Landscape, embodiment and visual impairment: an
exploration of the limits of landscape knowledge
HANNAH MACPHERSON and CLAUDIO MINCA*
Newcastle University
UK
[email protected]
Paper Presented at the Forum UNESCO University and Heritage
10th International Seminar
“Cultural Landscapes in the 21st Century”
NewcastleuponTyne, 1116 April 2005
Revised: June 2006
* Departments of Architecture, Planning and Landscape and Geography, Politics and Sociology
(respectively)
Introduction
Landscape has a whole range of meanings and associations. For researchers the
uptake of these meanings can depend on disciplinary and professional affiliations as
well as on research goals. In this paper we question some of the ways in which
landscape has been thought about and conceptualized, with a focus on recent
theoretical developments in the social sciences. In particular we scrutinize ideas of
landscape as a territorial unit, a form of visualization and of interaction. We will then
proceed to show how a combination of landscape concepts has aided research with
visually impaired walkers in the Peak District and Lake District Landscapes of Britain,
enabling an exploration of the diverse processes through which the material landscape
is made relevant.
Landscape as a ‘territorial unit’
For some scholars landscape is to be conceived as an object, as ‘a material thing’. It is
something quantifiable and visible, unquestionably real since its existence does not
depend on the presence of an observer: it may then be a measurable territorial unit or
a particular ecological scale. The International Association of Landscape Ecologists
adopts this concept of landscape and on their website under the heading “What is
Landscape Ecology?” they explain: ‘Landscape ecology is the study of spatial variation
in landscapes at a variety of scales’. Some of the core themes of landscape ecology
are identified as: ‘the relationship between pattern and process in landscapes’ and ‘the
effect of scale and disturbance on the landscape’ (http://www.landscapeecology.org).
According to this explanation, the landscape is an area or a territorial ‘container’ within
which ecological patterns and processes might be identified.
The idea of landscape as a territorial unit can be traced to the term’s use in Germanic
languages and older forms of English (Mikesell 1968; Olwig 2002). Recently it has
represented a common starting point for a range of crossdisciplinary approaches to
landscape (Fry 2001; Scott 2002). Gary Fry, a key figure within landscape studies,
argues that there has been an ‘emergence of landscape as a level of organisation in
countryside management’ and goes on to suggest ‘landscape ecology in its broadest
sense would appear to be the most promising candidate for the development of
interdisciplinary theory applicable to multifunctional landscapes’ (Fry 2001, 160163,
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emphasis added). Such approaches to landscape tend to be informed by the idea that
‘landscape research is a science orientated toward the solution of problems related to
landscapes.’ (Tress and Tress 2001, 4). Landscapes are then conceptualised as the
arena or the scale at which problem solving takes place. However, as YiFu Tuan
pointed out over two decades ago, ‘Limited to the functional or utilitarian perspective,
the concept of “landscape” is redundant since the more precise terms of estate and
region already exist.’ (Tuan 1979, 9)
Although a common starting definition may be regarded as a useful strategy when
debating about landscape, the interpretation of landscapes as areas, territory or levels
of organization is highly problematic. In fact, this choice brings with it a clear risk of
reducing the possible meanings of landscape and of forgetting its fascinating history
and its functioning as a spatial metaphor. This limited and essentialised approach
tends to conflate landscapes with terms such as territory or region. Furthermore, other
ways of knowing landscape such as people’s qualitative and mobile perceptions may
become reduced to mappable units, as if everything could fit neatly within this particular
‘landscapeascontainer’ framework1 . In his appraisal of UNESCO’s cultural landscape
designations, Peter Fowler calls for more fluid conceptions of landscape, reminding us
that landscapes may travel with us in our imaginations and that, in a diasporic world,
cultural landscapes with fixed boundaries are unlikely to exist (Fowler 2002).
Researchers from a range of theoretical and disciplinary fields have developed
challenging conceptualizations of landscape which transcend the notion of a territorial
container, emphasizing the role of human agency in the understanding of landscapes
and the social systems that produce them. The collection of essays ‘The interpretation
of ordinary landscapes’ (Meinig 1979) with contributions from YiFu Tuan, J.B. Jackson
and David Lowenthal, is a prominent example of this concern. Inspired by work in
cultural studies and humanistic geography, Meinig states in the introduction,
‘Landscape is, first of all, the unity we see, the impressions of our senses rather than
the logic of the sciences’(1979, 3). This book develops a set of ideas about landscape
which interprets it as a cultural expression, able to travel in our imaginary, shape
material spaces and operate as a selective representation of the world. An idea of
landscape as a form of visualization was emerging.
Landscape as ‘a form of visualization’
The work of historical geographer David Lowenthal is considered to have been key in
preparing the way for approaches to landscape which begin to consider it as a form of
visualization and a way of structuring knowledge about space (Olwig 2003). Lowenthal,
initially in his work with Hugh Prince, analyzed the impact of class and national identity
on the creation of material landscapes (Lowenthal and Prince 1964). This work began
to show the socially constructed ways in which space is perceived and comprehended
as landscape. The idea that landscape is not a ‘thing’, quantifiable and real, but rather
a culturally mediated construction, has become popular across the social sciences and,
particularly, in human geography (where landscape made its first appearance as a
‘scientific’ concept in the mid Nineteenth century). The most prominent geographer to
adopt and develop this cultural perspective on landscape is geographer Denis
Cosgrove.
Denis Cosgrove’s ‘Way of seeing’ approach has had a major influence on Anglo
American Cultural Geographers throughout the eighties and nineties. Cosgrove
suggests that: ‘Landscape is not merely the world we see, it is a construction, a
composition of that world. Landscape is a way of seeing the world.’ (Cosgrove 1984,
13). He interprets landscape as a form of visual ideology, his analysis being inspired by
Western Marxist thought and earlier work on representation such as that of Raymond
Williams (1973). Cosgrove traces the development of the concept of landscape back to
2
the Italian renaissance and suggests that a particular landscaped ‘way of seeing’
emerged as a response to European capitalism of the 17t h Century, which had created
a demand for new techniques of spatial ordering and control over society and
environment (Cosgrove 1984). This work formed part of a wider concern with the
conditions of visualization and the material production of landscape, and his
perspective has become influential in the social sciences, particularly within cultural
geography (Barrel 1990; Barnes and Duncan 1992; Daniels 1993; Mitchell 1994;
Agnew 1998; Casey 2002).
Work on landscape as a form of visualization has begun to show the processes
through which landscape can operate as a cultural and political device. However, this
work has been criticized for placing too strong an emphasis on representation, at the
expense of considering our material interactions with the world (Rose 2002). Taken to
a postmodern extreme, such theorisations have, in some cases, led to completely
immaterial conceptualizations of landscape (cf. Clarke and Doel 1994). Cosgrove’s
‘way of seeing’ approach and the work it has inspired, is thought to deny the
‘connectivity’ of representations to the ‘world outside’ (Olwig 2003), downplaying the
importance of the relationships between the material world and its representations. It is
also considered to have privileged the sense of sight at the expense of other sensory
modalities and ways of experiencing landscape (Okely 2001). This is an argument to
which Cosgrove himself now subscribes (Cosgrove 2003).
Anthropologist Tim Ingold explicitly rejects Cosgrove’s representational or ‘way of
seeing’ approach to landscape. This forms part of Ingold’s challenge to conventional
accounts of landscape and environment. He suggests that the paradox at the heart of
western scientific thought is that it tends to rest on a separation of humanity from
nature: a position which may eventually undermine ecological and sustainability
concerns. Contesting an understanding of the world which divides it into subjects
(minds) and objects, he advocates ‘ an alternative mode of understanding based on the
premise of our engagement with the world, rather than our detachment from it’(Ingold
2000, 11). In short, Ingold suggests that landscape is a part of us; it is “felt”. For
example, in his discussion of the painting ‘The Harvesters’ he asks the reader to
imagine herself/himself as a physical participant in the scene: ‘Through the exercises of
descending and climbing, and their different muscular entailments, the contours of the
landscape are not so much measured as felt they are directly incorporated into our
bodily experience.’ (Ingold 1993, 166)
Ingold’s work provides a way of ‘rematerializing’ the conceptualisation of landscapes
and a route away from approaches merely concerned with the social and cultural
implications of landscape representation. His work has had a significant impact on
contemporary landscape studies in geography and many scholars have begun to link
his ideas of landscape with ideas about embodiment, experience and representation
(Cloke and Jones 2001; Rose 2002; Wylie 2002; Lorrimer and Lund 2003). For
example, Lorrimer and Lund (2003) echo Ingold’s perspective when they find in their
research on ‘Munrobagging’ in Scotland that an understanding of the body and
landscape is ‘felt through the physical terrain’. In a similar vein, geographer Mitch Rose
argues that ‘the engine for the landscape’s being is practice: everyday agents calling
the landscape into being as they make it relevant for their own lives, strategies and
projects.’ (Rose 2002, 457)
The Research
The content of the contemporary debates on the nature of landscape has inspired the
decision to research visually impaired walking groups as part of my PhD thesis. In this
research it seemed important to consider: the idea of landscape as something ‘felt’, the
social, cultural and political processes which structure the visualization of landscape
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and the connections between these two processes. I set out to ask: How does
landscape come about for visually impaired people?
The research has been carried out with two different organizations: the ‘Sheffield
Visually Impaired Walking Group’ and ‘Vitalise’ (previously named the Winged
Fellowship Trust) who run walking trips in the Lake District for people with visual
impairments. An indepth, ethnographic approach to the research was taken, utilising
one to one, tape recorded interviews and written field notes. What follows, is some
early findings and some questions which have begun arise from the research.
During the fieldwork, inspired by Ingold’s interpretation of landscape, I initially
considered how a sense of the areas designated as landscape such as the Lake
District and the Peak District were mediated through the material, physical dimensions
of the cane, the guide dog, the weather, the sighted guide’s body, the other senses and
any residual sight each person had. Through indepth interviews with walking group
participants I began to learn about the alternative points of view which could be
generated by the body, to ensure an immediate knowledge of the terrain. Adrian,
visually impaired all his life and now totally blind, explained how he got a sense of the
areas he passed through;
‘your body sort of takes on the role almost of an extra hand, you can feel through the
shoe, you are feeling the texture, instead of anticipating with the eyes and generating
images with the brain… you have to analyse the texture and feel with your body’
Was this explanation of how he gets a sense of the immediate area anything to do with
landscape? If we take Ingold’s explanation of landscape, as an engagement, as ‘felt’
the answer would probably be yes. The activity Adrian is talking about also occurred in
an area designated as landscape the Peak District. However if I asked any of the
interviewees directly about what constituted landscape I tended to get very different
answers;
I: Everyone thinks of landscape as something different and I was wondering when I say
landscape what do you think?
H:I would probably think of a painting first of all possibly by Constable something like
that, of the traditional English countryside, you know the trees possibly in the
foreground, a stream running by, a lot of green grass and rolling hills further into the
background and a blue sky with some white fluffy clouds.
I: and where do you remember those paintings from?
H: I don’t know, but that is possibly my perception, when you say landscape that is
what I conjure up, that image, that is my immediate perception of landscape and when
you said you were studying landscape at first, I thought well where do we fit into this
you know as blind people going out into the countryside, where do we come into that…
(laughs) that was my first thought.
It seems that neither a solely embodied approach, focusing on landscape as felt, nor a
solely representational approach, focusing on landscape as a form of visualization is
enough to grasp the workings of landscape in this research context. Ingolds arguments
and other phenomenologically inspired ‘embodied’ approaches may result in every
interaction with the land being considered as meaningful as landscape. Furthermore
such approaches tend to focus on the physical dimension of our embodied interactions
with landscape how bodies give us orientation, geometry, balance and scale
ignoring the more emotional qualities of embodied interactions. Perhaps most
4
importantly, the interviews carried out so far show that not all interactions with, and
knowledge generated of, the territory is classed as landscape by interviewees.
Landscape tends to be understood as something either for experts to talk about
archaeologists, botanists, geologists or something so visual as to be meaningless to
people with no sight. It seems Doreen Massey is correct when she points out that
"embodiedness… has to be on certain terms to result in meaningfulness" (Massey
2004, 8).
This observation raises a number of further questions about how landscape operates to
structure knowledge about space: how do the ‘felt’ dimensions of experiencing the
territory become translated into meaningful landscape experience by visually impaired
walkers? And what is the role of sighted guides and other interpretative materials in this
process? It seems that to be losing sight or to be without sight, yet living in a
predominantly sighted world which, in Britain, privileges particular cultures of landscape
appreciation, positions the visually impaired walker at a number of junctures. In
particular they are positioned between a collective visual cultures with particular
‘norms’ of landscape appreciation and their own personal embodied identities and
perceptions of areas such as the Peak District.
Contact author: Hannah Macpherson
1 See for example Alister Scott attempts to incorporate ‘public perception of landscape data’ into
a layer of GIS for the Countryside Council for Wales ‘LANDMAP’ programme Scott, A. (2002).
"Assessing public perception of landscape: The Landmap Experience." Landscape Research
27(3): 271290.
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