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Hypoparathyroidism:
Primary hypoparathyroidism
↓ PTH secre on
E.g. Secondary to thyroid surgery
↓ calcium, ↑ phosphate
Treat with alfacalcidol
Pseudohypoparathyroidism
Target cells being insensitive to PTH
In type I pseudohypoparathyroidism there is a complete receptor defect
whereas in type II the cell receptor is intact.
Due to abnormality in a G protein
Autosomal dominant fashion*
Associated with low IQ, short stature, short 4th and 5th metacarpals.
↓ calcium, ↑ phosphate, ↑ PTH
Diagnosis is made by measuring urinary cAMPand phosphate levels
following an infusion of PTH. In hypoparathyroidism this will cause ↑ in
both cAMPand phosphate levels. In pseudohypoparathyroidism type I
neither cAMPnor phosphate levels are ↑ whilst in
pseudohypoparathyroidism type II only cAMPrises.
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DIABETES & PANCREAS
Diabetes Mellitus: is a heterogeneous collection of disorders unified by a
state of diminished insulin action which may result from:
decreased insulin secretion
reduction in the effectiveness of secreted insulin
combination of the above
Diagnosis: on the basis of history (i.e Situations where HbA1c is not
polyuria, polydipsia and unexplained appropriate for diagnosis of diabetes:
weight loss) PLUS ALL children and young people
Random Glucose ≥11.1 Patients of any age suspected of
mmol/l having Type 1 diabetes
OR fasting Glucose ≥7.0 Symptoms of DM < 2 months
mmol/l Acutely ill patients.
OR 2 hour plasma Glucose Patients on medication that may
≥11.1 mmol/l 2 hours after cause rapid glucose rise e.g.
75g anhydrous glucose in an steroids, antipsychotics
oral glucose tolerance test Acute pancreatic damage,
(OGTT) including pancreatic surgery
HbA1c ≥ 48 mmol/mol (6.5%) Pregnancy
Presence of genetic, haematologic
and illness‐related factors that
influence HbA1c and its
measurement
With no symptoms diagnosis should not be based on a single glucose
determination but requires confirmation. At least one additional glucose test
result on another day with a value in the diabetic range is essential, either
fasting, from a random sample or from OGTT. If the fasting or random values
are not diagnostic, OGTT should be used.
Impaired fasting glucose (IFG): fasting glucose 6.1 ‐ 7.0 mmol/l implies
impaired fasting glucose
Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT): fasting plasma glucose < 7.0 and OGTT 2‐
hour 7.8 ‐ 11.1
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Management of Type II DM (NICE 2019):
Confirm diagnosis and refer to GP nurse for baseline assessments for
diabetes ‐ feet, urine, BMI; refer for retinal screening and diabetes
education e.g. Diabetes Education and Self‐Management for Ongoing
and Newly Diagnosed (DESMOND) or equivalent.
Agree an individualised HbA1c target with each patient, taking into
account factors such as the person's daily activities, aspirations,
likelihood of complications, comorbidities, occupation and history of
hypoglycaemia
Metformin (standard release) is generally the first line. Consider
modified release if
Consider a sulphonylurea (or occasionally insulin) as first line if
phenotype is unusual for type 2 diabetic, like thin type 2 diabetic ‐ this
may represent a patient presenting with latent autoimmune diabetes of
adulthood (LADA)
Do not routinely offer self‐monitoring of glucose levels for adults with
type 2 diabetes unless:
o On insulin
o Evidence of hypoglycaemic (↓BM) episodes.
o On oral medication that may increase their risk of hypoglycaemia
while driving or operating machinery.
o Pregnant or planning to become pregnant.
Glycaemic control target:
T2DM managed either by lifestyle, diet and/or single drug not associated
with hypoglycaemia, aim for an HbA1c 48 mmol/mol (6.5%)
On a drug associated with hypoglycaemia, aim for an HbA1c
53mmol/mol (7.0%).
If HbA1c levels are not adequately controlled by a single drug and rise to
58 mmol/mol (7.5%) or higher:
o Reinforce advice about diet, lifestyle and adherence to drug
treatment and
o Aim for an HbA1c 53mmol/mol (7.0%) and
o Intensify drug treatment
Consider relaxing the target HbA1c level on a case‐by‐case basis, with
particular consideration for people who are older or frail, for adults with
type 2 diabetes:
o Who are unlikely to achieve longer‐term risk‐reduction benefits,
e.g. terminal cancer
o If tight control poses a high risk of the consequences of
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DERMATOLOGY
Skin conditions are the most
common reason for patients to
present in primary care. Around
one in four patients visit their
GP with skin problems each
year. Many skin conditions are
long term, with significant
morbidity and requiring high
levels of self‐care. Skin cancer
incidence and dermatology
referrals are rising with high
demands on secondary care
services and increasingly long
delays for dermatology
specialist review.
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DISEASES‐RELATED SKIN CONDITIONS
Skin disorders associated with malignancy:
Associated malignancies
Skin disorder
Acanthosis nigricans Gastric cancer
Acquired ichthyosis Lymphoma
Erythroderma Lymphoma
Acquired hypertrichosis Gastrointestinal and lung cancer
lanuginosa
Erythema gyratum repens Lung cancer
Dermatomyositis Bronchial and breast cancer
Migratory Pancreatic cancer
thrombophlebitis
Necrolytic migratory Glucagonoma
erythema
Pyoderma gangrenosum Myeloproliferative disorders
Sweet’s syndrome Haematological Ca e.g. Myelodysplasia –
tender, purple plaques
Tylosis Oesophageal cancer
Skin disorders associated with TB:
Lupus vulgaris (accounts for
50% of cases): the most
common form of cutaneous
TB seen in the Indian
subcontinent. It generally
occurs on the face and is
common around the nose
and mouth. The initial lesion
is an erythematous flat
plaque which gradually
becomes elevated and may Lupus vulgaris
credit: Mohammad2018 ‐ Wikimedia
ulcerate later.
Erythema nodosum
Scarring alopecia
Scrofuloderma: breakdown of skin overlying a tuberculous focus
Verrucosa cutis
Gumma
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Extensive disease
Oral flucloxacillin
Oral erythromycin if penicillin allergic
Erythema ab igne: is a skin
disorder caused by over exposure to
infrared radiation. Characteristic
features include erythematous patches
with hyperpigmentation and
telangiectasia. A typical history would
be an elderly women who always sits
next to a heating source or open fire
(ovens or heaters) or uses warm bags
for aches like the picture here, surgical
scar could be related to pain or
credit: James Heilman ‐ Wikimedia
adhesions causing pain.
If the cause is not treated then patients may go on to develop squamous cell
skin cancer
Actinic keratoses: or solar keratoses (AK) is a common premalignant skin
lesion that develops as a consequence of chronic sun exposure.
credit: James Heilman ‐ Wikimedia
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PSYCHIATRY
Mental disorders are often
diagnosed in accordance with
clinical concepts listed in
diagnostic manuals such as the
International Classification of
Diseases (ICD), edited and used
by the World Health Organization
(WHO) and the widely used
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders (DSM),
published by the American
Psychiatric Association (APA).
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Schizophrenia: Schneider’s first rank symptoms may be divided into
auditory hallucinations, thought disorders, passivity phenomena and delusional
perceptions:
Auditory hallucinations Thought disorder
Two or more voices discussing Occasionally referred to as
the patient in the third person thought alienation
Thought echo Thought insertion
Voices commenting on the Thought withdrawal
patient’s behaviour Thought broadcasting
Passivity phenomena Delusional perceptions
Bodily sensations being 2 stage process: where first a
controlled by external normal object is perceived then
influence secondly there is a sudden
Actions/impulses/feelings – intense delusional insight into
experiences which are imposed the objects meaning for the
on the individual or influenced patient e.g. ‘the traffic light is
by others green therefore I am the king’.
Other features Factors associated with poor
prognosis
Impaired insight Strong family history
Incongruity/blunting of affect Gradual onset
(inappropriate emotion for Low IQ
circumstances) Premorbid history of social
↓ speech withdrawal
Neologisms: made‐up words Lack of obvious precipitant
Catatonia
Negative symptoms: Concrete thinking (literal thinking)
When a patient cannot use
incongruity/blunting of affect, abstraction to understand the
meaning of a sentence. It is more
anhedonia (inability to derive common in schizophrenia. Literal
thinking is of course a feature of
pleasure), alogia (poverty of autism.
speech), avolition (poor
motivation)
Risk of developing schizophrenia
Monozygotic twin has schizophrenia = 50%
Parent has schizophrenia = 10‐15%
Sibling has schizophrenia = 10%
No relatives with schizophrenia = 1%
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Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are used less commonly now for
depression due to their side‐effects and toxicity in overdose. They are however
used widely in the treatment of neuropathic pain, where smaller doses are
typically required.
Common side‐effects:
Drowsiness Constipation Blurred vision
Dry mouth Urinary retention
Choice of tricyclic
Low‐dose amitriptyline is commonly used in the management of
neuropathic pain and the prophylaxis of headache (both tension and
migraine)
Lofepramine has a lower incidence of toxicity in overdose
Amitriptyline and dosulepin (dothiepin) and considered the most
dangerous in overdose
More sedative Less sedative
Amitriptyline Imipramine
Clomipramine Lofepramine
Dosulepin Nortriptyline
Trazodone
Serotonin Syndrome: is a potentially life‐threatening adverse reaction
that may occur following therapeutic drug use, inadvertent interactions
between drugs, overdose of particular drugs, or the recreational use of certain
drugs. Serotonin syndrome is not an idiosyncratic drug reaction; it is a
predictable consequence of excess serotonergic activity at CNS and peripheral
serotonin receptors. For this reason, some experts strongly prefer the terms
serotonin toxicity or serotonin toxidrome because it is a form of poisoning. It
may also be called serotonin sickness, serotonin storm, serotonin poisoning,
hyperserotonaemia, or serotonergic syndrome.
Drugs that ↑ serotonin Management
Features
Agitation SSRI Remove the causative
(e.g. factor
Hyperthermia MAOI
Tachycardia Moclobemide) Supportive measures
Serotonin antagonists
Labile BP
(cyproheptadine or
Hyperreflexia and ↑ methysergide)
tone
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OPHTHALMOLOGY
Age‐related macular
degeneration is by far the leading
cause of blindness in adults.
Other significant causes of sight
loss are glaucoma, cataracts and
diabetic retinopathy.
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EXTRA‐OCULAR DISEASES
Red Eye: there are many possible causes of a red eye. It is important to be
able to recognise the causes which require urgent referral to an
ophthalmologist. Below is a brief summary of the key distinguishing features
Causes: Red eye – glaucoma or uveitis?
Acute angle closure glaucoma Glaucoma: severe pain, haloes,
Anterior uveitis ‘semi‐dilated’ pupil
Scleritis Uveitis: small, fixed oval pupil,
Conjunctivitis ciliary flush
Subconjunctival haemorrhage
Scleritis
Acute angle closure glaucoma
Severe pain (may be ocular or Severe pain (may be worse on
headache) movement) and tenderness
↓ visual acuity, pa ent sees May be underlying
haloes autoimmune disease e.g.
Semi‐dilated pupil Rheumatoid arthritis
Hazy cornea
Conjunctivitis
Anterior uveitis
Acute onset Purulent discharge if bacterial,
Pain clear discharge if viral
Blurred vision and
photophobia
Small, fixed oval pupil, ciliary
flush
Subconjunctival haemorrhage
History of trauma or coughing
bouts
Lacrimal Glands problems:
Dacryocystitis is infection of the lacrimal sac:
Watering eye (epiphora)
Swelling and erythema at the inner canthus of the eye
Management is with SYSTEMIC antibiotics. (IV antibiotics are indicated
if there is associated periorbital cellulitis)
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Classification
Nuclear: change lens refractive index,
common in old age
Polar: localized, commonly inherited, lie in
the visual axis
Subcapsular: due to steroid use, just deep
to the lens capsule, in the visual axis
Dot opacities: common in normal lenses, also seen in diabetes and
myotonic dystrophy
Band keratopathy: is a corneal disease derived from the appearance of
calcium on the central cornea caused by calcium deposition in Bowman’s layer.
This is an example of metastatic calcification, which by definition, occurs in the
presence of hypercalcemia.
Symptoms include pain and decreased visual
acuity.
Treatment: the calcium can be scraped off the
cornea or removed with a laser. This can
restore sight, but it can take a number of
months for normal vision to return as the
cornea will be damaged during the operation. credit: Imrankabirhossain ‐ Wikimedia
This cannot be repeated too many times as it would make the cornea thinner.
Herpes Simplex Keratitis: most commonly presents with a dendritic
corneal ulcer
Features
Red, painful eye
Photophobia
Epiphora
Visual acuity may be ↓
Fluorescein staining may show an credit: HK Yang et.al ‐ Wikimedia
epithelial ulcer, dendritic pattern of
staining (as in this photo)
Management
Immediate referral to an ophthalmologist
Topical acyclovir
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INTRA‐OCULAR DISEASES
Sudden Painless Loss of Vision: The most common causes of a
sudden painless blindless:
Ischemic optic neuropathy (e.g. Temporal arteritis or atherosclerosis)
Occlusion of central retinal vein
Occlusion of central retinal artery
Vitreous haemorrhage
Retinal detachment
Amaurosis fugax: classically described as a transient monocular vision loss
that appears as a “curtain coming down vertically into the field of vision in
one eye”. Sometimes it occurs as episodes, caused by ipsilateral carotid artery
disease.
Ischemic optic neuropathy
May be due to arteritis (e.g. temporal
arteritis) or atherosclerosis (e.g. HTN,
DM, old patient)
Due to occlusion of the short
posterior ciliary arteries, causing
damage to the optic nerve
Altitudinal field defects are seen→
pale optic disc& optic disc swelling
loss of vision above or below the
horizontal level
Central retinal vein occlusion
Incidence ↑ with age, more
common than arterial occlusion
Causes: glaucoma, polycythaemia,
hypertension
Appearance: Widespread retinal haemorrhages in
all 4 quadrants, which vary in appearance from a
small‐scattered retinal haemorrhages to marked
confluent haemorrhages. Marked dilated and
tortuous retinal vessels. Cotton‐wool spots. Optic disc
oedema, macular oedema, and retinal thickening.
Vitreous haemorrhages may be present
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PHARMACOLOGY &
TOXICOLOGY
In 2013‐14, almost 150,000
people were admitted to hospital
with poisoning in England. Most
cases of poisoning happen at
home, and children under 5 have
the highest risk of accidental
poisoning. In around 1 in 4
reported cases, the person
intentionally poisoned
themselves as a deliberate act of
self‐harm.
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Carbamazepine is an inducer of the P450 system. This in turn increases
the metabolism of carbamazepine itself – auto‐induction
Drugs that can be cleared by Haemodialysis‐ mnemonic: BLAST
Dialysable medicines Non‐dialysable medicines
Barbiturate Tricyclics
Benzodiazepines (diazepam,
Lithium
midazolam, alprazolam)
Alcohol (inc methanol, Dextropropoxyphene (co‐
ethylene glycol) proxamol)
Digoxin
Salicylates β‐blockers
Theophyllines (charcoal
hemoperfusion is preferable)
Drugs to avoid in Renal Failure:
Antibiotics: tetracycline, nitrofurantoin
NSAIDS
Lithium
Safe Need dose adjustment
Antibiotics: erythromycin,
Most antibiotics including
rifampicin
Diazepam penicillin, cephalosporins,
Warfarin
vancomycin, gentamicin,
streptomycin
Digoxin, atenolol
Methotrexate
Sulphonylureas
Furosemide
Opioids
Drug induced impaired glucose tolerance
Thiazides, furosemide (less common)
Steroids
Tacrolimus, cyclosporin
Interferon‐α
Nicotinic acid (vitamin B3)
β‐blockers cause a slight impairment of glucose tolerance. They should also be
used with caution in diabetics as they can interfere with the metabolic and
autonomic responses to hypoglycaemia
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Drug induced Liver Disease is generally divided into hepatocellular,
cholestatic or mixed. There is however considerable overlap, with some drugs
causing a range of changes to the liver.
Hepatocellular picture Cholestasis ± Hepatitis
Alcohol Anabolic steroids,
Amiodarone testosterones
Anti‐tuberculosis: INH, Antibiotics: flucloxacillin, co‐
rifampicin, pyrazinamide amoxiclav, erythromycin*,
Halothane nitrofurantoin
MAOIs Fibrates
Methyldopa Oral contraceptive pill
Paracetamol Phenothiazines:
Sodium valproate, phenytoin chlorpromazine,
Statins prochlorperazine
Rarely: nifedipine
Sulphonylureas
* risk may be ↓ with erythromycin stearate
Liver cirrhosis:
Amiodarone
Methotrexate
Methyldopa
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