The Gist of NCERT - Geography

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Contents I

CONTENTS

1. INDIA - LOCATION ............................................................................................................ 1

Structure and Physiography......................................................................................................... 2
The Peninsular Block ................................................................................................................... 2
The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains ........................................................................... 2
Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain ..................................................................................................... 2
Physiography .............................................................................................................................. 3
North and North Eastern Himalaya: .............................................................................................. 3
The Himalayan Mountains ........................................................................................................... 3
Karewas ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Longitudinal division ................................................................................................................... 4
Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas ............................................................................................. 4
The Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalays ....................................................................................... 5
The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas ............................................................................................ 5
The Arunachal Himalayas ............................................................................................................ 6
The Eastern Hills and Mountains ................................................................................................. 6
The Northern Plains ..................................................................................................................... 6
The Peninsular Plateau ................................................................................................................. 7
The Deccan Plateau ..................................................................................................................... 8
The Central Highlands ................................................................................................................. 8
The Northeastern Plateau ............................................................................................................. 9
The Indian Desert ........................................................................................................................ 9
The Coastal Plains ....................................................................................................................... 9
The Islands ............................................................................................................................... 10

2. DDRAINAGE SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 11

Drainage systems of India .......................................................................................................... 12
Important Drainage Patterns ....................................................................................................... 12
The Himalayan Drainage ............................................................................................................ 12
Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage .......................................................................................... 12
The river Systems of the Himalayan Drainage ............................................................................. 13
The Indus system ...................................................................................................................... 13
The Ganga System ..................................................................................................................... 14
The Brahmaputra System ........................................................................................................... 15
The peninsular drainage system ................................................................................................. 16
The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System ............................................................................ 16
River systems of the peninsular drainage .................................................................................... 16
Smallar Rivers flowing towards the West .................................................................................... 17

3. CLIMATE ....................................................................................................................... 19

Factors determining the climate of India ...................................................................................... 19

II Contents

Mechanism of Weather in the Winter Season .............................................................................. 20
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) .................................................................................... 21
Mechanism of Weather in the Summer Season ............................................................................ 21
The Nature of Indian Monsoon .................................................................................................. 22
Onset of the Monsoon ............................................................................................................... 22
Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall Distribution ........................................................................... 23
EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon ............................................................................................... 23
Break in the Monsoon ................................................................................................................ 24
The Rhythm of Seasons ............................................................................................................. 24
Some Famous Local Storms of Hot Weather Season .................................................................... 24
The Cold Weather Season .......................................................................................................... 24
Role of Westerly Jet Stream ........................................................................................................ 25
The Hot Weather Season ........................................................................................................... 26
The Southwest Monsoon Season .............................................................................................. 27
Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea ........................................................................................... 27
Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal ........................................................................................ 28
Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall ........................................................................................ 28
Season of Retreating Monsoon .................................................................................................. 29
Distribution of Rainfall ............................................................................................................... 29
Types of Forests ........................................................................................................................ 31
Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests .......................................................................... 31

4. NATURAL VEGETATION .................................................................................................... 31

Tropical Deciduous Forests ....................................................................................................... 32
Tropical Thorn Forests .............................................................................................................. 32
Montane Forests ....................................................................................................................... 32
Littoral and Swamp Forests ........................................................................................................ 33
Forest cover in India .................................................................................................................. 34
Forest Conservation .................................................................................................................. 34
Social Forestry........................................................................................................................... 35
Farm Forestry ............................................................................................................................ 35
Wildlife ...................................................................................................................................... 35
Wildlife Conservation in India .................................................................................................... 36
Biosphere Reserves ................................................................................................................... 37
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve ........................................................................................................... 37
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve .................................................................................................. 37
Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve .................................................................................................. 38
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve ............................................................................................. 38

5. SOILS ............................................................................................................................ 39

Classification of Soils ................................................................................................................. 39
Alluvial Soils ............................................................................................................................. 40
Black Soil ................................................................................................................................... 40
Red and Yellow Soil ................................................................................................................... 40
Laterite Soil ............................................................................................................................... 41

Contents III

Arid Soils .................................................................................................................................. 41
Saline Soils ................................................................................................................................ 41
Peaty Soils ................................................................................................................................. 41
Forest Soils ............................................................................................................................... 42
Soil Degradation ........................................................................................................................ 42
Soil Erosion ............................................................................................................................... 42
Soil Conservation ...................................................................................................................... 43
Water Resources ....................................................................................................................... 43
Water Resources of India ........................................................................................................... 43
Surface Water Resources ........................................................................................................... 44
Groundwater Resources ............................................................................................................. 44
Demand of Water for Irrigation ................................................................................................... 45
Prevention of Water Pollution .................................................................................................... 46
Watershed Management ............................................................................................................ 46
Rainwater Harvesting ................................................................................................................. 47
Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002 ........................................................................ 47

6. LAND USE AND AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................... 49

Land-use Changes in India ......................................................................................................... 50
Agricultural Land Use in India .................................................................................................... 51
Primitive Subsistence Farming .................................................................................................... 52
Intensive Substance Farming ..................................................................................................... 52
Commercial Farming ................................................................................................................... 53
Types of Farming ....................................................................................................................... 53
Cropping Pattern ....................................................................................................................... 53
Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology .......................................................................... 59

7. MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES ................................................................................... 61

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals ................................................................................................ 61
Agencies Involved in the exploration of minerals ........................................................................ 62
Distribution of Minerals in India ................................................................................................. 62
Major Industries ........................................................................................................................ 67
The Iron and Steel Industry........................................................................................................ 67
Integrated Steel Plants ............................................................................................................... 68
Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL) .......................................................................... 68
Rourkela Steel Plant ................................................................................................................... 68
Bhilai Steel Plant ........................................................................................................................ 69
The Cotton Textile Industry........................................................................................................ 69

8. SUGAR INDUSTRY ............................................................................................................ 72

Location of the Sugar Industry................................................................................................... 72
Petrochemical Industries ............................................................................................................ 73
Knowledge based Industries ...................................................................................................... 74
Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG) and Industrial Development in India ................... 74
Industrial Region and Districts ................................................................................................... 75





















India - Location 9

Chotanagpur plateau. wood fossils park at Aakal and marine
deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer
The Northeastern Plateau (The approximate age of the wood fossils is
estimated to be 180 million years).
In fact it is an extension of the main
peninsular plateau, it is believed that due to Though the underlying rock structure
the force exerted by the northeastward of the desert is an extension of the peninsular
movement of the Indian plate at the time of plateau, yet, due to extreme arid conditions,
the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created its surface features have been carved by
between the Rajmahal hills and the physical weathering and wind actions. Some
Meghalaya plateau. Later, this depression got of the well pronounced desert land features
filled up by the deposition activity of the present here are mushroom rocks, shifting
numerous rivers. Today, the Meghalaya and dunes and oasis (mostly in its southern part).
Karbi Anglong plateau stand detached from On the basis of the orientation, the desert
the main peninsular Block. The meghalaya can be divided into two parts: the northern
plateau is further sub-divided into three: (i) part is sloping towards Sindh and the
The Garo Hills; (ii) The Khasi Hills; (ii) The southern towards the Rann of Kachchh. Most
Jaintia Hills, named after the tribal groups of the rivers in this region are ephemeral. The
inhabiting this region. An extension of this is Luni river flowing in the southern part of the
also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of Assam. desert is of some significance. Low
Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the precipitation and high evaporation makes it
Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral a water deficit region. There are some streams
resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, which disappear after flowing for some
limestone and uranium. This area receives distance and present a typical case of inland
maximum rainfall from the south west drainage by joining a lake or playa. The lakes
monsoon. As a result, the Meghalaya plateau and the playas have brackish water which is
has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapunji the main source of obtaining salt.
displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any
permanent vegetation cover. The Coastal Plains

The Indian Desert India has a long coastline. On the basis
of the location and active geomorphological
To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies processes, it can be divided into two: (i) the
the Great Indian desert. It is a land of western coastal plains; (ii) the eastern coastal
undulating topography dotted with plains.
longitudinal dunes and barchans. This region
receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; The western coastal plains are an
hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation example of submerged coastal plain. It is
cover. It is because of these characteristic believed that the city of Dwaraka which was
features that this is also known as Marusthali. once a part of the Indian mainland situated
It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, along the west coast is submerged under
this region was under the sea. This can be water. Because of this submergence it is a
corroborated by the evidence available at narrow belt and provides natural conditions
for the development of ports and harbours.

10 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, The Islands
Marmagao. Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some
of the important natural ports located along There are two major island groups in
the west coast. Extending from the Gujarat India- one in the Bay of Bengal and the other
coast in the north to the Kerala coast in the in the Arabian. The Bay of Bengal Island
south, the western coast may be divided into groups consist of about 572 islands/islets.
following divisions- the Kachchh and These are situated roughly between 6ºN –
Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast in 14ºN and 92ºE-94ºE. The two principal groups
Maharashtra. Goa coast and Malabar coast of islets include the Ritchie’s archipelago and
in Karnataka and Kerala respectively. The the Labrynth island. The entire group of
western coastal plains are narrow in the island is divided into two broad categories-
middle and get broader towards north and the Andaman in the north and the Nicobar
south. The rivers flowing through this coastal in the south. They are separated by a water
plain do not form any delta. The Malabar body which is called the Ten degree channel.
coast has got certain distinguishing features It s believed that these islands are an elevated
in the form of ‘Kayals’ (backwaters), which portion of submarine mountains. However,
are used for fishing, inland navigation and some smaller islands are volcanic in origin.
also due to its special attraction for tourists. Barren island, the only active volcano in India
Every year the famous Nehru Trophy is also situated in the Nicobar islands.
Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada
Kayal in Kerala. The coastal line has some coral deposits,
and beautiful beaches. These islands receive
Some important mountain peaks in conventional rainfall and have an equatorial
Andaman and Nicobar islands are Saddle type of vegetation.
peak (North Andaman- 738 m), Mount
Diavolo (Middle Andaman- 515 m), Mount The islands of the Arabian sea include
Koyob (South Andaman- 460 m) and Mount Lakshadweep and Minicoy. These are
Thuiller (Great Nicobar- 642 m). scattered between 8ºN and 71ºE- 74ºE
longitude. These islands are located at a
As compared to the western coastal distance of 280 km- 480 km off the Kerala
plain, the eastern coastal plain is broader and coast. The entire island group is built of coral
is an example of an emergent coast. There deposits. There are approximately 36 islands
are well developed deltas here, formed by of which 11 are inhabited. Minicoy is the
the rivers flowing eastward in to the Bay of largest island with an area of 453 sq. km. The
Bengal. These include the deltas of the entire group of islands is broadly divided by
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the the Eleventh degree channel, north of which
Kaveri. Because of its emergent nature, it has is the Amini Island and to the south of the
less number of ports and harbours. The Canannore Island. The islands of this
continental shelf extends up to 500 km into archipelago have storm beaches consisting of
the sea, which makes it difficult for the unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and
development of good ports and harbours. boulders on the eastern seaboard.
Name some ports on the eastern coast.

Geography 2
11

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

A river drains the water collected from the Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay
a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment of Bengal while 23 per cent comprising the
area’. Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and
the Periyar systems discharge their waters
The flow of water through well-defined in the Arabian Sea.
channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the
network of such channels is called a ‘drainage On the basis of the size of the
system’. The drainage pattern of an area is watershed, the drainage basins of India are
the outcome of the geological time period, grouped into three categories: (i) Major river
nature and structure of rocks, topography, basins with more than 20,000 sq. km. of
slope, amount of water flowing and the catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins
periodically of the flow. such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the
Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi,
An area drained by a river and its the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc. (ii)
tributaries is called a drainage basin. The Medium river basins with catchment area
boundary line separating one drainage basin between 2,000- 20,000 sq. km. incorporating
from the other is known as the watershed. 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the
The catchments of large rivers are called river Periyar, the Meghna, etc. (iii) Minor river
basins while those of small rivulets and rills basins with catchment area of less than 2,000
are often referred to as watersheds. There is sq. km. include fairly good number of rivers
however, a slight difference between a river flowing in the area of low rainfall.
basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small
in area while the basins cover larger areas. The Narmada and Tapi are two large
rivers which are exceptions. They along with
Indian drainage system may be divided many small rivers discharge their waters in
on various bases. On the basis of discharge the Arabian Sea.
of water (orientations to the sea), it may be
grouped into: (i) the Arabian Sea drainage; On the basis of the mode of origin,
and (ii) the Bay of Bengal drainage. They are nature and characteristics, the Indian
separated from each other through the Delhi drainage may also be classified into the
ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water Himalayan drainage and the peninsular
divide is shown by a line in Figure. Nearly drainage. Although it has the problem of
77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of including the Chambal, the Betwa, the Son,
the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, etc. which are much older in age and origin

12 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

than other rivers that have their origin in the Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form
Himalayas, it is the most accepted basis of V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in
classification. their mountainous course. While entering the
plains, they form depositional features like
Drainage systems of India flat valleys, ox-bow, lakes, flood plains,
braided channels, and deltas near the river
Indian drainage system consists of a mouth. In the Himalayan reaches, the course
large number of small and big rivers. It is of these rivers is highly tortuous, but over
the outcome of the evolutionary process of the plains they display a strong meandering
the three major physiographic units and the tendency and shift their courses frequently.
nature and characteristics of precipitation. River Kosi, also know as the ‘sorrow of
Bihar’, has been notorious for frequently
Important Drainage Patterns changing its course. The Kosi brings huge
quantity of sediments from its upper reaches
(i) The drainage pattern resembling the and deposits in the plains. The course gets
branches of a tree is known as blocked, and consequently the river changes
“dendritic” the examples of which its course.
are the rivers of northern plain.
Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage
(ii) When the rivers originate from a hill
and flow in all directions, the There are difference of opinion about
drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’. the evolution of the Himalayan rivers.
The rivers originating from the However, geologists believe that a mighty
Amarkantak range present a good river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma
example of it. traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the
Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards
(iii) When the primary tributaries of to Sind, and finally discharge into the Gulf
rivers flow parallel to each other and of Sind near lower Punjab during the
secondary tributaries join them at Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago.
right angles, the pattern is known The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik
as ‘trellis’. and its lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits
consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and
(iv) When the rivers discharge their conglomerates support this viewpoints.
waters from all directions in a lake
or depression, the pattern is know It is opined that in due course of time
as ‘centripetal’. Indo-Brahma river was dismembered into
three main drainage systems: (i) the Indus
The Himalayan Drainage and its five tributaries in the western part;
(ii) the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries
The Himalayan drainage system has in the central part: and (iii) the stretch of the
evolved through a long geological history. It Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan
mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and the tributaries in the eastern part. The
Brahmaputra rivers basins. Since these are fed dismemberment was probably due to the
both by melting of snow and precipitation,
rivers of this system are perennial. These riv-
ers pass through the giant gorges carved out
by the erosional activity carried on simulta-
neously with the uplift of the Himalayas.

Drainage System 13

Pleistocene upheaval in the western other important tributaries joining the right
Himalayan, including the uplift of the Potwar bank of the Indus are the Khurram, the Tochi,
Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the the Gomal. The Viboa and the Sangar. They
water divide between the Indus and Ganga all originate in the Sulaiman ranges. The river
drainage systems. Likewise, the down flows southward and receives Panjnad’ a little
thrusting of the Malda gap area between the above Mithankot. The Panjnad is the name
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the
during the mid-Pleistocene period, period, Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the
diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra Jhelum. It finally discharges into the Arabian
systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal. Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus flows in India
only through the Leh district in Jammu and
The river Kashmir.
Systems of the Himalayan Drainage
The Jhelum an important tributary of the
The Himalayan drainage consists of Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated
several river systems but the following are at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-
the major river systems: eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. It flows
through Srinagar and the Wular lake before
The Indus system entering Pakistan through a deep narrow
gorge. It joins the Chenab near Jhang in
It is one of the largest river basins of Pakistan. The Chenab is the largest tributary
the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. of the Indus. It is formed by two streams,
km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km and a total the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at
length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km). The Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.
Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India. The river flows for 1,180 km before entering
It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu into Pakistan.
(31º 15’ N latitude and 81º40’ E longitude) in
the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m The Ravi is another important tributary
in the Kailash Mountain range. In Tibet, it is of the Indus it rises west of the Rohtang pass
known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth. in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and
After flowing in the northwest direction flows through the Chamba valley of the state.
between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it Before entering Pakistan and joining the
passes through Ladakh and Baltistan. It cuts Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, it drains the area
across the ladakh range, forming a lying between the southeastern part of the
spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
Kashmir. It enters into Pakistan near Chillar
in the Dardistan region. The Beas is another important tributary
of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund
The Indus receives a number of near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000
Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the m above the mean sea level. The river flows
Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the through the Kullu valley and forms gorges
Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras. It finally at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. It
emerges out of the hills near Attock where it
receives the Kabul river on its right bank. The

14 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

enters the Punjab plains where it meets the river system is the largest in India having a
Satluj near Harike. number of perennial and non-perennial rivers
originating in the Himalayas in the north and
The Satluj originates in the Rakas lake the Peninsula in the south, respectively. The
near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Son is its major right bank tributary. The
Tibet where it is known as Langchen important left bank tributaries are the
Khambab. It flows almost parallel to the Indus Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the
for about 400 km before entering India, and Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda. The
comes out of a gorge at Rupar. It passes river finally discharges itself into the Bay of
through the Shipki La on the Himalayan Bengal near the Sagar Island.
ranges and enters the Punjab plains. It is an
antecedent river. It is a very important The Yamuna, the western most and the
tributary as it feeds the canal system of the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source
Bhakra Nangal project. in the Yamunotri glacier on the western
slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It
The Ganga System joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is
joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa
The Ganga is the most important river and the Ken on its right bank which originates
of India both from the point of view of its from the Peninsular plateau while the
basin and cultural significance. It rises in the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna,
Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in etc. join it on its left water feeds the western
the Uttarkashi district of Uttarankhand. Here, and eastern Yamuna and the Agra canals for
it is known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts through irrigation purposes.
the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in
narrow gorges. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi The Chambal rises near Mhow in the
meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh
as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source northwards through a gorge up wards of
in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar
Alaknanda consists of the Dhaul and the dam has been constructed. From Kota, it
Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur
Vishnu Prayag. The other tributaries of and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna.
Alaknanda such as the Pindar join it at Karna The Chambal is famous for its badland
Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets topography called the Chambal ravines.
it at Rudra Prayag. The Ganga enters the
plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows first The Gandak comprises two streams,
to the south, then to the south-east and east namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises
before splitting into two distributaries, in the Nepal Himalayas between the
namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli. The Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the
river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by central part of Nepal. It enters the Ganga
Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins
(1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.
(520 km). The Ganga basin covers about 8.6
lakh sq. km area in India alone. The Ganga The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers
of Mapchachungo. After collecting the waters

Drainage System 15

of its tributaries- Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes The Brahmaputra System
out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at
Shishapani. The river Sarda (Kali or Kali The Brahmaputra, one of the largest
Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally rivers of the world, has its origin in the
meets the Ganga at Chhapra. Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range
near the Mansarovar lake. From here, it
The Kosi is an antecedent river with its traverses eastward longitudinally for a
source to the north of Mount Everest in Ti- distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat
bet, where its main stream Arun rises. After region of southern Tibet, where it is known
crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it as the Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier’.
is joined by the Son Kosi from the West and The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank
the Tamur Kosi from the east. It forms Sapt tributary of this river in Tibet. It emerges as
Kosi after uniting with the river Arun. a turbulent and dynamic river after carving
out a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas
The Ramganga is comparatively a small near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m). The river
river rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain. emerges from the foothills under the name
It changes its course to the southwest of Siang or Dihang. It enters India west of
direction after crossing the Shiwalik and Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing
enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near southwest, it receives its main left bank
Najibabad. Finally, it joins the Ganga near tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit;
Kannauj. The Damodar occupies the eastern thereafter; it is known as the Brahmaputra.
margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where
it flows through a rift valley and finally joins The Brahmaputra receives numerous
the Hugli. The Barakar is its main tributary. tributaries in its 750 km long journey through
Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’, the the Assam valley. Its major left bank
Damodar has been now tamed by the tributaries are the Burhi Dihing, Dhansari
Damodar Valley corporation, multipurpose (South) and Kalang whereas the important
project. right bank tributaries are the Subansiri,
Kameng, Manas and sankosh. The Subansiri
The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the which has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent
Milan glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where river. The Brahmaputra enters into
it is known as the Goriganga. Along the Indo- Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows
Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, southward. In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it
where it joins the Ghaghara. on its right bank from where the river is
known as the Yamuna. It finally merges with
The Mahananda is another important the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of
tributary of the Ganga rising in the Bengal. The Brahmaputra is well-known for
Darjeeling hills. It joins the Ganga as its last floods, channel shifting and bank erosion.
left bank tributary in West Bengal. This is due to the fact that most of its
tributaries are large, and bring large quantity
The Son is a large south bank tributary of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its
of the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak catchment area.
plateau. After forming a series of waterfalls
at the edge of the plateau, it reaches Arrah,
west of Patna, to join the Ganga.

















24 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

because this current appears around showers which are a common
Christmas in December. December is a phenomena in Kerala and coastal
summer month in Peru (Southern areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are
Hemisphere). known as mango showers since they
help in the early ripening of
EI-Nino is used in India for forecasting mangoes.
long range monsoon rainfall. In 1990-91, there
was a wild EI-Nino even and the onset of (ii) Blossom Shower: With this shower,
southwest monsoon was delayed over most coffee flowers blossom in Kerala
parts of the country ranging from five to and nearby areas.
twelve days.
(iii) Nor Westers: These are dreaded
Break in the Monsoon evening thunderstorms in Bengal
and Assam. Their notorious nature
During the south-west, monsoon period can be understood from the local
after having rains for a few days, it rain fails nomenclature of ‘Kalbaisakhi’, a
to occur for one or more weeks, it is known calamity of the month of Baisakh.
as break in the monsoon. These dry spells These showers are useful for tea, Jute
are quite common during the rainy season. and rice cultivation. In Assam, these
These breaks in the different regions are due storms are known as “Bordoiseela”.
to different reasons:
(iv) Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds
(i) In northern India rains are likely to blowing in the Northern plains from
fail if the rain-bearing storms are not Punjab to Bihar with higher intensity
very frequent along the monsoon between Delhi and Patna.
trough or the ITCZ over this region.
The Cold Weather Season
(ii) Over the west coast the dry spells
are associated with days when Temperature: Usually, the cold weather
winds blow parallel to the coast. season sets in by mid-November in northern
India. December and January are the coldest
The Rhythm of Seasons months in the northern plain. The mean daily
temperature remains below 21ºC over most
The climatic conditions of India can best parts of northern India. The night
be described in terms of an annual cycle of temperature may be quite low, sometimes
seasons. The meteorologists recognize the going below freezing point in Punjab and
following four seasons: Rajasthan. There are three main reasons for
the excessive cold in north India during this
(i) The cold weather season season:

(ii) The hot weather season (i) States like Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan being far away from the
(iii) The southwest monsoon season moderating influenced of sea
experience continental climate.
(iv) The retreating monsoon season.
(ii) The snowfall in the nearby
Some Famous Local
Storms of Hot Weather Season

(i) Mango Shower: Towards the end
of summer. There are pre-monsoon

Climate 25

Himalayan ranges creates cold wave they are clearly northeasterly over the Bay
situation; and of Bengal.

(iii) Around February, the cold winds During the winters, the weather in India
coming from the Caspian Sea and is pleasant. The pleasant weather conditions,
Turkmenistan bring cold wave along however, at intervals, get disturbed by
with frost and fog over the shallow cyclonic depressions originating over
northwestern parts of India. the east Medirranean Sea and travelling
eastwards across West Asia, Iran,
The Peninsular region of India, Afghanistan and Pakistan before the reach
however, does not have any well-defined the northwestern parts of India. On their
cold weather season. There is hardly any way, the moisture content gets augmented
seasonal change in the distribution pattern from the Caspian Sea in the north and the
of the temperature in coastal areas because Persian Gulf in the south.
of moderating influence of the sea and the
proximity to equator. For example, the mean Role of Westerly Jet Stream
maximum temperature for January at
Thiruvanantapuram is as high as 31ºC, and Rainfall: Winter monsoons do not cause
for June, it is 29.5ºC. Temperatures at the hills rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It
of Western Ghats remain comparatively low. is because firstly, they have little humidity;
and secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation
Pressure and Winds: By the end of on land, the possibility of rainfall from them
December (22nd December), the sun shines reduces. So, most parts of India do not have
vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in the rainfall in the winter season. However, there
southern hemisphere. The weather in this are some exceptions to it:
season is characterized by feeble high
pressure conditions over the northern plain. (i) In northwestern India, some weak
In south India, the air pressure is slightly temperate cyclones from the
lower. The isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 mb Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in
pass through northwest India and far south, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western
respectively. Uttar Pradesh. Although the amount
is meager, it is highly beneficial for
As a result, winds start blowing from rabi crops. The precipitation is in the
northwestern high pressure zone to the low form of snowfall in the lower
air pressure zone over the Indian Ocean in Himalayas. It is this snow that
the south. sustains the flow of water in the
Himalayan Rivers during the
Due to low pressure gradient, the light summer months. The precipitation
winds with a low velocity of about 3-5 km goes on decreasing from west to east
per hour begin to blow outwards. By and in the plains and from north to south
large, the topography of the region influences in the mountains. The average
the wind direction. They are westerly or winter rainfall in Delhi is around 53
northwesterly down the Ganga Valley. They mm. In Punjab and Bihar, rainfall
become northerly in the Ganga-Brahamputra remains between 25 mm and 18 mm
delta. Free from the influence of topography,

26 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

respectively. to the coast confirms that temperature does
not decrease from north to south rather it
(ii) Central parts of India and northern increases from the coast to the interior. The
parts of southern Peninsula also get mean daily minimum temperature during the
winter rainfall occasionally. summer months also remains quite high and
rarely goes below 26ºC.
(iii) Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in the
northeastern parts of India also have Pressure and Winds: The summer
rains between 25 mm and 50 mm months are a period of excessive heat and
during these winter months. falling air pressure in the northern half of the
country. Because of the heating of the
(iv) During October and November, subcontinent, the ITCZ moves northwards
northeast monsoon while crossing occupying a position centred at 25ºN in July.
over the Bay of Bengal, pick up Roughly, this elongated low pressure
moisture and causes torrential monsoon trough extends over the Thar
rainfall over the Tamil Nadu coast, desert in the north-west to Patna and
southern Andhra Pradesh, southeast Chotanagpur plateau in the east-southeast.
Karnataka and southeast Kerala. The location of the ITCZ attracts a surface
circulation of the winds which are
The Hot Weather Season southwesterly on the west coast as well as
along the coast of West Bengal and
Temperature: With the apparent Bangladesh. They are easterly or
northward movement of the sun towards the southeasterly over north Bengal and Bihar.
Tropic of Cancer in March, temperatures start It has been discussed earlier that these
rising in north India. April, May and June currents of southwesterly monsoon are in
are the months of summer in north India. In reality ‘displaced’ equatorial westerlies. The
most parts of India, temperatures recorded influx of these winds by mid-June brings
are between 30º-32ºC. In March, the highest about a change in the weather towards the
day temperature of about 38ºC occurs in the rainy season.
Deccan Plateau while in April, temperature
ranging between 38ºC and 43ºC are found in In the heart of the ITCZ in the north-
Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. In May, the west, the dry and hot winds known as ‘Loo’,
heat belt moves further north, and in the blow in the afternoon, and very often, they
north-western part of India, temperatures continue to well into midnight. Dust storms
around 48ºC are not uncommon. in the evening are very common during May
in Punjab, Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and
The hot weather season in south India Uttar Pradesh. These temporary storms bring
is mild and not so intense as found in north a welcome respite from the oppressing heat
India. The Peninsular situation of south India since they bring with them light rains and a
with moderating effect of the oceans keeps pleasant cool breeze. Occasionally, The mois-
the temperatures lower than that prevailing ture-laden winds are attracted towards the
in north India. So, temperatures remain periphery of the trough. A sudden contact
between 26ºC and 32ºC. Due to altitude, the between dry and moist air masses gives rise
temperatures in the hills of Western Ghats
remain below 25ºC. In the coastal regions,
the north-south extent of isotherms parallel

Climate 27

to local storms of great intensity. These local (i) The Arabian Sea branch
storms are associated with violent winds,
torrential rains and even hailstorms. (ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.

The Southwest Monsoon Season Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea

As a result of rapid increase of The monsoon winds originating over
temperature in May over the northwestern the Arabian Sea further split into three
plains, the low pressure conditions over there branches:
get further intensified. By early June, they
are powerful enough to attract the trade (i) Its one branch is obstructed by the
winds of Southern Hemisphere coming from Western Ghats. These winds climb
the Indian Ocean. the slopes of the Western Ghats from
900-1200 m. Soon, they become cool,
These southeast trade winds cross the and as a result, the windward side
equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the of the Sahyadris and Western
Arabian Sea, only to be caught up in the air Coastal Plain receive very heavy
circulation over India. Passing over the rainfall ranging between 250 cm and
equatorial warm currents, they bring with 400 cm. After crossing the Western
them moisture in abundance. After crossing Ghats, these winds descend and get
the equator, they follow a southwesterly heated up. This reduces humidity in
direction. That is why they are known as the winds. As a result, these winds
southwest monsoons. cause little rainfall east of the
Western Ghats. This region of low
The rain in the southwest monsoon rainfall is known as the rain-shadow
season begins rather abruptly. One result of area.
the first rain is that it brings down the
temperature substantially. This sudden onset (ii) Another branch of the
of the moisture-laden winds associated with Arabian sea monsoon strikes the
violent thunder and lightening, is often coast north of Mumbai. Moving
termed as the “break” or “burst” of the along the Narmada and Tapi river
monsoons. valleys, these winds cause rainfall in
extensive areas of central India. The
The monsoon may burst in the first week Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm
of June in the coastal areas of Kerala, rainfall from this part of the branch.
Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra while in the Thereafter, they enter the Ganga
interior parts of the country; it may be plains and mingle with the Bay of
delayed to the first week of July. The day Bengal branch.
temperature registers a decline of 5ºC to 8ºC
between mid-June and mid-July. (iii) A third branch of this monsoon
wind strikes the Saurashtra
As these winds approach the land, their Peninsula and the Kachchh. It then
southwesterly direction is modified by the passes over west Rajasthan and
relief and thermal low pressure over the along the Aravallis, causing only a
northwest India. The monsoon approaches scanty rainfall. In Punjab and
the landmass in two branches: Haryana, it too jokns the Bay of

28 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Bengal branch. These two branches, governed by relief or topography.
reinforced by each other, cause rains For instance the windward side of
in the western Himalayas. the Western Ghats register a rainfall
of over 250 cm. Again, the heavy
Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal rainfall in the northeastern states can
be attributed to their hill ranges and
The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the the Eastern Himalayas.
coast of Myanmar and part of southeast
Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the (iii) The monsoon rainfall has a declining
coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this trend with increasing distance from
branch towards the Indian subcontinent. The the sea. Kolkata receives 119 cm
monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and during the southwest monsoon
Bangladesh from south and southeast instead period, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76
of from the south-westerly direction. From cm and Delhi 56 cm.
here, this branch splits into two under the
influence of the Himalayas and the thermal (iv) The monsoon rains occur in wet
low is northwest India. Its one branch moves spells of few days, duration at a time.
westward along the Ganga plains reaching The wet spells are interspersed with
as far as the Punjab plains. The other branch rainless interval known as ‘breaks’.
moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the north These breaks in rainfall are related
and the northeast, causing widespread rains. to the cyclonic depressions mainly
Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills formed at the head of the Bay of
of Meghalya. Mawsynram, located on the Bengal, and their crossing into the
crest of Khasi hills, receives the highest mainland. Besides the frequency and
average annual rainfall in the world. intensity of these depressions, the
passage followed by them
Here it is important to know why the determines the spatial distribution
Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this of rainfall.
season. There are two factors responsible for
it: (v) The summer rainfall comes in a
heavy downpour leading to
(i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated considerable run off and soil
parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch erosion.
of southwest monsoon.
(vi) Monsoons play a pivotal role in the
(ii) It lies in the rain shadow area of the agrarian economy of India because
Arabian Sea branch of the south- over three-fourths of the total rain
west monsoon. in the country is received during the
southwest monsoon season.
Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall
(vii) Its spatial distribution is also uneven
(i) Rainfall received from the southwest which ranges from 12 cm to more
monsoons is seasonal in character, than 250 cm.
which occurs between June and
September. (viii)The beginning of the rains

(ii) Monsoonal rainfall is largely

Climate 29

sometimes is considerably delayed depressions which originate over the
over the whole or a part of the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
country. eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. These
tropical cyclones are very destructive. The
(ix) The rains sometimes end thickly populated deltas of the Godavari,
considerably earlier than usual, Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred
causing great damage to standing targets. Every year cyclones bring disaster
crops and making the sowing of here. A few cyclonic storms also strike the
winter crops difficult. coast of West Bengal, Bangladesh and
Myanmar. A bulk of the rainfall of the
Season of Retreating Monsoon Coromondal coast is derived from these
depressions and cyclones. Such cyclonic
The months of October and November storms are less frequent in the Arabian Sea.
are known for retreating monsoons. By the
end of September, the southwest monsoon Distribution of Rainfall
becomes weak as the low pressure trough of
the Ganga plain starts moving southward in The average annual rainfall in India is
response to the southward march of the sun. about 125 cm, but it has great spatial varia-
The monsoon retreats from the western tions. Areas of High Rainfall: The highest
Rajasthan by the first week of September. It rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the
withdraws from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Western Ghats, as well as in the sub-
Ganga plain and the Central Highlands by Himalayan areas is the northeast and the hills
the end of the month. By the beginning of of Meghalaya. Here the rainfall exceeds 200
October, the low pressures covers northern cm. In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills,
parts of the Bay of Bengal and by early the rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm. In the
November, it moves over Karnataka and Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining hills.
Tamil Nadu. By the middle of December, the The rainfall is less then 200 cm. Areas of Me-
centre of low pressure is completely removed dium Rainfall: Rainfall between 100-200 cm
from the Peninsula. is received in the southern parts of Gujarat,
east Tamil Nadu, northeastern Peninsula cov-
The retreating southwest monsoon ering Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern
season is marked by clear skies and rise in Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga plain along
temperature. The land is still moist. Owing the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley and
to the conditions of high temperature and Manipur.
humidity, the weather becomes rather
oppressive. This is commonly known as the Seasons Months Months
‘October heat’. In the second half of October,
the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly (According to the (According to the
in northern India. The weather in the India Calendar) Indian Calendar)
retreating monsoon is dry in north India but
it is associated with rain in the eastern part Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April
of the Peninsula. Here, October and Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June
November are the rainiest months of the Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August
year. The widespread rain in this season is Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
associated with the passage of cyclonic Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-
December
Shishira Magha-Phalguna
January-February

30 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Areas of Low Rainfall: Western Uttar Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of

Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana. Punjab, Jammu and the Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh,
Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and

Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall
50-100 cm. below 50 cm. Snowfall is restricted to the

Himalayan region.

Gist of NCERT

Indian History

ISBN: 9789382732785
Book Code: F16

Geography 4
31

NATURAL VEGETATION

Natural vegetation refers to a plant These forests are found in the western
community that has been left undisturbed slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the
over a long time. So as to allow its individual northeastern region and the Andaman and
species to adjust themselves to climate and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and
soil conditions as fully as possible. humid areas with an annual precipitation of
over 200 cm and mean annual temperature
India is a land of great variety of natural above 220C. Tropical evergreen forests are
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked well stratified, with layers closer to the
with temperate vegetation; the Western ground and are covered with shrubs and
Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands creepers, with short structured trees
have tropical rain forests, the deltaic regions followed by tall variety of trees. In these
have tropical forests and mangroves; the forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m
desert and semi desert areas of Rajasthan are or above. There is no definite time for trees
known for cacti, a wide variety of bushes and to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition.
thorny vegetation. Depending upon the As such these forests appear green all the year
variations in the climate and the soil, the round. Species found in these forests include
vegetation of India changes from one region rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.
to another.
The semi evergreen forests are found
On the basis of certain common features in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such
such as predominant vegetation type and forests have a mixture of evergreen and
climatic regions, Indian forests can be moist deciduous trees. The under growing
divided into the following groups: climbers provide an evergreen character to
these forests. Main species are white cedar,
Types of Forests hillock and kail.

(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi The British were aware of the economic
Evergreen forests value of the forests in India, hence, large scale
exploitation of these forests was started. The
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests structure of forests was also changed. The
oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests replaced by pine (chirs) which was needed
to lay railway lines. Forests were also cleared
(iv) Montane forests for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and

(v) Littoral and Swamp forests.

Tropical
Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests

32 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

coffee. The British also used timber of Rajasthan, vegetation cover is very scanty
construction activities as it acts as an insulator due to low rainfall and overgrazing.
of heat. The protectional use of forests was,
thus, replaced by commercial use. Tropical Thorn Forests

Tropical Deciduous Forests Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas
which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These
These are the most widespread forests consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It
in India. They are also called the monsoon includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
forests. They spread over regions which Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants
basis of the availability of water, these forests remain leafless for most part of the year and
are further divided into moist and dry give an expression of scrub vegetation.
deciduous. Important species found are babool, ber, and
wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas,
The Moist deciduous forests are more etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2
pronounced in the regions which record m as the under growth.
rainfall between 100-200 cm. These forests are
found in the northeastern states along the Montane Forests
foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats and Odissa. Teak, sal, In mountainous areas, the decrease in
shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum temperature with increasing altitude leads to
and sandalwood etc. are the main species of a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
these forests. Mountain forests can be classified into two
types, the northern mountain forests and the
Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas southern mountain forests.
of the country, where rainfall ranges between
70-100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a The Himalayan ranges show a
transition to the moist deciduous, while on succession of vegetation from the tropical to
the drier margins to thorn forests. These the tundra, which change in with the altitude.
forests are found in rainier areas of the Deciduous forests are found in the foothills
Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and of the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet
Bihar. In the higher rainfall regions of the temperate type of forests between an
Peninsular plateau and the northern Indian altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m.
plain, these forests have a parkland landscape
with open stretches in which teak and other In the higher hill ranges of northeastern
trees interspersed with patches of grass are India, hilly areas of West Bengal and
common. Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees such
as oak and chestnut are predominant.
As the dry season begins, the trees shed Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also
their leaves completely and the forest appears well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine
like a vast grassland with naked trees all as a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a
around Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, highly valued endemic species grows mainly
axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these in the western part of the Himalayan range.
forests. In the western and southern part of Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in
construction activity. Similarly, the chinar













Geography 5

39

SOILS

Soil is the most important layer of the horizons is the rock which is also known as
earth’s crust. It is a valuable resource. the parent rock or the bedrock. Soil, which is
a complex and varied entity, has always
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and drawn the attention of the scientists.
organic materials which develop on the
earth’s surface. The major factors affecting Classification of Soils
the formation of soil are relief, parent mate-
rial, climate, vegetation and other life-forms India has varied relief features,
and time. Besides these, human activities also landforms, climatic realms and vegetation
influence it to a large extent. Components of types. These have contributed in the
the soil are mineral particles, humus, water development of various types of soils in
and air. The actual amount of each of these India.
depend upon the type of soil. Some soils are
deficient in one or more of these, while there On the basis of genesis, colour,
are some others that have varied combina- composition and location, the soils of India
tions. have been classified into: (i) Alluvial soils,
(ii) Black soils, (iii) Red and Yellow soils, (iv)
If we dig a pit on land and look at the Laterite soils, (v) arid soils, (vi) Saline soils,
soil, we find that it consists of three layers (vii) Peaty soils, (viii) Forest soils.
which are called horizons. ‘Horizon A’ is the
topmost zone, where organic materials have ICAR has classified the soils of India into
got incorporated with the mineral matter, the following order as per the USDA soil
nutrients and water, which are necessary for taxonomy
the growth of plants. ‘Horizon B’ is a
transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and Sl.No. Order Area Percentage
‘horizon C’, and contains matter derived (In Thousand
from below as well as from above. It has some (i)
organic matter in it, although the mineral (ii) Hectares)
matter is noticeably weathered. ‘Horizon C’ (iii)
is composed of the loose parent material. This (iv) Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74
layer is the first stage in the soil formation (v) Entisols 92131.71 28.08
process and eventually forms the above two (vi) Alfisols 44448.68 13.55
layers. This arrangement of layers is known (vii) Vertisols 27960.00 8.52
as the soil profile. Underneath these three (viii) Aridisols 14069.00 4.28
Ultisols 8250.00 2.51
Mollisols 1320.00 0.40
Others 9503.10 2.92

Total 100

40 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Source: Soils of India. National Bureau Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning. and some parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper
Publication Number 94 reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and
the north western part of the Deccan Plateau,
Alluvial Soils the black soil is very deep. These soils are
also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black
Alluvial soils are widespread in the Cotton Soil’. The black soils are generally
northern plains and the river valleys. These clayey, deep and impermeable. They swell
soils cover about 40 per cent of the total area and become sticky when wet and shrink
of the country. They are depositional soils, when dried. So, during the dry season, these
transported and deposited by rivers and soils develop wide cracks. Thus, there occurs
streams. Through a narrow corridor in a kind of ‘self ploughing’. Because of this
Rajasthan, They extend into the plains of character of slow absorption and loss of
Gujarat. In the Peninsular region, they are moisture, the black soil retains the moisture
found in deltas of the east coast and in the for a very long time, which helps the crops,
river valleys. especially; the rain fed ones, to sustain even
during the dry season.
The alluvial soils vary in nature from
sandy loam to clay. They are generally rich Chemically, the black soils are rich in
in potash but poor in phosphorous. In the lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also
Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous,
types of alluvial soils have developed, viz. nitrogen and organic matter. The colour of
Khadar and Bhangar. Khadar is the new the soil ranges from deep black to grey.
alluvium and is deposited by floods annually,
which enriches the soil by depositing fine Red and Yellow Soil
silts. Bhangar represents a system of older
alluvium, deposited away from the flood Red Soil develops on crystalline igneous
plains. Both the Khadar and Bhangar soils rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern
contain calcareous concretions (Kankars). and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.
These soils are more loamy and clayey in the Along the piedmont zone of the Western
lower and middle Ganga plain and the Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red
Brahamputra valley. The sand content loamy soil. Yellow and red soils are also
decreases from the west to east. found in parts of Odissa and Chattisgarh and
in the southern parts of the middle Ganga
The colour of the alluvial soils varies plain. The soil develops a reddish colour due
from the light grey to ash grey. Its shades to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and
depend on the depth of the deposition, the metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it
texture of the materials, and the time taken occurs in a hydrated form. The fine-grained
for attaining maturity. Alluvial soils are red and yellow soils are normally fertile,
intensively cultivated. whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry
upland areas are poor in fertility. They are
Black Soil generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and
humus.
Black soil covers most of the Deccan
Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra,

Soils 41

Laterite Soil the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration
of water, and as such when irrigation is made
Laterite has been derived from the Latin available, the soil moisture is readily available
word ‘Later’ which means brick. The laterite for a sustainable plant growth. Arid soils are
soils develop in areas with high temperature characteristically developed in western
and high rainfall. These are the result of Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic and
intense leaching due to tropical rains. With topography. These soils are poor and contain
rain, lime and silica are leached away, and little humus and organic matter.
soils rich in iron oxide and aluminum
compound are left behind. Humus content Saline Soils
of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that
thrives well in high temperature. These soils They are also known as Usara soils.
are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, Saline soils contain a larger proportion of
phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and sodium, potassium and magnesium, and
potash are in excess. Hence, laterites are not thus, they are infertile, and do not support
suitable for cultivation; however, application any vegetative growth. They have more
of manures and fertilizers are required for salts, largely because of dry climate and poor
making the soils fertile for cultivation. drainage. They occur in arid and semi arid
regions, and in waterlogged and swampy
Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra areas. Their structure ranges from sandy to
Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree loamy. They lack in nitrogen and calcium.
crops like cashew nut. Saline soils are more widespread in western
Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in
Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks Sunderban areas of West Bengal. In the Rann
for use in house construction. These soils of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings
have mainly developed in the higher areas salt particles and deposits there as a crust.
of the Peninsular plateau. The laterite soils Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the
are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, occurrence of saline soils. In the areas of
Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly intensive cultivation with excessive use of
areas of Odissa and Assam. irrigation, especially in areas of green
revolution, the fertile alluvial soils are
Arid Soils becoming saline. Excessive irrigation with
dry climatic conditions promotes capillary
Arid soils range from red to brown in action, which results in the deposition of salt
colour. They are generally sandy in structure on the top layer of the soil. In such areas,
and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are
content is so high that common salt is obtained advised to add gypsum to solve the problem
by evaporating the saline water. Due to the of salinity in the soil.
dry climate, high temperature and
accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture Peaty Soils
and humus. Nitrogen is insufficient and the
phosphate content is normal. Lower horizons They are found in the areas of heavy
of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers rainfall and high humidity, where there is a
because of the increasing calcium content good growth of vegetation. Thus, large
downwards. The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in

42 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

quantity of dead organic matter accumulates rate of removal of fine particles from the
in these areas, and this gives a rich humus surface is the same as the rate of addition of
and organic content to the soil. Organic particles to the soil layer. Sometimes, such a
matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 balance is disturbed by natural or human
per cent. These soils are normally heavy and factors, leading to a greater rate of removal
black in colour. At many places, they are of soil. Human activities too are responsible
alkaline also. It occurs widely in the northern for soil erosion to a great extent. As the
part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal human population increases, the demand on
and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa the land also increases. Forest and other
and Tamil Nadu. natural vegetation is removed for human
settlement, for cultivation, for grazing animal
Forest Soils and for various other needs.

As the name suggests, forest soils are Wind and water are powerful agents of
formed in the forest areas where sufficient soil erosion because of their ability to remove
rainfall is available. The soils vary in structure soil and transport it. Wind erosion is
and texture depending on the mountain significant in arid and semi-arid regions. In
environment where they are formed. They regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes,
are loamy and silty on valley sides and erosion by running water is more significant.
coarse-grained in the upper slopes. In the Water erosion which is more serious and
snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they occurs extensively in different parts of India,
experience denudation, and are acidic with takes place mainly in the form of sheet and
low humus content. The soils found in the gully erosion. Sheet erosion takes place on
lower valleys are fertile. level lands after a heavy shower and the soil
removal is not easily noticeable. But it is
Soil Degradation harmful since it removes the finer and more
fertile top soil. Gully erosion is common steep
In a broad sense, soil degradation can slopes. Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the
be defined as the decline in soil fertility, when agricultural lands into small fragments and
the nutritional status declines and depth of make from them unfit for cultivation. A
the soil goes down the erosion and misuse. region with a large number of deep gullies
Soil degradation is the main factor leading or ravines is called a badland topography.
to the depleting soil resource base in India. Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal
The degree of soil degradation varies from basin. Besides this, they are also found in
place to place according to the topography, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The country
wind velocity and amount of the rainfall. is losing about 8,000 hectare of land to
ravines every year.
Soil Erosion
Deforestation is one of the major causes
The destruction of the soil cover is of soil erosion. Plants keep soils bound in
described as soil erosion. The soil forming locks of roots, and thus, prevent erosion.
processes and the erosional processes of They also add humus to the soil by shedding
running water and wind go on
simultaneously. But generally, there is a
balance between these two processes. The

Soils 43

leaves and twigs. Forests have been denuded should be made to protect cultivable lands
practically in most parts of India but their from encroachment by sand dunes through
effect on soil erosion are more in hilly parts developing shelter belts of trees and agro-
of the country. forestry. Lands not suitable for cultivation
should be converted into pastures for
A fairly large area of arable land in the grazing. Experiments have been made to
irrigated zones of India is becoming saline stabilize sand dunes in western Rajasthan by
because of over irrigation. The salt lodged the Central Arid Zone Research Institute
in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to (CAZRI). The Central Soil Conservation
the surface and destroys its fertility. Chemical Board, set up by the Government of India,
fertilizers in the absence of organic manures has prepared a number of plans for soil
are also harmful to the soil. Unless the soil conservation in different parts of the country.
gets enough humus, chemicals harden it and These plans are based on the climatic
reduce its fertility in the long run. This conditions, configuration of land and the
problem is common in all the command areas social behavior of people. Even these plans
of the river valley projects, which were the are fragmental in nature. Integrated land use
first beneficiaries of the Green Revolution. planning, therefore, seems to be the best
According to estimates, about half of the total technique for proper soil conservation.
land of India is under some degree of
degradation. Every year, India loses millions Water Resources
of tones of soil and its nutrients to the agents
of its degradation, which adversely affects Water is a cyclic resource with abundant
our national productivity. So, it is imperative supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per
to initiate immediate steps to reclaim and cent of the earth’s surface is covered with it
conserve soils. but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per
cent of the total water. In fact, a very small
Soil Conservation proportion of fresh water is effectively
available for human use. The availability of
Contour bunding, Contour terracing, fresh water varies over space and time.
regulated forestry, controlled grazing, cover
cropping, mixed farming and crop rotation Water Resources of India
are some of the remedial measures which are
often adopted to reduce soil erosion. India accounts for about 2.45 per cent
of world’s surface areas, 4 per cent of the
Efforts should be made to prevent gully world’s water resources and about 16 per cent
erosion and control their formation. Finger of world’s population. The total water
gullies can be eliminated by terracing. In available from precipitation in the country in
bigger gullies, the erosive velocity of water a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability
may be reduced by constructing a series of from surface water and replenishable
check dams. Specially attention should be groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this
made to control headward extension of only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses.
gullies. This can be done by gully plugging, Thus, the total utilizable water resource in
terracing or by planting cover vegetation. the country is only 1,122 cubic km.

In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts