelle Simler, Julien Norwood CAN DO TO STAY HEALTHY
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Through the medium of clever cartoon-
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RELIVING THE
71-YEAR QUEST Instead it expertly explains viral
structure, reproduction and activity in a
Q Author: Craig Storti way that can be easily imagined and
Q Publisher: John Murray comprehended by a child. For those who
Q Price: £20 / $24.95 have questions about pandemics,
Q Release: Out Now COVID-19 and viruses in general, this
book is perfect for widening
Everest hasn’t always been a mountain understanding in a friendly way and
without causing worry. Among the final
populated with climbers from around the pages, a fun and interactive ‘true or false’
section can test the reader on fascinating
world. The height of the planet’s tallest peak was facts from the book, helping children to
remain engaged.
first measured in 1850 from a nearby ground
How It Works 091
station, but the first ascent attempts to its peak

were only made 100 years ago in 1921. Author

Craig Storti has brought together his thorough

research into detailed accounts by Everest’s first

climbers to tell the captivating tale of events

before this time. After starting the story with the

measurements of the mountain range, this book

ends where many other Everest stories begin. The first ascent
Even if you think you know the history of the attempts were only

world’s tallest mountain well, you can pick up
this book and become mesmerised by the

peculiar personalities, political limitations and

made 100 years agoanimal appearances that played their part in

bringing climbers to Everest.

www.howitworksdaily.com

GIVE YOUR BRAIN A PUZZLE WORKOUT

QUICKFIRE Spot the difference
QUESTIONS
See if you can find all six changes between the images below
Q1 When was the Bank
of England founded?

1098
1694
1835
1993

Q2 What did the world’s
heaviest pumpkin
weigh?

159.05 kilograms
392.11 kilograms
836.20 kilograms
1,190.49 kilograms

Q3 How many neurons
in an adult human’s
brain?

86,000
86 million
86 billion
86 trillion

Q4 Approximately how
far is the Voyager 1
probe from Earth,
currently?

14,000 miles
14 million miles
14 billion miles
14 trillion miles

Q5 What speed did the
first steam train
average in 1804?

4 miles per hour
10 miles per hour
20 miles per hour
30 miles per hour

Q6 The world record for
the loudest drummer is,
at 137.2 decibels, as
loud as:

A vacuum cleaner
A thunderclap
Aeroplane take-off
A rocket launching

092 HowItWorks

Sudoku

Complete the grid so that each row, column and 3x3 box contains the numbers 1 to 9

EASY DIFFICULT

826 1 49 © Getty

1 7 69 3 61 7

74 8 65

49 5 6 19 4

8 46 7 43 17

982 5 74 9 What is it?

26 83 1 Hint: These usually form as a result of
an overproduction of melanin…
13 9 2 2 19 8
A
1 839 56

FOVED I ESE LPCS I L Check your answers
AKUYOCK J S EC A L EA
C T A R QUWA V Y S R DOW Find the solutions to last issue’s puzzle pages
I EMS A T HGOA X OA EN
LB I E VO E ROQ I CRBC SPOT THE DIFFERENCE
I D R A B I T PMU V K DU K
T YOTUC ENL I RMAUP QUICKFIRE QUESTIONS
Y E T EDO L SA FROGH J
U R E D E A H F J E A RMNO
CB I VNO T EXR Z AB I N

OR JMEDA LE I H YUAB Q1 122 years, 164 days Q4 Copper blood
VO T S R I ENE T A EMRN
E Y A N G F WQU I N T I B O Q2 All of the above Q5 Red devil deer
L E S D Y C GN I NWOD V P
OV ENCR EBR I ANREX Q3 Oort Cloud Q6 1939

WHAT IS IT? …CORN FLAKES

Wordsearch
FIND THE FOLLOWING WORDS…

FACILITY CRAB ROCK

MEDAL AQUIFER BRAIN

ATHLETE ENERGY OVEN © Getty

DOWNING DIESEL SEAT

How It Works 093

HOW TO… Get in touch

Practical projects to try at home Send your ideas to…
How It Works magazine
[email protected]
@HowItWorksmag
howitworksmag

Make a balloon- YOU WILL NEED:
powered car
• Drink carton
Watch as the air from your lungs propels your vehicle across the room • Four plastic bottle tops
• Two wooden skewers
• Two straws
• Balloon
• Tape
• Glue
• Scissors

1Choose the body 2Cut to size
Place the drink carton in front of you. We are using a cardboard drink Hold your straws across the width of the carton and cut them
carton as the car’s body here, but feel free to experiment with different both to size. The straws should extend beyond the carton a little bit
materials, such as bottles, to see how they compare. on each side.

© Illustrations by Ed Crooks 3Stick down the straws 4Insert the axles
Secure the straws, using tape, onto the base of your carton. These Cut two pieces of wooden skewer so that they are a centimetre or two
should be parallel to each other, as they will hold the wheel axles. longer than the straws. Insert one into each straw.

094 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com

NEXT
ISSUE…

thMaactkocelhowaunargteers

5Secure the wheels
Using glue, attach each of the four skewer ends to the centre points of
each of your four bottle caps. If necessary, you can make small holes in the
caps’ centres to attach these securely.

6Prepare the engine
For this car, the power will come from your balloon. Place a straw inside

the balloon, and cut it so only a couple of centimetres stick out from the

opening. Tape the balloon tight around the straw so that air can’t escape

around the straw’s sides.

HAD A GO?
LET US KNOW!

If you’ve tried out any of our
experiments – or conducted
some of your own – then let
us know! Share your photos

or videos with us on
social media.

7Attach the balloon
Using tape, secure the balloon to the top of the car, with the straw facing
the back. Make sure you add tape to both the balloon and the straw to keep
the two from coming apart as the car moves.

SUMMARY 8Ready, steady, go!
Blow air through the straw and into the balloon. When your engine is as
As air in the inflated balloon is released, the potential energy stored full as you would like, stop blowing and quickly place your finger over the
inside is converted into kinetic energy, driving your car forward. This is hole at the end of the straw. Put the car on a flat surface, and when you’re
due to Newton’s third law of motion, which says that every action has an ready to launch, release your finger.
equal and opposite reaction. As you force air into the balloon, you create
a higher pressure inside it than outside. When released, this air rushes
out towards the area of lower pressure, exerting an equal force on the car.
The straw inside the balloon not only makes it easier to blow, but also
channels the released air in one direction. This controlled airflow causes
the car to travel in a straight line. A more inflated balloon will result in
more energy being released and a higher speed. Why not design multiple
cars with your friends and host a race to see who wins?

Disclaimer: Neither Future Publishing nor its employees can accept any liability for any adverse effects experienced during
the course of carrying out these projects or at any time after. Always take care when handling potentially hazardous
equipment or when working with electronics and follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

www.howitworksdaily.com How It Works 095

INBOX Get in touch WIN!

Speak your mind… If you have any questions or comments for us, send them to: FOURTEEN WOLVES
How It Works magazine @HowItWorksmag
The European Football Championship is [email protected] howitworksmag
usually held every four years
LETTER OF THE MONTH With evocative storytelling and
Football facts atmospherically beautiful illustrations,
Science of Fourteen Wolves introduces readers to
Q Hi HIW, sore heads
I have been watching the Euros recently. I think lots of one of the world’s most successful
people enjoy the simplicity of the sport, but has the conservation projects. This is the
game changed much since it was invented?
Rory O’Gorman incredible true story of how
reintroducing wolves into
Football was invented over 100 years ago, and Yellowstone Park saved its
the sport is constantly adapting its rules.
When the game began, rules were less official, crumbling ecosystem.
so they could vary based on location. Many
games allowed players to carry the ball in their Migraines are another common type of
hands, which goes against the fundamental
rules of today. It was also common for players headache that can be brought on by stress, as
to kick others during an attack on the goal.
well as bright light, lack of sleep and skipping
In 1863, the first official rules were made
and written down. During games at this time, Q Dear How It Works, meals. This type of headache can feel like an
there was no crossbar on goals – this meant
goals were accepted at any height. I have headaches a lot of the time, and I was intense throbbing pain, and is often caused by

A referee makes key decisions during the wondering what causes them. I know it can be a the brain’s overreaction to a sensory trigger.
game. This role didn’t exist when football was
invented, appearing in 1871, and their use of lack of sleep, or stress, but I was wondering what The increase in electrical activity in the brain
penalty cards was made part of the Football
Association’s official laws in 1992. the scientific explanation was. What does being actually affects how much blood flows to it,

stressed do to the brain to make it hurt, and what putting strain on nerves and creating pain.

© Getty is the pain? Cluster headaches are much rarer and

Nestor usually occur on one side of the head, around

the eye. These types of headaches can feel

Thank you for your question, Nestor. much more intense than the average headache

Headaches can be a horrible experience, and are caused by the blood vessels that carry

and have a variety of causes. Most of the blood to your brain widening.

time, what feels like pain in the brain isn’t While headaches are common and can occur

caused by the brain at all. There are many for so many reasons, from tiredness to

nerves in the muscles and blood vessels in sustaining a head injury, if you feel like you are

your head, neck and face that relay pain. having headaches regularly and are unsure of

Stress, enlarged blood vessels and muscle the cause, it’s always a good idea to go to the

tension can all be responsible for bringing doctor and get it checked out.

on these headaches. As these nerves start

to send signals to the brain, it can give the

sensation that the pain is occurring further

inside the head.

You’ve acknowledged stress as being a

primary cause of many headaches, which is

accurate. Stress is a prime cause of tension

headaches. This pain is a result of physical

stress, as muscles in your head or neck

tighten for significant periods. Other

times, stress causes your body’s ‘fight or

flight’ response to kick in. This releases

chemicals that alter the size of blood © Getty

vessels. When this occurs in your head, it is

felt as a headache. One of the main causes of headaches is stress

Weight limits for takeoff vary Luggage limits
based on a plane’s size

Q Hi HIW, can still be carried out properly. The pilot
Now that some flights are back up and running, I needs to know how heavy the aircraft is
was keen to book a holiday. I noticed the maximum and how this weight is balanced to manage
luggage weights, and I want to know how much plane orientation and navigation. Airlines
weight affects flight. If everyone went over the use average weights for people and limit
weight limit, what would happen to the plane? luggage to narrow the possible range of the
Peter Greenwood accumulative weight. Lighter planes are
able to accelerate quicker and perform
It might seem like a nuisance to have to steeper climbs. If everyone’s luggage was
weigh your suitcases and limit your holiday excessively over the limit, the plane might
packing, but it’s for a good reason. Strict not be able to take off at all, as it would be
control makes sure handling of the aircraft prevented from climbing higher!

© Getty

096 How It Works www.howitworksdaily.com

The lost walrus Future PLC Quay House, The Ambury, Bath, BA1 1UA

Q Hi HIW, © Getty Editorial
I don’t know where Wally the walrus is now, but I Editor Ben Biggs
found the news of his travels really interesting. Wally is believed to be a Senior Art Editor Duncan Crook
How did he travel so far away from his natural relatively young walrus Research Editor Baljeet Panesar
habitat, and do walruses do this often? Production Editor Nikole Robinson
Roshni S Les Sables-d’Olonne in western France. Staff Writer ³ƬȒɎɎ (ɖɎˡƺǼƳ
Scientists think Wally travelled on part of a Staff Writer Ailsa Harvey
Thanks for your question, Roshni. We have drifting iceberg. There have been three Editor-in-Chief JƺȅȅƏ nƏɮƺȇƳƺȸ
also been following news of Wally closely. other walrus sightings since 1999, but
Wally the walrus managed to travel over those are just ones that have been Contributors
1,850 miles away from the Arctic Circle, witnessed and recorded. In fact, there are Lauren Eyles, Andrew May, Andy Extance, Jo Elphick, Laura
and has since been sighted in Ireland, an estimated 20,000 walruses in the North Mears, Mike Jennings
Tenby in Wales, Cornwall in England and Atlantic. Walruses may be more inclined to
travel away from the arctic climate as Cover images
global warming alters their habitat. Getty; Toyota; Proteus

Animal individuals What’s happening on… Photography
Alamy, Getty Images, NASA, Science Photo Library,
Q Hi HIW, social media? Shutterstock, Wikimedia
Most people can recognise each other. I also think All copyrights and trademarks are recognised and respected
animals of the same species can distinguish between This month on social media, we
each other. Why can’t I easily recognise individuals of asked you: If you could add a new Advertising
another species, such as sparrows feeding in a group? Media packs are available on request
Stephen Conn sport to the Olympics and UK Commercial Director Clare Dove
Paralympics, what would it be?
As you have noticed, the brain is fine-tuned to ƬǼƏȸƺِƳȒɮƺ۬ǔɖɎɖȸƺȇƺɎِƬȒȅ
recognise differences between human features @definitely.notmax Senior Advertising Manager ȅƏȇƳƏ ɖȸȇɀ
almost instantly. This is because we are highly
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brain to decipher different features for us. so sporty! 0330 390 6036
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Amazing trivia to blow your mind

112,000 46 LITRES
MILES
YOU PRODUCE ENOUGH SALIVA IN A
MONTH TO FILL 23 POP BOTTLES

IN YOUR LIFETIME, YOU WALK
THE EQUIVALENT OF 4.5 TIMES

3 TRILLIONAROUND THE EQUATOR
THERE ARE MORE TREES ON EARTH

3,000 20%THANSTARSINOURGALAXY
MAMMOTHS
ROAMEDEARTH
WHENTHE
A SURPRISINGLY SMALL PYRAMIDS
WEREBUILT
QUEEN ELIZABETH I HAD A AMOUNT OF THE

HUGE SELECTION OF DRESSES SAHARA DESERT IS
COVERED IN SAND

MOZART, THE
COMPOSER,

2 MILLION YEARSKEPTADIARY

OF HIS FARTS THE SOIL IN YOUR GARDEN IS TRULY ANCIENT

1,131 440 HALF OF THE
ELEMENTS
THE US HAS TONNES
COLLECTED IN THE
MORE OLYMPIC CHINA MINES A PERIODIC
GOLD MEDALS HUGE AMOUNT OF TABLE CAN
THAN ANY GOLD EVERY YEAR BE FOUND IN
OTHER COUNTRY AN iPHONE

098 HowItWorks www.howitworksdaily.com