Environment - SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY[shashidthakur23.wordpress.com]

jlSHANKAf;i IRS ACAOEJ.AY •!• .PROTECTED AREA NETWORK~.

III. "to bear a unique or atleastexceptional testimony Interttafional Year of Biodiversity
to a cultural tradition or to a pvilization which
is Iiving or which has' disappeared ?; ~ The United Nations declared 2010 to be the

IV. "to be an outsfanding example of a type · Int~rrtational Year of Biodiversity. Ii is a
of building, architectural or technological
ensemble or landscape which illustrates a . cel~b'tl.ilior. of life on earth and of the value of
significat stage(s) in human history"; b'iofilversity for our lives.

V. "to be an outstanding example of a traditional SlQgaJ!I,, ..... ,

· 'N~~~retsity is variety of life on earth

human settlemnet, land.;.use, or sea-use, which l:U~\{~~i;s~ty is life.

is representative of a culture {or cultures), · ~jn~~rsity!<isour life".
or human interaction:. with the environment (Jb~>ofthe IYB are
especially whenitha,s:be<:ome vulnerable under
the impact ofitt~v~r~i"Qle-<;hange"; Ji , . ·. .... ;~bness of the irnport~ce ofconserving

VI. "to be directly ottangibly associated with ·'lfy for human well-b~ing and promote
events or livingJr:aditioris, with ideas, or
with beliefs, with artistic and literary works tm.. , 'landing of the ecohofuic vafoe of
of outstanding-universal s'ignificance. {The
Committee considers that this criterion should bioi:liversity · ' ··
preferably be used in conjunction with other
criteria). ~ Enhartce public knowledge & awareness of the

VII. "to contain superlative natural phenomena or threats to biodiversity and means to conserv: it
areas ofexceptional natural beauty and aesthetic
importance"; > Promote innovative solutions to reduce the

Vlll"to be outstanding examples representing major threats to biodiversity
stages of Eart:ll's ~tory, including the record of
life, significant on-going geological processess > Encourage individuals, organizations and
in the development of landfodlls, or significant
geomorphic or psysiographic f~atures"; governments to take immediate steps to halt

IX. "to be outstanding examples representing biodiversity loss - .,
significant ongoing ecological and biological
processes in the evolution and development ~ Prepare the ground for communicating the post~ ·

2010 target{s)

~ The 'Play for Life' Campaign by UNEP and

PUMA {Sports Company) - will use football
and African football stars to promote the 2010
International Year of Biodiversity.

Why 2010 matters?

~ The year 2Q10 has long been seen as an f'.nd goal,

of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine a time when we could look back and sa~ yes,
ecosystem and communities of plants and
on· we've done it - that biodiversity, life· Eaith,

JIDimals~'; is no longer threatened.

X. "to contain the most important and significant > In 2002, Governments set 2010 as a deadline to

natural habitats for insists conservation of achieve a significant redu~op in the rate ofloss

biological 4Jversity, including those containing of biodiversity for reducing poverty.

threatened species of outstanding universal ~ The year 2010 is critical becm1se it is time to
reflect about whatneeds to be done if we are to
value from the point of view of science or chal\ge this trend.

conservation. "

~ The UNESCD' funds numerous efforts to ~ AJ:tl\oti.gnthe 2010 goal hasnot been met, it does
preserve and restore World Heritage Sites in nofljl}ean the futureJs necessarily bleak. .
developing nations. It maintains also a List of
World Heritage Sites in developing n:atjons. ~ the ,4Ui0 International Year of Biodiversity is a
It maintains also a List of World Heritage in
danger facing threat of pollution and other · lJllique opportunity to understand the vitill role
natural hazards. Sites subject to unusual levels thatbiodiversity plays in sustaining life on Earth
..and to ~top this loss.

of pollution, natural hazards, or other problems 1

may be placed for restoration. Such designated

sites facilitate promotion of tourism. ••

&\ SHRNKRR IRS RCR:)EM"r'

International Day for Biological Diversity - 22
May

~ The United Nations proclaimed May 22 as The
International Day for Biological Diversity (IDB)
to increase understanding and awareness of
biodiversity issues.

~ Initially 29 December(~e date of entry into force
of the Convention of Bfolbgical Diversity}, was
designated The International Day for Biological
Diversityby the UN GeneralAssembly in late 1993.

~ In December 2000, the ;pN General Assembly
adopted 22 May as lpB, to commemorate the
adoption ofthe text of the Convention on 22 May
1992 by the Nairobi Final Act of the Conference
for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the
Convention on Biological Diversity.

--------------1~ CHAPTER. 13 ~1---'----------­

CONSERVATION EFFORTS

13.1.PROJECT TIGER ~ The State GoVeininent shall, on recommendation
?tential example of.c.o.··ns.··.•.~..rv·.ation o_f a of the Natidhaii'I,'ig~r Conservation Authority,
notify ~ ate~as"'ci tiger-reserve.
highly endangered speqes"15 the Indian
iger (Panthera tigri$); Tli~ £~ !Uld rise in ~ A Tiger res~rtrt'!;,fncludes:

the number of Tiger population inlµ.4.fa.is an index a) Core zone
of the extent and nature of conservation efforts.
~ Critical tiger 'habitat areas established, on the
. It is estimated that India had ~bout 40 000 tigers basis of scientific and objective criteria.

in 1900, and the number declined toil mere about ~ These areas are required to be kept as inviolate
1800 in 1972. for the purposes of tiger conservation, without
affecting the rights of the Scheduled Tribes or
Hence, Project Tiger centrally sponsored sCheme such other forest dwellers.
was launched in 1973 with the following objectives:
);;:> To ensure maintenance of available population ~ These areas are notified by the State Government
in consultation with an Expert Commitfe~\
of Tigers in India for scientific, economic, (constituted for that purpose)
aesthetic, cultural and ecological value
);;:> To preserve, for all times, the areas of such b) Buffer zone
biological importance as a national heritage for
the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people ~ Peripheral area to critical tiger habitat or core
Aim area, where a lesser degree of habitat protection
(i) Conservation of the endangered species and
(ii) Harmonizing the rights of tribal people living tois required ensure the integrity of the critical
in and around tiger reserves
tiger habitat with adequate dispersal for tiger
13.1.1. Tiger Reserve species.

);;:> Tiger reserves are areas that are notified for ~ It aims at promoting co-existence between
the protection of the tiger and its preY, and are wildlife and human activity with due recognition
governed by Project Tiger whim was launChed of the livelihood, developmental, social and
in the country in 1973. cultural rights of the local people.

);;:> Initially 9 tiger reserves were covered under the ~ The limits of such areas are determined on
project, and has currently increased to 42, falling the basis of scientific and objective criteria in
in 17 States (tiger reserve States). consultation with the concerned Gram Sabha
and an Expert Committee constituted for the
purpose.

);;:> No alteration in the boundaries of a tiger reserve
shall .be made except on a recommendation of
the National Tiger C::onservation Authority and
the approval of the NationalBoaidforWild Life.

);;:> No State Government shall de-notify a tiger
reserve, except in public interest with the
approval of the National ':{'iger Conservation
Authority and the approval of the National
Board for Wild Life.

A SHANKRR IRS Ac::AOEMY fr:(' ENVIRONMENT \si.

13.1.1 National Tiger Conservation Authority 8. To facilitate ongoing capacity building program
(NTCA): for skill development of officers and staff of tiger
reserves
>- The Amendment Act of 2006 provides for the
13..13. Estimation of Tiger Populations
constitution of a statutory authority known as
the National Tiger Conservation Authority to >- The process of estimating the numb~r of tigers
aid in the implementation of measures for the
conservation of the tiger. in a given area is called 'Tiger census.'

Powers and functions: > This exercise provides us with an estimate of ·

1. To approve tl:i.e Jig.er Conservation Plan tiger number, density and change in tiger indices
prepared by the. St~te,Government - a measure of tiger occupancy in a given area.

2. To evaluate and assess various aspects of > It is conducted at regular intervals to know the
sustainableecologyand disallow any ecologically
unsustainable land use such as mining, industry current tiger_populations and population trends.
and other projects within tiger reserves
> Besides estimating the number of tigers the method
3. To lay down nonnative. standards for tourism
also helps to gather infonnation on the density of
activities and guidelines for project tiger from the tiger populations and associated prey.

time to time for.tiger ~onservation in the buffer > The most commonly used technique in the

and core area of tiger reserves ¥\Cl ensure their past was 'Pugmark Census Technique'.· In this
method the imprints of the pugmark of the
due complianc~ · tiger were recorded and used as a basis for
identification of individuals. Now it is largely
4. To provide mforma,~6~ on protection measures used as one of the indices of tiger occurrence
including future co~atfon plan, estimation of and relative abundance.

population of tiger and its natural prey species, > Recent methods used to estimate the numbers

status ofhabitatS, disease surveillance, mortality of tigers are camera trapping and DNA finger-
printing.
survey, patrolling, reports onuntoward happenings
> In camera trapping, the photograph of the tiger

is taken and individuals are differentiated on
the basis of the stripes on the body.

> In the latest technique of DNA fingerprinting,

tigers can be identified from their scats.

and suchothermanagement aspects as itmay deem

fit including -future plan of conservation

5. To ensure that.tiger reserves and areas linking

on protected area or tiger reserve with another

protected area or tiger reserve are not diverted

for ecologically unsustainable uses, except in

public interest and With the approval of the

National Board for.WUd Life. · .

6. To facilitates and support tiger reserve

management iri the State for biodiversity ·2010 Assessment Methodology

conservation initiatives through eco- is> The All India Tiger Estimation exercise one

development and peoples participatiori as per· of the most crucial components of our national

approved management plans, and to support tiger conservation efforts.

sitµilar initj.atives in adjoining ·areas consistent > Since 2006, this monitoring exercise is being

with the Central-and State laws undertaken every four years.

7. To ens.ure critical support including scientific, > This report presents the results of the 2010
information technology and legal support for
better implementation of the tiger conservation National Tiger Assessment, undertaken through
plan
a best-in-class scientific process.

SHRNKRR IRS RCRDEMY ·:· CONSERVATION EFFORTS ·:·

This presents an estimate of India's current tiger > This will provide a yearly indication of the status
population and a broader assessment of our tiger
landscapes. of critical tiger populations around the country,
and will be critical to long-term management
The three phases of the tiger estimation and conservationoftlger populations.
procedure are as follows:
> Prey populatj,Qil. monitoring will be conducted
• Phase 1: Field data collected at the beat-level
(i.e. the primary patrolling unit) by trained simultaneously, using Distance sampling
personnel using a standardised protocol. protocols. Distfulce.sampling will be conducted
along line trafise~ already established in phase
• Phase 2: Analysis of habitat status of tiger
forests using satellite data.. · I, and will use a ~um of 30 spatial replicates
for 2 kni each,'.~ifit~;~otal effort of 300 km.
• Phase 3: Camera trapping was the prirpary
method used, where individual tigers were ;'·;·\; 1 ft,:··:;:,.
identified from photographs based on their
unique stripe patterns. This information Innovations In 2010 National Tiger assessment
was analysed using a .weff established
scientific framework. Camera. trapping was > The 2010 National Tiger Assessment has several
carried out by teams of wildlife l:>iologists
and local forest personnel. innovations over previous assessments. These',,

Based on the tiger numbers recorded in sampled include: ·
sites, an estimate for other contiguous tiger-
occupied landscapes, was made. For this, • Partnershipswithcivilsocietyorganizations
additional information such as tiger signs, prey
availability, habitat conditions and human • Local communities involved in data
disturbance was used. Thus, the final estimates collection and analysis.
provide a comprehensive and statistically robust
result for the whole country • Genetic ·analysis to estimate tiger
populations from faecal samples.
"Phase IV"
• Along with tigers, co-predators, prey, and
~ India has announced a major expansion of its habitat quality assessed.
tiger monitoring programme, through 'Phase
IV' of the national tiger estimation programme. • Pioneering attempt to estimate tiger
populations in S:underbans Tiger Reserve
This initiated intensive, annual monitoring (West Bengal) using satellite telemetry and
of tigers at the tiger reserve level, across 41 sign surveys,
protected areas in the country, from November
2011. • First.· estimanort ·. of tiger population in
Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (Maharashtra).
Phase IV of the All India Tiger Estimation
exercise began the process of intensive, annual Tiger Popwation EsWD.ates
monitoring of important 'source' populations
of tigers. > The sflille scj,en#fical1y robust methods were

The methodology is developed by the Wildlife c~n8i$fernl,y ¥~4Jri.'~Qo6and 2010. This enabled
Institute of India (WII) and the National Tiger
Conservation Authority (NTCA), ihco~"filtation co:tnp~~~~oll.. ()£: ~e$ui~s>from both estimation
with experts, and will use statistically'sound
procedures to estimate numbers of both !tigers exercises and in understanding the trend in
and their prey. tiger numbers.

The tiger monitoring protocol use camera ~ The estimated tigerpopulationin2006was 1411
traps, at a density of 25 double-sided ·cameras and du:e to conservation efforts it has steadily
increased and the tiger population was 1706 in
per 100 square kilometres, and a minimum the 2010 tiger estimate.

trapping effort of 1000 trap nights per100 square
kilometres. (Note: Tiger reserve - see appendix)

ENVIRONMENT

Aim

~ Ecologically restoring the natural habitats an
migratory routes of the elephants

~ Mitigation of the increasing conflicts betwe ·

13.1.4. International Co~peration man and elephants in important habitat
and moderating the pressures of human an
domestic stock activities in important elepha

bf> India has a Memorand#rri Understanding habitats.
with Nepal on controlli.I'l:gtr~-boundary illegal
trade in wildlife and'£b:rjSE!zya?<Jn~ apart from a ~ Developing scientific and plarmed rnanagemen

measures for conservation of elephants. ·

protocol on tiger cons~o/;;1.ti.oi1with China. > Protecting the elephants from poachers an·.

> The process is on fof.,·:l:Ji!lit~raFprotocol with other unnatural causes of death and preventin

Bangladesh, Bhutan & Myanmar. illegal ivory trade is also one of the majo
>• : '.; ;~ ---r :;"_: - ' ' • '' concerns of the Elephant Project in India

A Global Tiger Forun1p£Tiger Range Countries > Researching on issues related to elephant

has been created for ad,dressirig international and creating public awareness and educatio
issues related to tiger co~ervation.
programs for it.
13.2.PROJECT ELEPHANT
> Eco-development and Veterinary care for the

> Project Elephant was launched in February, elephants.

1992 as centrally spon,sored scheme to assist > It also aims at maintaining health care and

states having free rangihgpbpµlations of wild breeding of tamed elephants. ,

elephants and to ensutelcingtenn survival of > (Elephant reserve of India see appendix table

identified viable populations of elephants in no)

their natural habitat$. 13.2.1. Elephant Corridor

> The Project is being mainly implemented in 13 > An elephant corridor is defined as a stretch/

States I UTs , viz•.Andhra .Pradesh, Arunachal narrow strips of forested (or otherwise) land·.

Pradesh, Assam, Jharkha;nd, Kamataka; Kerala, that connects larger habitats with elephant
populations and forms a conduit for animal
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, movement between the habitats. This movement
helps enhance species survival and birth rate.
Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
> There are 88 identified elephant corridors in·
Small support is also being given to Maharashtra
India.
and Chhattisgarh. ·
> Out of total 88 corridors, 20 were in south India,
, > States are being given ·financial as well as
12 in north-western India, 20 in central India, 14.
tedmieal assistance in aclrieVing the objectives in northern West Bengal and 22 in north-eastern ·.
India.
.of the Project. Help is also provided to other
> Of the total, 77.3 per cent is regularly used by
states with small populations of elephants ·for
the purpose of censys, tr~g pf fi~4 stMf.and elephants. About one-third is of ecologically
high priority and remaining two third of
mitigation of human-elephant conflict. medium priority.

Objectives : > Fragmentation of elephant habitat was severe.

> To protect elephants, tl;teir habitat & corridors in northern West Bengal followed by north- .
western India, north-eastern India and central
. > To address issues of man.,animal conflict India respectively. The least fragmentation was
> Welfare of domesticated elephants noted in south India.

> In south India, 65 per cent of the corridors are in

protected area or in reserved forests.

SHRNKAR IRS ACADEMY ·:· CONSERVATION EFFORTS ·:·

90 per cent in central India are jointly under continuous forest habitat by encroachment from
.forest, agriculture and settlements, Only 10 per urban areas, as well ~s providing continued
· cent are completely under forest area. · refuge for tiger, elephant, sambar, marsh
crocodile, ghariaLand many species of bird.
Nationally, only 24 per cent of the corridors are
under complete forest cover. 13.2.4. Monitoring oflliegal Killing of Elephants
(MIKE)Programme
.13.2.2. Threats to Elephant Corridors
;;;.. .tvfandated by COP resolution of CITES, MIKE
·..);> The primary threat is the Habitat loss leading progrnm started in Sotitll.Asia in the year 2003
to fragmentation and destruction ~~used by with following. purpose -
developmental activities like constr:uction of
buildings,roeds, railways, holiday resorts and Y To provide informatl()h needed for elephant
the fixing solar energized electric fendng, etc. range States to make appropriate management
and enforcement dedsions, and to build
Coal mining and iron ore minin.gis the two institutional capacity "\<\Tlithin the range States
"single biggest threats'' to elephant corridors for the long-term management of their elephant
in central India. populations

Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, are Main objectives
mineral-rich states, but also have the highest
number of elephant corridors in the country, l. to ·measure levels and trends in the illegal
which makes them known for elephant-man hunting of elephants;
conflicts.
2. to determine changes in these trends over time;
)> There is also a serious poaching problem, as and
elephant ivory from the tusks is extremely
3. to determine the factors causing or associated
valuab~e. with such changes, and to try and assess in
particular to what extent observed trends are a
Elephants need extensive grazing grounds and result of any decisions taken by the Conference
most reserves cannot accommodate them. If of the Parties to CITES
protected areas are not large enough, elephants
may search for food elsewhere. This often results )> Under the programme data are being collected
in conflicts with humans, due to elephants from all sites on monthly basis in specified
raiding or destroying crops. MIKE patrol form a.J}d submited tQ Sub Regional
Support Office for South Asia Programme
located in De_lhi who are assisting Ministry in
the implementation of tlie progremme.

Fusion-of the corridors with nearby.protected 13.2.5. Haathi Mere Saatbi
areas wherever feasible; in other cases,
declaration as Ecologically Sensitive Areas or ~ HaathiMere Sc,tafliils;acampaign launched by
conservation reserves to grant protection.·
the Ministry of el}yirofltiient and fore~t (MoEF)
.)> During. the process of securing a c9tl!idor,
in partnership with the, wildlife trust of India
· monitoring for animal movement h<lv~ to be "(WT!):.· . . ' ·.. '
carried· out; depending on the need, habit~t
restoration work shall also be <;lone. );:> . To improve conservation and welfare prospects
of the elephant - India's National Heritage
)> Securing the corridors involves sensitizing Ari.imal.
local communities to the option of v()luntarily
relocation outside the conflict zones to safer ~ Th.e campaign was launched at the
areas. It would also have great conservation "Elephant- 8" Ministerial meeting held in Delhi
value, preventing further fragmentation of the on 24th May 2011.

A"""'""s_H_A_N_K_A_~_1R_s_R_c_A_oe_MY_.:...----------------------1t:Ct£l_!:.E:::_'N~'VIRONMENT ~~{

>-- The E-8 countries comprise of India, Botswana, 13.2.6. Elephant - 8 Ministerial Meeting
the Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Kenya, ~ TI1e E-8 ministerial meeting represented regions
Srilanka, Tanzania, and Thailand.
. with all 3 species of elephants, viz.,
L Elephas maximus (Asian elephant)
}> This public initiative w· as.la:iniedd adt increasing
aw. a r en~ss amon~ peop~~ an eveloping 2. Loxodonta africana (African
fnendsh1p, companionship between people and Elephant)

elephants.

The campaign mascot 'Gaju'. 3. Loxodonta cyclotis (African
Elephant)
"'- Th
» The participants included policy makers,:;
, aude~.ecnacmegproauigpsninfcolcuudsiensglooncavlsanreioaruesletaphrganett
conservationist, sci en tis ts, historians, art
habitats, youth, policy makers, among others.
and culture experts among the participating •
}> It envisi~ns setting up of Gajah (the elephant)

centres m elephant landscapes across the countries.
~ountry to spread awareness on their plight and
mvoke people's participation in addressing the » Discussions covered a wide range of issues

threats to them. categorised under three basic themes.

1. Science and conservation

>-- It also plants to build capacity of protection 2. Management and conservation
and law enforcement age11cies at the ground
level, and advocate for policies favouring the 3. Cultural and Ethical perspectives
conservation
pachyderms (the elephant).
>-- Recommended by the elephant task force » The E-8 countries besides resolving to take

(ETF) ~onstituted by the ministry last year, the necessary steps in the direction of elephant
c~pa1gn to "Take Gq.jah (the elephant) to the conservation also decided to actively pursue ?. ..•,.....,._.,."

praJah (the people)" aims to spread awareness common Agenda to ensure a long term
and encourage people's participation in elephant and survival of all species of elephants in

conservation and welfare.· . range countries.

Tiger, faces threat of extinction, whereas the }> To realise this global goal, the meeting has called
elephant faces threat of attrition. The elephant
Nos. have not increased o:t decreased drastically upon all range countries to join hands under
but there is a increasing pressure on the elephant
habitats and it is a serious concern which has to » the umbrella of elephant-·50:50 forum_ It
be addre~sed by involving people in elephant
conservation and welfare through this campaign. is the shared vision of 50 states to promote·
conservation, management and welfare of

elephants in the next 50 years.

13.2.7. E-50:50 forum

);> The Asian elephant is threatened by habitat >-- The E-8 countries decided to hold the 1st'.
degradation, conflicts and poaching for ivory. International Congress of £.-50:50 forum in early .·
These threats are :more intense in India which 2013 at New Delhi, India for adopting a common·.··
harbours more than 50% of worlds Asian global vision on conservation, management and·
elephant population. welfare of elephants across all range countries.

>-- India has about 25000 elephants in the wild. 13.3. VULTURE
De~pite this seemh1gly large number, the
~lephant particularly the tuskers (male), in India India has nine species of vultures in the vvild. ·.

is as threatened as the tiger. There are justabout They are the .

1200 tuskers left in the country. 1. Oriental White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)1 :

2. Slender billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris),

3. Long billed Vulture (Gyps indicus),

4. Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus),

5. Red Headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus),

6. Indian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus),

·:· CONSE~VATION EFFORTS ·!·

; . Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis), indication that ]?irds are ill. Neck drooping
is also reported in healthy birds under hot
'· Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) and conditions.

Bearded Vulture or Lammergeier (Gypaetus

barbatus). · 13.3.2. Meloxicam -AnAlternative

.·.· Decline of vulture populations inindia was first ;... Meloxicam is a second generation NSAID and
··.recorded at the Keoladeo Ghana National Park, rated better than Diclofenac for the treatment of
livestock, with reduced risk of side effects, and
Rajasthan is also approved for hu111an use in more than 70
countries.Meloxicamlslicensed as a veterinary
· ·, The decline of Gyps genus in India has been put drug in India'- Eµrope and USA.
· at97% (over a 12 year period) by 2005. ·

Similar declines have occurred in other countries 13.3.3. Banned but:stillin use
in Asia, including Nepal and l;'aki&tan..
» The Indian Govetrunent in May 2006 banned the
In India the population ofthree &pecies i.e.
White-backed Vulture, Slender billed Vulture veterinary use of diclofenac. Unfortunately, the
and Long billed Vulture in the wild.hqsdeclined ban didn't reach.for enough and human forms
drastically over the past deca9.e. of diclofenac were used to treat sick cattle.

Red-headed vulture or king vulture, Slender » One particular problem is that the human form
billed Vulture and Long billed Vulture are listed
as critically endangered. of dif=lofenac .is much cheaper than alternative
drugs like meloxicam which have been safety
Populations of Egyptian vultures and White- tested for vultures
backed Vulture have also undergone decline
in India and are now classified as Endangered. 13.3.4. Significance of vultures in India

It is initially thought the drastic decline in » Scavenging on animal <:;,arcasses of animals and
population was due to non-availability of food
(dead livestock) or an unknm·vn viral epidemic thereby helping k~ep the environment clean; -
disease, but later on confirmed that decline in
population was due to the drug didofenac. » Disposal of dead boc,iles as per the religious

Diclofenac Sodium as the Probable practices of the Parsi community.
Cause
» Vultures are the primary removers of carrion in

India and Africa.

13.3.5. Without vultures

Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-infl~atory » Equilibrium between populations of other
drug (NSAID) administered to reduce
inflamn;i.ation and to reduce pain:. fo certain scavenging species Will be affected.
conditions.
» Result in increase fu putrefying carcasses.

» Movement of Feral. dogs into carcass dumps

NSAIDs are associated with adverse kidney increasing the spread of dis.eases such as rabies,
(renal) failure which is caused due to the
reduction in synthesis of renal prostaglandins. anthrax. ·

Vultures which were unable to break down the of» Traditional custom of the Parsis of placing their
chemical diclofenac, suffer from kidney failure dead in the ;Towers Silence' for vultures to
when they eat the carcass of animals which;have
been administered with the drug .: Diclofenac feed upon will be affected.

» Life will be 'much harder for local hide and

bone-collectors, who rely, on deaned carcasses
in order to·earn aliving.
Visceral gout, an accumulationofUricacid'within ·
tissues and on the surfaces ofinternal organs, was
observed in 85% of dead vultures found. Death or» Cattle owners will hav~ fo pay to have livestock
carcasses buried huttlt> ·' - ' . '
caused by renal failure, which i~ kliown to .occur ' :,. !'

as a result of metabolic faihtre ottox'ic disease.

"Neek drooping" vulture exhj~itlms beh_<;lviour
for protracted periods over severru•weeksbefofe

collapsing and falling out of trees ·or just prior
to death. It is the only obvious behavioural

\

1111

.A\SHRNKl=1R IRS RCROEM'T' Frt ENVIRONMENT~··

13.3.6. Vulture Safety Zones vulture and white-backed vulture are found in

> The concept of a VSZ is unique for the Asian this area, which is marshy grassland, savam1as
and forests.
continent but similar VSZ are in operation in
both Europe and Africa. 2. Similarly, a belt between Dibrugarh in Ass
to North Lakhimpur in Arunachal Pradesh wjl
> Aim of developing VSZs is to establish targeted also be conserved as a vulture safe zone wher
slender-billed and white-backed species of
awareness activities surroundingJSO km radius vultures are found.
of vultures' colonies so that no diclofenac or the
veterinary toxic drugs are found incattle carcasses, 3. The third zone would be in central India
the main food of vultures(to provide safe food). covering Chhatisgarh, where white-backed and
long-billed vultures are found.
> The VSZ is spread around in several hundred
13.3.9. What have to be done?
kilometers covering theJim CorbettinUttarakhand,
~ Diclofenac free zones' (DFZ) meant the complete
Dudhwa and Kartarniaghat forest reserves in UP removal of diclofenac in the identified vulture
which is adjoining the Indo-Nepal border. Nepal zones i.e. places where vulture colonies have·
has already set up VSZ on the Indian borders. been identified.

1313.7. VSZ's provide: 13.3.10.Vulture Restaurants

> A safe source of food that is free of contamination ):i- At this restaurant, tables are reserved only for.
the unique and rare vultures by Maharashtra
from veterinary drugs, poisons and other and Punjab forest departments
agricultural chemicals.
Aim
> A place where vultures can feed free from
):i- Conserve the fast dwindling vulture populafo:~n~
human disturbances. ~ As uncontaminated food shortage is one of th~,h

> Supplement the ever decreasing food base for reasons for vultures' decline, these scavengers·
will be fed by serving didofenac free carcasses
vultures. of cattle through restaurants.

> Extra food close to breeding colonies; this helps ):i- VR includes involvement of local communities
in in-situ conservation, is having dual benefits<
to increase their breeding succes.s by improving to vultures and to our society.
the survival chances of the young vultures.
> People inform the forest department in case
> Additional food, such a~ bone fragments, which
of the death of an animal in their village and
can be supplied to breeding birds. the department tests the dead animal for
presence of diclofenac.
> An economical and practical way of disposing
> In their absence the department pays monetary
of old and unproductive cattle.
benefits to the owner of the animal and informer, •·.
> Help to reduce the risk of spreading diseases. transports it to the vulture restaurant.
. > A place for scientists to study the biology and
):i- Apart from this, whenever a vulture nesting is •
ecology of these threatened species. found, conservation measures like providing
safe food near nesting trees, constant protection..
> An opportunity to raise p1,1blic awar4i!:ness on from all sorts of disturbances, etc., are put in
place without delay.
vulture conservation and to raise furtd'.s;
Benefits
> An excellent opportunity for eco-folirists to
> Conservation of vulture from extinction
observe these magnificent birds. > Community participation in conservation
> Economic incentive to local cattle breeders
13.3.8. Zones
):i- Phasing out the use of diclofenac
1. The zone between Uttarkhand to Nepal, which
spans from Corbett to Katriya Ghat, a Tarai > Awareness
> Dining spots
belt,· covering 30,000 square kilometers will be

earmarked as Vulture Safe zone. Slender-billed

Punjab - Kathlore, Chandola and Chamraur ·:· CONSERVATION EFFORTS ·:·

Maharastra - Gadchiroli, Thane, Nagpur, to prevent all uses of diclofenac in veterinary
Nashik, Raigad districts applications, and establishment of IUCN South
Asian Task Force under the auspices of the IUCN
.3.11.Breeding Centres in India and range countries to develop and implement
national vulture recovery plans, including
Vulture Breeding and Conservation Centre had conservation breeding and release."
already been established at Pinjore, Haryana in
2001, and Rani, Guwahati (Assam) and another 13.3.14.Save - Saving Asia's Vultures From
·.· . one has been established at Buxa, West Bengal Extinction.
in 2005. The Central Zoo Authority of India has
also committed for supporting 4 such centers in >:> It's a consortium of like-minded, regional and
the zoos at Junagadh, Bhopal, Hyderabad and international organizations, created to oversee
Bhubhaneshwar in 2006-07. and co-ordinate conservation, campaigning and
fundraising activities to help the plight of south
The Ministry of Environment and Forests Asia's vultui:es;'
(MoEF) & BNHS has taken up a program to
release 30 young vultures from the breeding To save three species of Gyps vulture
centre's to the demarcated safe zones at three
places by year 2014. );:- Oriental white-backed vulture or White-rumped
vultµre
Though the breeding facilities had started some
years back, it takes time for the reproduction );:- Long-billed vulture
amongst vultures. Young vultures take at least
four to five years to fly. );:- Slender-billed vulture

Partners

);:- Bird Conservation Nepal, Bombay Natural-,
History Society (India), International Centre for .,
Birds of Prey (UK), National Trust for Nature
Conservation (Nepal)11 Royal Society for the
Protection of Birds (UK)

The veterinary drug Diclofenac has been banned 13.4.0NE HORN RHINO
by Indian and Nepalese governments.
13.4.1. Indian Rhino Vision 2020
Meloxicam, a safe alternative for vultures and
other scavenging birds, is being promoted as an );:- Indian rhino vision 2020 implemented by the
effective replacement. department ofenvironment and forests, Assci.m
with The. Bodo autonomous council as a active
vsz partner.. The pf()~fainme will be supported
by WWF - India/WWF areas (Asian rhmo
Vulture Restaurant sites. and elepha!lt ~~911 ~~~~~egy) programme, the
internatiom1J r~oJ9u'ndation (IRF), save the
Captive breeding centers have been established
to securehealthy birdsfrom thewildforbreeding rhino's camp~igrt 6f zbological instfrutions
in captivity for purposes of conservation and
future release. andworldwid:e irnumber of local NGOs.

Awareness raising activities targeting ~ous > The visic;>p of this,p~9gram is to increase the total

groups such as veterinarians, phanµacis~;pool rhinofoilndatiottfuAssam from about 2000 to
children, government agencies,, (:Orts~$tation
30001'y tile' y~~12Q20 and to ensure that these
partners and local communities are being
rhinos are distributed over at least 7 protected
.•. organized regularly. ..
are~ (l'A) to proy~(:le long term viability of the
is.3.13.India1S Role in ConservatiQn one-homed rbino population.

> In,dia moved a motion in IUCN in,2004 for

vulture conservation, which was accepted in the
form of the IUCN resolution which called upon
Gyps vulture Range countries to begin action

, l SHRNKFI~ Ir-IS r-tCROEM"r' '· .. ENVIRONMENT

13.4.2. Why? (alpine meadows and cold deserts) Areas ab
3000m broadly constitute snow leopard ra
>- Concentrating so many rhinos in a single in India. In the five Himalayan states of Jam
& Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhan
protected area like Kazfranga exposes the species Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
to risks of calamities (epiderrt'ics, floods, massive
poaching attempts). Further, rhinos in Pabitora 'Y Most snow leopard occurring in China, follow
have exceeded carrying capacity and numbers by Mongolia and India. India is believed to ha
must be reduced to'protect:the habitat and to between 400 and 700 snow leopards in the fh
mitigate the increasing~hino-h,w.nan conflicts. Himalayan states, though these estimates
not precise.
>-. Rhino species: Gre.ater one-horned rhino
'Y Threats posed due to
(Rhinoceros unicornis)
• competition with livestock,
>- Activities: Anti-po.C)ching,, monitoring,
• degradation,
translocations, crn;nmunity ~qns~rvation.
• poaching, and
>- Translocations are the backbone of the IRV 2020
• even facing local extinction
program
.· ..- ' ,
>- The goal set was.to popu1<~te the potential rhino ·,.-

habitat areas identified viz. Manas NP, Dibru have successfully used apl:'
Saikhowa WLS, Laokhowa Bura Chapori Chinese fern) to clean al:s
WLS with a viable popU:latlon of :Fhino through oil.
translocations from I<aziranga NP and Pobitora
WLS. 13.5.1. Project Snow Leopard - Jan 2009
:;.. The Project Snow Leopard is an Indian initiativ~
>- Manas National Park was selected as the first
for strengthening wildlife conservation in tli¢
site for translocation of rhino~. . . Himalayan high altitudes.

>- . Ten rhinos have been reieasedinto Manas since Aim:

2008. Ten mor~ rhirios ~itl be moved from );> to promote a knowledge-based and adaptive
conservation framework that fully involves.
Kaziranga NationalPark before the end of the the local communities, who share the snow
year. Translocatirtg rhinos Will help· to create a leopard's range, in conservation efforts.
viable populatiort~<?fthis:thre~tened species.
Goal:
13.5.PROJECT SNOW LEOPARD
)> To safeguard and conserve India's unique natural:
>- SNOW LEOPARD: The mystical apex predator heritage of high altitude wildlife populations
and their habitats by promoting conservation·.
);;>- The snow leopard .is a gfobally end~ngered through participatory policies and actions.
species. Merely 7,500 are estimated to be
surviving over two million square kilometers Location:
in the Himalaya and Central Asian mountains,
· where· they are facing tremendous human Ji> All biologically important landscapes in th~,
pressures; Himalayan high altitudes in the states of Jammu'·
& Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand;:
);;>- India is· perhaps home to 10% of the global Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.

population in less than 5% of its global range, );;>- Project Snow Leopard is designed for all
biologically important habitats within the snow
thus having a subsf;mtial proportion of its global leopard's range, irrespective of their ownership
(e.g. Protected Areas, common land, etc.).
population. ·
Ji> Forming an estimated 1,29,000 km2within India,
Ji> Distribution.in India - in.Indian·Himalayas, these areas generally comprise the non-forested;,,
high altitude areas located above the forests or sparsely-forested high altihide regions of the \~

,.lSHANKRR IRS Rc:r-IDEMY ·:· CONSERVATION EFFORTS ·:·

Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya above elevations in collaboration of UNDP in November, 1999
of 3,000 m in the Western Himalaya and above
4,000m in the eastern Himalaya. with Wildlife Institute qf lndia, Dehradun as the

Implementing Agency.

13.5.2. Why to conserve the high altitude > The project is being implemented in 10 coastal
ecosystem?
States of the country with special emphasis in

);> Th~ high altitudes of India (> 3000 m. to 130,000 State of Orissa. ·
km2,ipcl~ding the Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya
biogeographic zones) support a unique wildlife > The project has helped in preparation of
assemblage of global conservation importance.
inventory map of b'reeding sites of Sea Turtles,

identification of nesting and breeding habitats

along the shore line, artd migratory routes

} This iirtcludes highly endangered populations of taken by Sea Turtles, d~vt:;l9pll1e-nt of guidelines

species such as the snow leopard, two species of to safeguard and minimize ttj.rtle mortality,

bears, wolf, red. panda, mountain ungulates such development of n~ticm~}Jmd international

as the wild yak, chiru, Tibetan gazelle, Tibetan cooperative and collapqr~~iye action for Sea

argali; Ladakh urial, two species of musk deer, the Turtle Conservation, ".levelopil.J,g;guideline plans

hangul, three species of goral, serow, arid taki.n, for tourism in sea turtle ¥eas and developing
infrastructure and human te~ources for Sea
etc. High altitude lakes and bogs providebreeding
Turtle Conservation.
grounds for a variety of avifauna including the
> On,e of the important achievements have been
black-necked crane, barheaded Geese, brahminy
demonstration of use of Satellite Telemetry to
ducks, and brown-headed gulls, etc.
locate the migratory route ofOlive Ridley Turtles
> India has ratified international agreements
I promoting the conservation of high altitude in the sea and sensitizing the fishermen and
wildlife species such as the snow leopard.
State Government for the use ofTurtle Exclusion

Device (TED) in fishing trawlers to check turtle

I > In 2003, the Convention on Migratory Species mortality in fishing net.
included the snow leopard as a Concerted
Action Species under its Appendix I.
I > Similarly, in 2003, the Conventionon International
Trade fu Endangered Species (CITES) expanded
the scope of the CITES Tiger Enforcement
~:·~:'·'. ·; Task Force to include all Asian J.?ig cat species 13.7. INDIAN CROCOJ;)ILE
including the snow leopard.
·/._ ·-.. CONSERVATION PROJECT
> In both cases, representatives of the MoEF > The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project has
. played avital role in elevating the conservation
pulled baCk the once threatened crocodilians
·_-_- ;,·,'. ,prominence of the snow leopard internationally. from the brink of extinction and place them on
a good path of recovery. The Project has not just
; > Eachstate will select one biologically important
aproduced large number of crocodiles, but has
site and develop a science-based, participatory
contributed towards coriservation in a number
conservation programme in that site in the first of related fields as well.

five. years of Project Snow Leopard. This'will Objectives:

be subsequently expanded to include other :> To protect the remaining population of

biologically important sites. · crocodilians in their naturalhabitat by creating
sanctuaries.
13.6.~EA TURTLE PROJECT
> To rebuild natural, population quickly through
> A significant proportion of world's Olive :Ridley
'grow aJ!d release' or 'rear and release' technique
Tuttle population migrates every winter to - more than seven thousand crocodiles have been
Indian coastal waters for nesting mainly at restocked.- about4000 gharial (Gavialis gangeticus),
eastern coast. 1800 mµgger (Crocodylus palustris) and 1500 salt-

> With the objective of conservation of olive water. crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus)

ridley turtles and other endangered marine
turtles, Ministry of Environment & Forests
initiated the Sea Turtle Conservation Project

JlSHFINKAh' IRS ACADEMY rt?' ENVIRONMENT ),~'.

);:- To promote captive breeding, young can sometimes be released into the
);:- To take-up research to iQ1prove management. wild where populations have diminished or
);:- To build up a level. of'ti~tµ.ed personnel for disappeared, yet where suitable habitat remain
to support them.
better continuity of the projec\iJlrough training
.,,. When all of the existing habi tat is poor quality or.
imparted at project-sites an.a through the other environmental problems occur, a captive,
population can be maintained until the problem~'
(erstwhile) Central Crocodjle,B.reeding and can be solved or another appropriate habitat can
Management Training Institute, Hyderabad. be found for the animal in the v./ikL
);:- To involve the local people in the project
intimately );> When the existing habitat is fragmented, captive ·
breeding combined with management may
13.8. PROJECT HANGU.L provide the only hope for survival by providing
opportunities for genetic mixing.
);:- The Kashmir stag (Cervus affihishanglu) also
called Hangul is a subspecies of Central Asian > When a group of birds stays in one area of
Red Deer native to northern India.
degraded habitat because they are behaviorally
);:- It is the state animal of jammu & kasmir trapped, captive breeding and release programs
);:- This deer lives in groups of two to 18 individuals can help them to .expand their range.

in dense riverine forests, high valleys, and »-. By holding and breeding birds in captivity we •
mountains of the Kashmir valley and northern
Chamba in Himachal Pradesh. .. acquire knowledge about them that may be
);:- In Kashmir, it's found in Dachigam National difficult or.impossible to accomplish in the wild.
Park at elevations of 3,035 meters. Sometimes this scientific research provides some
of the information necessary to save a species..
);:- These deer once numbered from about 5,000
> If situation demands reintroduction or'
animals in the beginning of the 20th century.
Unfortunately, they were threatened, due to reestablishment in the natural habitat may also
habitat destruction, over-graziil.g by domestic arise.
livestock and poaching.
)ii> This dwindled to as low as,150 animals by 1970. » E.g. captive breeding of lion tailed macaque in
However, the state of Jammu & Kashmir, along
with the IUCN and the WWF prepared a project Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Chennai and in
for the protection of these animals. It lrecame mysorezoo.
known as ProjeCt Hangul. This brought great
results and the population increased to over 13.10. GANGES DOLPHIN
340by 1980.
» The Ministry of Environment and Forests
13.9. CAPTIVE BREEDING
notified the Ganges River Dolphin as the
~ . Captive breeding means that members. of a National Aquatic Animal.
wild species are captured, then bred and raised
in a special facility under the care of wildlife ~ The River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges-
biologists and other expert. Brahmaputra-Meghna and Kamaphuli-Sangu
river systems of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.
);:- Bringing an animal into captivity may represent
the last chance to preserve a species in the wild );:- It is estimated that their total population is
in these situations: around 2,000 and they are listed in Schedule I
of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972).
);:- When a population drops dangerously, captive
breeding can boost numbers. Captive-produced );:- The Ganges Dolphin is among the four
"obligate" freshwater dolphins found in the
world - the other three are the 'baiji' found in
the Yangtze River (China), the 'bhulan' of the
Indus (Pakistan) and the 'boto' of the Amazon
River (Latin America).

);:- Although there are several species of marine
dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater
habitats, these four species live only in rivers
and lakes.

j_ SHF1NKF1R IF1S ACF1iJEM'T ·:· CONSERVATION EFFORTS ·:·

~ The Chinese River Dolphin was declared Bengal porcupine, king cobra, flying squirrel,

functionally extinct by a team of international himalyan brown bear, etc.

scientists in 2006. );.> Animals listed in schedule 3 and schedule 4

);> In India, the Ganges River Dolphin is threatened are also protected, but the penalties are lower

by river water pollution and siltation, accidental compared to schedule 1 and part 2 of schedule

entanglement in fishing nets and poaching for 2. Examples of animals listed in schedule 3 are

their oil hyaena, hogdeer, nilgai, goral, sponges, barking

~ In addition, alterations to the rivers in the deer, etc. Examples of animals lis~ed in schedule
form of barrages and dams are separating 4 are mangooses, vultures, etc. '

populations. Various organizations, including ) Animals listed in schedule 5 are qalled "vermin"

the WWF-India in Uttar Pradesh have initiated which can be hunted. Mice, rat, icotnmon crow

programs for conservation and re-introduction . and flying fox (fruit eating bats' are the list of

of the River Dolphin. animals (only 4 nos) in schedule 5 [i.e. vermin].

13.11. SCHEDULELIST-WPA, 1972 )- Cultivation, Collection, extractlion, trade, etc.
l.
of Plants and its derivatives listed in schedule

);> WPA 1972 consists of 6 schedule lists, which give 6 are prohibited. Red Vanda, bliite Vanda, kuth,

varying degrees of protection. pitcher plant, beddomes cycad and ladies slipper

? Poaching, smuggling and illegal trade of · ortltid are the list of plants listed in schedule 6.

animals listed Schedule 1 to schedule 4 are [a detailed description of the sChedule 6 plants

prohibited. Animals listed in schedule 1 and have been given in 10.6 of this book]

part II of schedule 2 have absolute protection -

offences under these are prescribed the highest

penalties. Examples of animals listed in schedule

I 1 are lion tailed macaque, rhinoceros, great
indian bustard, narcondam hornbill, nicobar
megapode, black buck, etc. Examples of animals
J. listed in schedule 2 are rhesus macaque, dhole,

I

,,SHRNKAR IRS ACADEMY f(-'j. ENVIRONMENT)&··.

---"----------1~ CHAPTER· 14 ~1------:..,-,-,......----

.· n1nate is the long-term average qf a ./

. r~gion's weather events. The Eattks 14.1.GLOBAL WARMING

C, .. , <;lima~e is not static. Over the billioI1~l$>f Earth has warmed at an unprecedented rate over
the last hundred years and partictilarly over the last
years of earth's existence, it has changed manyti~~s two decades. Since 1992, each yeat h<\S been one of the
20 warmest years on record. 2010~aS the hottest year
toin response rii:iti.tral causes like sun spot, ice age eoxnt.rre.emcoerdw,ewatohrelrdewvie.ndtes,.Asuncuhpassu~r.<.g.g·i.•~f. :i....·i~. ·e.t...sh.·.·1e·1·h. aematowuanvteosf,

glaciations, etc. and strong tropical storms, is rusq/ap:tibtited
"Climate change" means a change of climate

which is attributed directly or indirectly to human "Global warming is an avedge fucrease in the

activity that alters the composition of the global temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth's

I atmosphere and which is in addition to natural surface and in the troposphere, which can contribute
climate variability observed over comparable time
periods. to changes in global climate patterns. Global
warming can occur from a variety of causes, bo~

However, when today people talk about'climate natural and human induced. Irr.coH\inon usage>.
change', they mean the changes in climate over the ~,global warming" often refers. 'fa;>, tl:te Warming
that can occur as a result of increased ¢missi9hs of
I last 100 years which is caused predominantly by greenhouse gases from human activities." . ·

·I human activi.ty. 14.1.1. Global Warming - Impacts ·

t The phrase 'climate change' represents a change )> Rise in Sea level
in the long.:.tetm. weather patterns. Climate change )> Changes in i:ainfall patterns. ... .· </
is not a change of weather in a particular day; itis )> Increased likelihood of exttefu~~Y.etitK'$.ti~.·as
heat wave, flooding, hurric¥tf!s;~~~; . ' ;<
the cumulative change of long term weather pattern

i.e. changes in, climate. For example, ifs possible that )> Melting of the ke caps'. ., <:;; .. ·

a winter daXiriJammu, could be sunny and mild, )> Melting of glaciers. n .. of.•..,...i·~..~..,>~~b, p.• l;tlations
but the average weather, the climate, tells us .that )> Widesp read vanishi g
Jammu's winters will mainly be cold and inciude
due to habitat loss. ·

snow and r;rln. The change in the pattern ofJaIXµIli.:l(s )> Spread of disease (like ni~i~~ etc:)..
winters from the normal winter pattern represei!t~
)> Bleaching of Coral Reefsi •
an epitome of climate change. ·!
)> Loss of Plankton due to warm,h19' ofseas.
Climate charige·'is the meas\lrablt!. eff.t:idt& 9£ •·

continual warming trend. Climate chan~~is \!~:
measured in major shifts in tempei:a~~r, {;·
snow, and, wind patterns lasting. decaQ.~~;o;r;:

Humans are creating climate chari_~~by~·

large amountS of fossil fuels (coal;'oii,tta~~( >· '
deforestation (when forests are·cut d9;~1torlhit§eiJ,

they can n~ longer store ca:tboh, and :the carbortis

released to the atmosphere).

• SHFINKAR IAS ACADEM'-r' fr.? ENVIRONMENT Y.->3

14.2. GREENHOUSE EFFECT 14.2.1. What is the Greenhouse Effect?

The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring
phenomenon thatblankets the earth lower atmosphere
and warms it, maintaining the temperature'Suitable
for living things to survive.

Just as greenhouses, that keeps the air warm
inside its chamber, water vapor and green house gases ·
warms the Earth. Greenhouse gases play an important
role in the balance of Earth's cooling and warming.

According to one estimate, in the absence of
naturally 9ccurring green house effect, the average
temperatu~e ofthe earth surface would be -190 C
instead of present value of 150C and the earth would
be a frozen lifeless planet.

The greenhouse effect is a process (similar to
green house) caused by greenhouse gases, which
occur naturally in the atmosphere. This process
plays a crucial role in warming the Earth's surface,
making it habitable.

However, human-generated greenhouse gas_
emissions upset the natural balance and lead to
increased warmth.

Green House

A greenhouse/ glasshouse is a building made

of glass chambers in which plants are grown in

cold col,llltries or in cold climate areas. Therl". ,is a ·

continued increase in temperature in green hbitse

even when the outside temperature remained ~ow.

It protects plants from frost. '

IA SHANKRR IRS RCRi:JEM"r' ·:· CLIMATE CHANGE•!•

Incoming Energy 14.3.GREEN HOUSE GASES

Y The Sun emits energy that is transmitted to );:- Greenhouse gases" means those gaseous
Earth. Because the Sun is very hot, the energy is constituents of the atmosphere, both natural
emitted in high-energy short wavelengths that artd anthropogenic, those absorbs and re-emit
penetrate the Earth's atmosphere. infrared radiation.

Absorption 14.3.1. WATER VAPOUR

> About 30% of the Sun's energy is reflected Water vapour is the biggest overall contributor
to the greenhouse effect and humans are not directly
directly back into space by the atmosphere, responsible for emitting this gas in quantities
clouds, and surface of the Earth. The rest of the suffi,c:ien,t to change its concentration in the
Sun's energy is absorbed into the Earth's system. atmosphere. However, C02 and other greenhouse
gasesis increasing the amount of water vapour in
Emission the airbyboosting the rate of evaporation.

> The Earth re-emits energy back into the Unlike C02, which can persist in the air for
centuries, water vapour cycles through the atmosphere
atmosphere. Because the Earth is cooler than quickly, evaporating from the oceans and elsewhere
the Sun, the energy is emitted in the form of .before, comfug back down as rain or snow.
infrared radiation, at wavelengths longer than
the inconting solar energy. Since the rate of evaporation rises with
temperature, the amount of water vapour in the air
Role of Greenhouse Gases at any one time (and the amount of warming it causes)
is strongly related to the amount of other greenhouse
);:- Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb gases in the air.
much of the long-wave energy (infrared
radiation) emitted from the Earth's surface, 14.3.2. CARBON DIOXIDE
preventing it from escaping from the Earth's
system. The greenhouse gases then re-emit this Car.hon Effect on. Green House Gas {Thermel <l>Panslon - -..·:-·
energy in all directions, warming the Earth's
surface and lower atmosphere. Warmer ,,~,r,_.
atmos here+
Human Role I W2 I-Mari!'. · . Greenhouse - More · .,. ~- .
u• elf1lct ocePans ewpolltlon ~ ore._,
);:- The atmospheric concentration of greenhouse
gases has increased significantly over the past - .::.~~·
two centuries, largely due to human-generated
carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil :.~ ~. -- ', - _,.
fuels, deforestation.
);:- Carbon dioxide (COz) is the primary gr¢'eµhouse
);:- This increase has amplified the natural gas emitted through human activities;; Carbon
greenhouse effect by trapping more of the dioxide is naturally present in the atmosphere

I as part of the Earth's carbon cyc;le (tjle natural
circulation of carbon amongthe ab:ppsphere,
energy emitted by the Earth. This change causes
Earth's surface temperature to increase. oceans, soil, plants, and animals). . , .·

);:- Human activities are altering the carbon cycle

bpth by adding more co2 to the atmosphere

and by reducing the ability of natural sinks, like

forests, to :i:~move co2 from the atmosphere.
);:- While co2 emissions come from a variety of

natural sources, human-related emissions are
respo:nsi}:>le for the increase that has occurred in

the atm9sphere since the industrial revolution.

The main sources

i. The com,bustion of fossil fuels to generate
electricity.

ii. ·The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline
and diesel used for transportation.

,lSHRNKRR IRS RCRLJEMY F/J ENVIRONMENT ~:\'\ --1

iii. Many industrial processes emit C02 through or managed in lagoons or holding tanks, CH4 is j
fossil fuel combustion. produced. Because humans raise these animals
for food, the emissions are considered human-
iv. Several processes also produce C02 emissions related. Globally, the Agriculture sector is the
through chemical reactions that do not involve primary source of CH4 emissions
combustion, for example, the production and
consumption of mineral products such as );> Industry: Methane is the primary component of ~
cement, the production of metals such as iron
and st~el, and the production of chemicals, etc. natural gas. Some amount ofCH4 is emitted to the f·-~.l l~

Emissiorls and Trends atmosphere during the production, processing, 1

);> Changes. in C02 emissions from fossil fuel storage, transmission, and distribution of crude
comb!Ustion are influenced by many factors,
including population growth, economic growth:, oil & natural gas. ·
changing energy prices, new technologies,
changing behavior, and seasonal temperatures. ~ Waste from Homes and Businesses: Methane is

);> Between 1990 and 2010, the increase in C02 generated in landfills as waste decomposes and l
emissio~ corresponded with increased energy from the treatment of wastewater.
use by an expanding economy and population. f
:\:ij~~i's ate.···
Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions
e!i-.(~imal~ v·
);> The most effective way to reduce carbon ;. : --: ..:·-- .. ->>>.-:>
dioxide (C02) emissions is to reduce fossil
fuel consumption. Other strategies include l14.3;4. NITROUS OXIDE
Energy Efficiency, Energy Conservation; Carbon
Capture and Sequestration. );> Nitrous oxide (N20) is naturally present in the
> ~:;~::£:::::~:::::::: i
fossil fuel combustion, wastewater management, ' , ·

and industrial processes are increasing the

amount of N20 in the atmosphere. .·. :

Sources
Natural sources:

.. );> Natural emissions of N20 are mainly from
bacteria breaking down nitrogen 1n soils and
14.3.3. MEl1ttANE the oceans.

);> Methane (Ctl4) is emitted by natural sources Human induced':

such as wetlands, as well as human activities );> Agriculture. Nitrous oxide is emitted when
people add nitrogen to the soil through the use
such as leakage from natural gas systems and of synthetic fertilizers. Nitrous oxide is also
the raising of livestock. emitted during the breakdown of nitrogen in
livestock manure and urine, which contributed
m);> . Natural processes in soil and chemical reactiolls to 6% of N20 emissions in 2010.
the atmosphere help remove CH4 from the
atmosphere.

Source

Natural sources: );> Transportation. Nitrous oxide is emitted when
transportation fuels are burned.
);> Wetlahds are the largest source, emitting CH4
);> Industry. Nitrous oxide is generated as a
from bacteria that decompose organic materials byproduct during the production of nitric acid,
which is used to make synthetic commercial
in the absence ()f oxygen. ·: fertilizer, and in the production of adipic acid,
which is used to make fibers, like nylon, and
);> Smaller sources include termites, oceans, other synthetic products.
sediments, volcanoes, and wildfires. · ·
);> Removal: Nitrous oxide is removed from the
Human induced: atmosphere when it is absorbed by certain types
ofbacteria or destroyed by ultraviolet radiation
);> Agricuit\.lre: Domestic livt!Stock such as cattle, or chemical reactions.
buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels produce large
amounts of CH4 as part of their normal digestive
process. Also, when animals' manure is stored

------···--··--···~

•!• CLIMATE CHANGE•!•

Transmission and Distribution of Electricity:

> Sulfurhexafluorideisused inelectrical transmission

equipment, including circuit breakers.

14.3.5. FLUORINATED GASES

They are emitted throughavariefy of industrial
processes such as aluminum and semiconductor
manufacturing & Substitution for Ozone-
Depleting Substances.

Many fluorinated gases have very high global > Black' caro'()tic(Bq is a solid particle or aerosol,
warming potentials (GWPs) relative to other
greenhouse gases. Fluorinated gases are well- (thougb,~~itJq1gas) contributes to warming of
mixed in the atmosphere,'spreading around the the atmqspl,t~r~.
world after they're emitted.
> Black c~rbon, commonly known as soot, is a
Fluorinated gases. ar.e ·remov.ed from the
atmosphere only when they are destroyed form of particulate air pollutant, produced
by sunlight in the far upp~r atmosphere. In
general, fluorinated gc:t~s, are the most potent from incon:iplete combustion. It consists of pure

and longest lasting type of greenhouse gases carbon iri. several linked forms.
emitted by human activities.
Source
> There are three main categories of fluorinated
> biomass burning,
gases- > cooking with solid fuels, and
> diesel exhaust,etc.
1. hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),

2. perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and What does BC do?

3. sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). > Black carbon warms the Earthby absorbing heat

Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances: in the atmosphere and by reducing albedo, (the

> Hydrofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, ability to reflect sunlight) when deposited on

aerosol propellants, solvents, and f_ire snow and ice.
retardants. These chemicals were developed as
a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) > BC is the strongest absorber of sunlight and
and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) because
they do not deplete the stratospheric ozone layer. heats the air directly. In addition, it darkens

snow packsand glaciers through deposition and

leads to melting of ice a.nd snow.

Unfortunately, HFCs are p'otent greenhouse > Regionally, BC disrupts cloudiness and monsoon
gases with long atmospheric lifetimes and
high GWPs, and they are released into the rainfall and accelerates melting of mountain
atmosphere throughJeaks, servicing, and
disposal of equipment in which they are used. glaciers such as the Hindu Kush-Himalayan

glaciers: · · · ··

Life time

Industry: );>- Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only
several'tfa.ys<~o weeks;
> Perfluorocarbons :ar~ ,coiri.pqtm.ds prodµced as
> 'fhus·f.t\e:\eff~cts of BC on the atmospheric
a by-product qf y~oµs ,W,fl:µ~lri;(tl _p;fpcesses
wa~g.i~<l:glacler retreat disappear within
associated with aluminUill-;p.rqciµW,011.<µ1.d the ·rrtortlliS~ofiJ:ed,µ't'ihg' etitlssions.

manufacturing of semi<:ond:µ.c;tors. ·. · farHow 1:hdiaciJritri'.butes to globe?

> LikeHFCs, PFCsgenerally havelong atmospheric > A(.:cofd.mgtcJ.es~;;i.tes, between 25 and35 percent

lifetimes and high.GWPs. of blaek~nin:the global atmosphere comes

> Sulfur hex.afluoride is used in i:na:gnesium from C'.J:rirla 911li,liJndia, emitted from the burning
of wood ancf£o~,d,tingin household cooking and
processing and semiconductor m¥t~a,cturipg, as
.through.the.use ofcoal to heat homes.
well as a tracer gas for leaj.< ci~tecticm, HFC-23 is

produced as a by-product of HCFC-22 production.

Q SHANKAR IAS . Rt;l=tOEM"r' \ i;: ·,, ENVIRONMEN_T ~

Government Measures can eject enough into the atmosphere ~~ .
lower temperature for a year or more until th~
..,_ Project Surya has been launched to reduce black sulfate particles settle out of the atmosphere. ' [..
carbon in atmosphere by introducing efficient
stove technologies, solar cookers, solar lamps 14.4.1. Forcing l
and biogas plants.
Altering the Energy Balance I
14.3.7. Brown Carbon
);> The power of a process to alter the climate is ·
>- Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and unidentified estimated by its "radiative forcing," the change
in the Earth's energy balance due to that process;
component of organic aerosol which has recently
come into the forefront of atmospheric research. );> Some climate tnrcings are positive, causing
globally averaged warming, and some are
>-- Light-absorbing organic matter (other than soot)
in atmospheric aerosols of various origins, e.g., causing cooling._ Some, such ·'fas from . .•.·.,·.:··.·.·.t.··
soil humics, humic-like substances (HULIS), tarry C02 concentration, are well
materials from corobustion, bioaerosols, etc. known;
>.·l:iegative,
Possible Sources of Brown Carbon are
mcreased
>- Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood others, su~h as from aerosols, are more uncertain.

burning) is shown to be a major source of brown Natural Forcmgs ·· ·
carbon
);> Natural forcings include changes in the amount
»- smoke from agricultural fires may be an of energy emitted by the Sun, very slow variations
in Earth's orbit, and volcanic eruptions.
additional source..
);> Since the start of the industrial revolution, the only :.
)'- "Brown carbon;' is generally referred for natural forcing with any long-term significance >
greenhouse gases and "black carbon" for has been a small increase in solar energy reaching .
particles resulting .from impure combustion, Earth. However, this change is not nearly enough

andsuch as soot dust. to account for the current warming.

Human-Induced Forcings

);> Climate forcing can also be caused by human
activities. These activities include greenhouse
gas and aerosol emissions from burning fossil ·
fuels and modifications of the land surface, such
as deforestation.

Human-Generated Greenhouse Gases

14.4.CLIMATE FORCINGS );> Greenhouse gases are a positive climate forcing; ·.
that is, they have a warming effect. Carbon
>- Climate "forcings" are factors in the climate dioxide emitted from the burning of fossil fuel .
is presently the largest single climate forcing·
system that either increase or decrease the effects agent, accounting for more than half of the total
to the climate system. positive forcing since 1750.

);> Positive forcings such as excess greenhouse Human-Generated Aerosols
gases warm the earth while negative forcings,
such as the effects ofmost aerosols and volcanic );> Burning fossil fuels adds aerosols to the
eruptions, actually cool the earth. atmosphere. Aerosols are tiny particles in the .
atmosphere composed of many things, including
);> Atmospheric aerosols include volcanic dust, soot water, ice, ash, mineral dust, or acidic droplets.

from. the c;ombustion of fossil fuels, p<li;ticles );> Aerosols can deflect the Sun's energy and impact :
from ])urning forests.and mineral dust: ··
the formation and lifetime of clouds. Aerosols :
);> Dark carbon-rich particles. such as soot. from
are a negative forcing; that is, they have a cooling
diesel engines absorb s\ffi].ight and warm the
effect. ·
atmosphere. .

);> Conversely, exhaustfrom high-sulphur coal or oil Causes of Climate Change
produce light aerosols that reflect sunlight back
to space, producing a cooling effect. Aerosols );> While natural forcings do exist, they ;ire not
that form naturally during volcanic eruptions significant enough to explain the recent global
cool the atmosphere. Large volcanic eruptions warming. Human activities are very likely:
responsible for most of the recent warming.

---------··········~--··-·····-

·:· CLIMATE CHANGE •!•

How to estimate the effect of each gas? # Gases with a higher GWP absorb more energy,
per pound, than gases with a lower GWP, cµid
>-- Each gas's effect on climate change depends thus contribute more to warming Earth.
on three main factors.:
GWP & Lifetime of Green House Gases:
How much of these gases are in the atmosphere?
s. GAS GWP LIFETIME
• Concentration, or abundance, is the (100-year) (years)
amount of a particular gas in the air. No 50-200
Greenhouse gas concentrations are 1 Carbq\tJili\~xide 1 12
measured in parts per million, parts per 2 Me 21 120
billion, and even parts per trillion. 310 1-270
3 140-lt700
• One part per million iS equivalent to one
drop of water diluted into about 13 gallons 4 6,500-9,200 800-50,000
of liquid (roughly the fuel tank of a compact s)
car).
5

How long do they stay in the atmosphere? 6 sulfur. 23,900 3,200

• Each of these gases can remain in the hexafi-q9ride (SF6)

atmosphere for different amotints of time, Carbon dioxide (C02) has a GWP of 1 and serves as
ranging from a few years to thousands of a baseline for other GWP values.
years.
);» The larger the GWP, the more warming the gas
• All of these gases remain in the causes. For example, methane's 100-year GWP
atmosphere long enough to become well is 21, which means that methane will cause 2L
mixed, meaning that the amount that is times as much warming as an equivalent mass ,,
measured in the atmosphere is roughly
the same all over the world, regardless of of carbon dioxide over a 100-year time period.
the source of the emissions.
);» Methane (CH4) has a GWP more than 20 times
How strongly do they impact global higher than C02 for a 100-year time scale. CH4
temperatures? emitted today lasts for only 12 years in the
atmosphere, on average. However, on a pound-
• Some gases are more effective than .for-pound basis, CH4 absorbs more energy than
others at making the planet warmer and C02, making its GWP higher.
"thickening the Earth's blanket (green
house gas)". > Nitrous Oxide (N20) has a GWP 300 times that

• For each greenhouse gases, a . Global of C02 for a 100-year timescale. N20 emitted
today remains in the atmosphere for an.average
Warming Potential (GWP) has been of 120 years.
calculated to reflect how long it remains
in· the atmosphere, on· average, and how ~ Chloro fluoro carbons (CFCs), hydro fluoro
strongly it absorbs energy. carb9ni:> (HJ«;:s), hydro chloro fluoro carbons
(HCFCs);. perfluoro cilrbons (PFCs), and sulfur
· 14.5.GLOBALWARMINGPOTE~ hexafluoripe (SF6) are called high-GWP gases
bei;:ause; tor a given amount of mass, they trap
Global warming pot~ntiiM,qe~91bes the impact substantially tnore heat than C02.

of each gas on globaj ~a~g'.. ,,. ,

The two most importantcl1arci,d;eris:tics ofa GHG

in terms of climate impact are how well the gas

absorbs energy (preventing it from :irilm~diately ·

escaping to space), and how long the gas stays

in the atmosphere.

The Global Warming Potential (GWP) for a gas is
a measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs
over a particular period. of time (usually 100
years), compared to carbon dioxide.

fl SHANKAR IRS AC:AiJEMY f. \. [NVIR.ONMENT
14.6. GLOBAL EMISSIONS
14.6.1. GLOBAL EMISSIONS BY SOURCE » Transportation (13'/.i of 2004 global greenho

gas emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions fi
this sector primarily involve fossil fuels bum
for road, rail, air, and marine transportati
Almost all (95%) of the \Vorld's transporta ·
energy comes from petroleum-based fue
largely gasoline and diesel.

? Commercial and Residenti,11 Buildings (8.
of 2004 global greenhouse gas emissions)
Greenhouse gas emissions from this sector a •
from on-site energy generation and burn·
fuels for heat in buildings or cooking in ho

» Waste and Wastewater (3'X, of 2004 glob,

greenhouse gas ernissi ons) TI1e largest source
greenhouse gas emissions in this sector is lan ..
methane (CH4), followed by wastewater meth ·
(CH4) and nitrous oxide (N20). Incineration
some waste products that were made with foss

fuels, such as plastics and synthetic textiles, al.Sh

results in minor emissions of C02.

14.6.2. BY GAS

» Energy Supply (26% of2004 global greenhouse

gas emissions) - Th~ burnirlg of coal, natural
gas, and oil for electricity and heat is the
largest single source ofglobal greenhouse gas
emissions.

» Industry (19% of 2004 global greenhouse gas

emissions) - Greenhouse. gas emissions from
industry primarily involve fossil fuels burned

on-site at facilities for energy. also includes

emissions from chemical, metallurgical, and
mineraltrartsfortnation processes not associated

with energy consumption.

» Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry

(17% of 2004 global greenhouse gas emissions)
- Greenhouse gas emissions from this sector
primarily include carbon· dioxide (C02)

emissions from. deforestation, land clearing

for agriculture, and fires or decay of peat soils.
This estimate does not include the C02 that

ecosystems remove from the atmosphere.

'» Agrieulture (14% of 2004 GHG emissions) -

·. globalgreenhouse gas emissions)-Greenhouse
gas ~missions from agriculture mostly come
from tl,ie managem~nt of agricultural soils,
livestock, rice prod~ction, and biomass burnirlg.

J. SHRNKRR IRS AC:Ai:JEM"r' ·:· CLIMATE CHANGE •:•

14.7.RECEDING GLACIERS-A ~ Climate change may cause variations in bqth
SYMPTOM OF GLOBAL
CLIMATE CHANGE temperature and snowfall, causing changes in

y 150 years ago there were 147 glaciers in Glacier mass-balance of a glacier. :. - . ~·-- - ·'
National park, but today only 37 glaciers remain, ·-· .
and scientists predict that they are likely to ' 11-\'e: -,- ·-'.:_,;").__'·,-~·~:.:
melt by the year 2030. Similarly, glaciers all ~ 1-fiinalayas and other mountain chains
across the Himalayas and Alps are retreating
and disappearing every year. There are almost of. central Asia support large regions that are
160,000 glaciers found in Polar Regions and high - :J~l~Cii~ed. These glaciers provide critical water
mountain environments. Therefore, researchers
are increasingly using satellite remote sensors sµpplies to dry countries such as Mongolia,
to routinely survey our world's glaciers in a
fraction of the time. western China, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The

14.7.1. Impact of glacial retreat . ,,)os~:ofthese glaciers would have a tr~endous

~ The retreat of glaciers in the Andes and the .: imp:act on the ecosystem of the regi9ii..\
Himalayas will havea potential impact on water
supplies. )>, W6rld;s'leading scientists predictthat global
. ~ k~g ~ay pose serious threat to n~ti~nal and

glol;:)al economy and the environment.

~ The poor and low-lying countries that wil1 find

it-diff:!cu1t to cope with the da:rµages caused by

chmiing climate and rise in sea l~~el ·

14.7.2. Chain of events Compustion of foss · ue to

'-. :.1' · '• Human Activities .

l Increase of Green J~qus€;!. Gases

Climatic C anges .
Me ting o . G -::i~iers ·, ,< ·

.··" ·.·,(:

Su S:

.··!-.
'\."

Large-sea e estrucffon: o ;Ecosystems an

Extinction dfs' ices

-~----------1~ CHAPTER-15 ~i----

A ci~ ~a~n. is t·h..e rainfall that has been (b) Dry Deposition
ac1d1faed. It 1s formed when oxides
of sulfur and nitrogen react with the Y In areas where the \\.·eather is dry, the acitj
moisture in the atmosphere. It is rain with a pH of chemicals may become incorporated into dust
less than 5.6. Acid rain is particularly damaging or smoke and fall to the ground through dry
to lakes, streams, and forests and the plants and deposition, sticking to the ground, ,,....,".....''""'''·'
animals that live in these ecosystems. vegetation, cars, etc.

15.1. TYPES OF ACID DEPOSITION Y Dry deposited gases and particles can be
from these surfaces by rainstorms,~~·~~·~
"Acid rain" is a broad term referring to a mixture
of wet and dry deposition (form of deposition Y This runoff water makes the resulting
material) from the atmosphere more acidic.

(a) Wet Deposition ):- About half of the acidity in the atmosphere
back to earth through dry deposition.

~ Ifthe acid chemicals irtthe air are blown into areas The pH scale
where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the
ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist. ? The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or
basic (alkaline) a solution is
~ As this acidic water flows over and through the
ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals. ? It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of? is neutral.

~ The strength of the effects depends on several );>- A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater
factors, including how acidic the water is; the than 7 is basic.
chemistry and buffering capacity of the soils
involved; and the types of fish, trees, and other ~ It was devised in 1909 and it is a logarithmic
living things that rely on the water.
index for the hydrogen ion concentration in

an aqueous solution. ·

~ Precipitation removes gases and particles from ~ pH values decreases as hydrogen ion levels
increases.
the atmosphere by two processes :
~ A solution with pH 4 is ten times more acidic
(i) rain-out which is the incorporatio~ of than solution with pH 5, and a hundred times
more acidic than solution with pH 6.
particles into cloud drops which fall to the
> Whilst the pH range is usually given as 0 to
gro:und, and ·
14, lower and higher values are theoretically
(ii) washout which occurs when materials possible.
below the cloud is swept down by rain or
snow it falls.

15.1.1. Sources of compounds causing acid ...::i.11n,·:~<l'ici:·.:,.I1

(a) Sulphur

(i) Natural sources:
• seas and oceans,
• volcanic eruptions,
• Biological processes in the soil
Decomposition of organic matter.

Jl SHFINKFIR IRS ACFliJEM"r' ·:· ACIDIFICATION•:·

(ii} Man-made sources: >-- They are often upland and / or mountainous
areas, which are well-watered by rain and srtow.
• burning of coal (60% of 502} and
>-- Du,e to the abundance of water, they )possess
• petroleum products (30% of 502), and
numerous lakes and streams and also ha1ve more
• The smelting of metal sulfide ores to obtain
the pure meta.ls. land covered with vegetation. ··

• Industrial production of Sulfuric acid >-- Being upland, they often have thin soils and
in metallurgical, chemical and fertilizer glaciated bedrock.
industries.
World scenario
(b) Nitrogen
Many parts of Scandinavia, Canada, the North
Natural sources: and Northeast United States and Northern Europe
(particularly West Germany and upland Britain)
• lightening, share these features. Across the Atlantic there
are number of acid rain hot spots including Nova
• volcanic eruption, and Scotia, Southern Ontario and Quebec in Canada, the
Adirondack Mountains in New York, Great Smoky'
• Biological activity. mountains, parts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the
Colorado Rockies of the US.
Anthropogenic sources:
In India
• Forest fires
In India, the first report of acid rain came from
• Combustion of oil, coal, and gas Bombay in 1974. Instances of acid rain are being
(c) Formic acid reported from metropolitan cities.

• Biomass burning due to forest fires In India, the annual S02 emission-has almost·
doubled~ the last decade due to increased fossil fuel
causes emission of formic acid (HCOOH) consumption. Lowering of soil pH is reporte4 from
and formaldehyde (HCHO) into the north-eastern India, coastal Karnataka and I<~rala,
atmosphere. · parts of Orissa, West Bengal an,d Bih<U'.• .. · · .

• Large fraction formaldehyde gets photo Indicators

- oxidation and forms formic acid in the Li':b~q~ se,rve. as good. bio-indicators· for air.
atmosphere. polltltiorf In;the variety of pH around 6~0, several
animals, those are important food items for fish
These are three main compounds that cause
acidification of rain in the atmosphere. decline, These include the freshwater shrimp,
(d) Other Acids:
crayti.sh,.snajls qnd some small mussels.
• Chlorine
::"". ' -::;- ' ,, .,. '
• Phosphoric acid
15.1~3: 'C~~mistry of Acid Rain
• Hydrochloric acid (smokestacks). . ·Six bJ~c steps are in:volved in the formation of
• Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
acid rain: ·
(automobiles). These become carbonic acid.
1. The atmosphere receives oxides of sulfur and
Does it oct;nrs only in industrial areas alone? nitrogen from natural and man-made sources.

SOX and NOXthat create Acid Rain are often 2. Soln~ of these oxides fall back directly to the
transported to distances feil away from their points ground as dry deposition, either close to the
of origin by the wiIJ.d so that the adverse effects place of origin or some distance away.
of pollution are also experienced at place rem,ote
· from the place of genesis. The problem is :further
compounded as th~ environmental damagecifo.sed,
by acid rain is not uniform, but is area-specific.

' _c;;_'' '
'

15.1.2. Common characteristics of acid rain areas:

Areas which are proneto acid-rain attacks have
some common characteristics :

>-- They are concentrated in the industrialized belt
of the northern hemisphere.

r} ENVIRONMENT \~,

' •,. - • The nitrate level of the soil is also found to·?
decrease.
3. Sunlight stimulates the formation of photo-
oxidants (such: a~ o~one) in the atmosphere. • The impact of acid rain on soil is less

4. These photo,q:x:i.d~ts .interact with the oxides India; because Indian soils are mostly
of sulfur an~, pitrogen to produce H2S04 and
HN03 by oxidatio11. alkaline, with good buffering ability. ·

5. The oxides are. 0f sulfur and nitrogen, photo- (b) Vegetation
oxidants, and other gases (like NH3)
Acid rains affect trees and undergrowth iri '
6. Acid rain containing ions of sulfate, nitr.ate'- forest in several ways, causing reduced growth or
ammonium and hydrogen falls as wet deposition. abnormal growth:

Difference behf'ee11normallyand anthropogenically . );> The typical grO\vth-decreasing symptoms are:
acidified lal;es :, ' ·
• Discolqration and loss of foliar_biomass

Natural Anthropogenically • Loss of feeder-root biomass, especially in .
acidified lakes conifers

Brown to yellow.colour..Very dear water caused • Premature senescence (aging) of older
needles in conifers
caused by humic by reduced primary

substances productivity • Increase in susceptibility of damage to
secondary root and foliar pathogens
ConcentraU'onis. of bissol ved organic
• Death of herbaceous vegetation beneath
dissolv~cl :·q~g~~i~, carbon concentrations affected trees

carbon are. high wftile are low. Whereas the

transparency i,s Jovg . transparency is high.

Low pH but 'w~ll Poorly buffered • Prodigious production of lichens
buffered.. ·, · affected trees.

Abound with aquatic Some of the more • Death of affected trees.

life. ~erisitive taxa, such as (c) Micro organisms

blue-green algae, some • pH determines the proliferation of any
microbial speciesin a particularenvironment .
bacteria, snails, mussels and the rate at which it can produce.
·.; ciri~taceans, mayflies
• The optimum pH of most bacteria and
and fish either decrease protozoa is near neutrality; most fungi--
prefer an acidic environment, most
' ·or I are eliminated. blue-green bacteria prefer an · alkaline
environment.

• So after a long run of acid rain, microbial

species in the soil and water shift from

bacteria-bound to fungi-bound and cause

'· an imbalance in the microflora. ·

15~1A. Impact Of Acid Rain • This causes a delay in the decomposition
of soil organic material, and an increase in ..
(a) Soil fungal disease in aquatic life and forests.

• ·The·excllange betWeen hydrogen ions· and (d) Wild life

the nutrie!!,L,.;;~9:0~ lik~ p9tassi1Jlll and The effects of acid rain on wild life are not v~ry {

magnesium in thesoil cause leaching bf the obvious and are therefore, difficult to document F

. ilutrients, m<iking·th~ soil infertile; ' . Nevertheless, several direct and indirect effects of\,
acid rain on the productivity and survival of wildlife 1·~
• This is accompanied by a decrease in the populations have been reported.

. respiration ofs'oil'.organisms. • Acid rain can directly affect the eggs and. Y
tadpoles of frogs and salamanders that/
m• .An· ll:lcfease in· anunorua in the. soil due to breed in small forest ponds.
a decrease other ~utrients decreases the

rafe of decornpositfori.

! . •• '

·.... SHANKFI~ IFIS FICFIOEM'r' ·:· ACIDIFICATION+!•
(f) Acid rain damage on Materials
• It has been postulated that .acid rain can
indirectly affect wildlife by allowing metals Material Type of Impact Principal Air
bound on soils and sediments to be released Pollutants
into the aquatic environment, where toxic
substances may be ingested by animals, like Metals ,. Corrosion, Sulphur Oxides
birds, that feed in sueh an environment.
Buildmg• tarnishing and other acid
• Other indirect effects of acid rain on stone
wildlife are loss or alteration of food and gases
habitat resources.
.•
Humans
Surface erosion Sulphur Oxides
Acid rain affects huma;n health is a number of
soiling, black and other acid
• The obvious one.s ar~ 'had smells, reduced
visibility; irrit&tiqn.of:the skin, eyes and the crust formation gases
respiratory tract. .
Ceramics and Surface Acid gases,
• Some directeffects inc1,µdedrronic bronchitis, especially
pulmonary emphyse1Ila ~~ cancer. glaS$ '< •· • · .. erosion, surface fluoride-
containing
• Some indirect effects jnclude food poisoning .. · ·crust formation
vis a vis drinking water and food. Sulphur
.' . ,···.. - .. dioxides,
• An increase in the levels of toxic heavy- . hydrogen
metals like manganese, copper, cadmium s a.na·Paint1 sulphide
and aluminium also contribute to the Surface erosion,
detrimental effects on human health.
organic discolouration,

coatings soilitig ·

Paper · Embrittlement, Sulphur Oxides
discolouration

Photographic Micro- Sulphur Oxides

Materials blemishes

Textiles Fading, colour Nitrogen oxides,,

change ozone I·

Leather Weakening, Sulphur oxides
powdered
surface

Rubber Cracking Ozone

(g) Socio-economic impacts of acid rain :

The adverse impact of acid rain on farn:iing
and fishing leads to the deterioration of life quality
indices like GNP and per capita income, especially
in the predominantly agricultural and developing
countries ·like India

15.1.5. TriggerEffect of Acid Rain on Pollut.lll.t$: .

A low pH of the rainwater and subs~que:nt .
incteas~d acidity in the environment can trigge:r off
or aggravate the effects of certain harmful pollutants.

(i) Mercury:

• · Methyl merc;ury and .related short chain

.alky( me.rcurial compounds are most
d.aI\ger,pu~ to h,umans, as they accumulate

·inedible flsh tissue., ·
• A),~ough acid deposition may not increase

the production of methyl mercury, it may
increase the partitioning of methyl mercury
into the water column.

• The use of lime has helped in reducing the
mercury levels in fish.

_m. SHRNKRR IRS RC:Ri:IEM'T' . ·,,. ENVlRONMENT 5,-~

(ii) Aluminium: );>- desulphurizatiun

e Acidified waters are knovvT\ to leach >- decreasing emission of NOx from power stations
substantial amounts of aluminium from
watersheds. and

);>- Modification of engines.

e Even at relatively low levels, aluminium );>- Emissions of SOx can be controlled by
has been implicated in dialysis dementia,
a disorder of the central nervous system, e Converting to sulphuric acid.
which may be toxic to individuals with
impaired kidney function. • Converting it to elemental sulphur.
L

<.rl~.· ·• Neutralizing it and using it in
(iii) Cadmium:. manufacture of other products. the

• Cadmium can enter the drinking water 15.2. OCEAN ACIDIFICATION ·'> ,·:

.. ·~ f

supply through corrosion of galvanized pipe L

or from the copper-zinc through corrosion Oceans are ·an important reservoir for C0 , ···:····~.'-.t.E·-.·'.· l
2
of galvanized piper or from the copper-zinc
absorbing a significant quantity of it (one-third) ·i
solder used in the distribution systems. produced by anthropogenic activities and effectively
.' ,

• A decrease in water pH from 6.5 to 4.5 can buffering climate change. rE
Ocean acidification is the change in ocean \.·-1:.':..:.··.-\
result in a fivefold increase in cadmium tc
chemistry - lowering of ocean pH (i.e. increase ·1:·,
and could cause renal tubular damage. i.

(iv) Lead: 1in concentration of hydrogen ions) driven by the

• Foetuses and mfants are highly susceptible uptake of carbon compounds by the ocean from the h
to drinking water lead contamination.
atmosphere. · l e:
i.As the uptake of atmospheric c~rbon dioxide by b
• High blood lead levels in children (>30 mug/
Ml) are believed to induce biochemical and the ocean increases, the concentration of hydrogen. ~i ii
neurophysiological dysfunction. n
<<Jions in the ocean increases, the concentration of
• However, lower than normal blood levels
of lead can cause mental deficiencies and Jcarbonate ions decreases, the pH of th~ ocea~s
behavioural problems. decreases and the oceans be~o~e le_ss alkaline - this .r fi
process is know as ocean ac1d1ficahon.
.f l~
15.2.1. co2 effect on ocean acidification
(v) Asbestos: . 1J

Si
Asbestos in natural rock can be released by a
acidic waters. Corol'"fs
il
£X111't grow
lco2
less plankton -----+ I-
I vr -"'Ocean production

· -Ackliftc:atlon

The uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide is t;J
occurring at a rate exceeding the natural buffering ·
capacity of the ocean. fl

15.1.5. Control Measures : The pH of the ocean surface waters has
decreased by about 0.1 pH unit (i.e. 26% increase
Reducing or eliminating the sources of pollution in ocean hydrogen ion concentration) sir:i.ce the
by beginning of the industrial revolution.

);>- Buffering- the practice of adding a neutralizing The ocean currently has a pH around 8.0 and ·•·•· ·
agent to the acidified water to increase the pH is is therefore 'basic' and it is nearly impossible, .•.
one of the important control measures. Usually
lime in the form of calcium oxide and calcium chemically, for all of it to actually become a pH .
carbonate is used.
less than 7.0. Why do we therefore refer to 'ocean : (
);>- Reducing the emission of 502 from power
stations by burning less fossil fuel, using acidification'? ·.
alternate energy sources like tidal, wind,
hydropower etc., That is because acidification is the direction of · ·
travel, the trend, regardless of the starting point.
);>- using low sulphur fuel; Acidification refers to lowering pH from any starting
point to any end point on the pH scale.

.~ SHRNKR~ IRS RCRiJEMY ·:· ACIDIFICATION ·:·

Forms of calcium carbonate The above reaction and release of'hydrogen ions

Calcite and aragonite are two different forms increases acidity and thus pH level is redaced.
of calcium.carbonate.
A second reaction, between carbonate ions, C02
1. Calcite is the mineral form found in the shells and water produces bicarbonate ions.
of planktonic algae, amoeboid protists, some
corals, echinoderms, and some molluscs (e.g. The combined effect of both these reactions not
oysters)i it is relatively less soluble. only increases acidity but also lowers the availability
'of carbonate ions.
2. Aragonite is a more soluble form of calcium
carbonate; it is found in most corals, most 15.2.3. Effect of ocean acidification
mollusks (small planktonicsnails), as well as
some species of algae. . Seawater absorbs co2 to produce carbonic acid

15.2~2. Influence of other factors (~C03), bicarbonate (HC03--) and carbonate ions

Various factors can locally influence the chemical (CQ32-)·.
reactions ofC02 with sea water and add to the effects
to ocean acidification. For example, These carbonate ions are. essential to the
calcification process that allows q:ertain marine
i. Acid rain organisms to build their calcium ~bonate shells
and skeletons (e.g. hard tropical c9fa1s, cold water
Acid rain can have a pH between 1 and 6 and corals, molluscs, crustaceans, sea urchins; certain
has impact on surface ocean chemistry. It has major types of plankton, lobsters, etc).
effect on ocean acidification locally and regionally
but very small globally. However, increases in atmospheric C0 levels
2
ii. Eutrophication
lead to decrease in pH level, increase in the
Coastal waters are also affected by excess concentration of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions,
nutrient inputs, mostly nitrogen, from agriculture, causing a decrease in the concentration ofcarbonate
fertilizers and sewage. The resulting eutrophication ions.
leads to large plankton blooms, and when these
blooms collapse and sink to the sea bed the Thus carbonate ions are less available and
subsequent respiration ofbacteria decomposing the calcification is therefore harder to achieve, and may
algae leads to a decrease in sea water oxygen and an be prevented altogether. Imagine trying to build a
increase in C02 (a decline in pH). house while someone keeps stealing your bricks.

How it reacts? This impact of ocean acidification may therefore
have potentially catastrophic consequences for
The term'ocean acidification' summarizes several ocean life and many marine species of economic
importance.
processes that occur when C02 reacts with sea water.
Two reactions are particularly important. Firstly, 15.2.4. Mitigation

the formation of carbonic acid with subsequent ;,. Reducing C02

release of hydrogen ions: > promoting government policies to cap co2

co2 + lip ' H:zCq H+ ~ HC03-- emissions,

(Carbon dioxide) + (\Vater) (Carbonic acid) (Hydrogen ions) + (Bicarboriafe ions) > eliminate offshore drilling, .
> by.advocating for energy efficiency and
> Al~emative energy sources such as wind power,

solar, etc.

15.2.5. Saturation horizons

> ··Deep, cold ocean waters are naturally

u:ndersaturated with carbonate ions causing the
shells of most calcifying organisms to dissolve.

).>- Surface waters are oversaturated with carbonate
ions and do not readily dissolve shells of
calcifying organis1i:is.

> The saturation horizon is the level below which

calcium carbonate minerals undergo dissolution.

4SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY r:: ~' ENVIRONMENT ~Y\r

~ Those organisms that can survive below buried in the sediment and trapped for a long time,
the saturation horizon do so due to special
mechanisms to protect their calcium carbonate but where the shells sink in deep water nearly all the.
from dissolving.
CaC03 is dissolved, thereby not locking the carboI\
~ As ocean acidification causes this horizon to away for millions of years. ··.
rise vertically in the watercolumn so more and
more calcifying organisms will be exposed to The current increased rate of dissolution
undersaturated water and thus vulnerable to
dissolution oftheft: shellsand skeletons. of atmospheric co2 into the ocean results in an;;

~ The saturation horiz0.n Of calcite occurs at a imbalance in the carbonate compensation depth
greater ocean depth thah that for aragonite, but (CCD), the depth at which all carbonate is dissolved. ·
both horizons have moved closer to the surface
presently when compared to the 1800s. As the pH of the ocean falls, it results in a
shallowing of the lysocline and the CCD, thus
exposing more of the shells trapped in the sediments
to understaturated conditions causing them to i
dissolve, which.will help buffer ocean acidification..
but over a long time scale of a thousand years. ·· '

15.2.6. Ocean acidincatlori and the short and UPWELLING
long-term fate of carbon in the system
? Surface Coastal regions periodically experience
On long ti.m~~caI~s (>.i0(),000 years) there is a upwelling events where deeper ocean water
natural balance rnaiJ1tajned b~tween the up-take circulates onto continental shelves and near-
shore areas.
and release of C::()z gn Earth; the C02 produced by
? This exposes the productive upper ocean
volcanoes, the main.natura.J. source of C02, is taken ecosystems to colder water containing more

up by the produd:ioh of organic matter by plants and nutrients & more co2.

by rock weathering on l~d. · );> As ocean acidification makes the upper
oversaturated layer of sea water shallower
However, rock weathering takes tens of each year, these natural upwelling events will
thousands of years so will not remove the current more often cause undersaturated water to well
anthropogenic input of C02 to the atmosphere and up and flow to the shore.
ocean fast enough.
~ Coastal marine organisms that form shells are
On shorter time scales (>1,000 years), the ocean unaccustomed to such events, and periodic
has an internal stabilizing feedback linking the exposures to these significantly different
ocean carbon cycle to the underlying carbonate rich conditions may affect these communities.
' sediment known as carbonate compensation.
15.2.7.Winners and losers
The upper layers of the ocean tend to be
supersaturated with CaC03 so little dissolution takes » The growth and level of photosynthesis of
place, whilst the deep ocean is undersaturated and
carbonate readily dissolves. certain marine phytoplankton and plant species

The first boundary between these two states may increase with higher C02 levels, but this is
is known as the lysocline, the depth at w.hich by no means a general rule.
dissolution strongly increases in the deep ocean.
? For others, higher C0 and rising acidity may
The CaC03 in the form of dead shells sink to the 2
sea bed. Ifit is of sha.llow water depth; the majority is
have either negative or neutral effects on their

physiology.

? Therefore, particular marine plants will be·.....
'winners', while others will be 'losers' and. ·
some may show no signs of change but change.
·is inevitable.

A reduction in atmospheric C02 levels is essential ·

to halt ocean acidification before it is too late. ·

------------1~ CHAPTER• 16 ~r-------------

O zone is a natural gas; it is an allotrope 16.1. OZONE HOLE
of oxygen consisting of three atoms of
oxygen bound together in a non-linear; 16.1.1. Change in equilibrium
fashion. The chemical symbol of ozone is 03.
,... The equilibrium between the 1formation and
It is found in two different layers of the destruction of ozone, has bedn: upset by the
atmosphere. Ozone in the troposphere is "ba~"
because it dirties the air and helps to form smog, influx of several substances int~'fhe atmosphere
which is not good to breathe. Ozone in the .
stratosphere is /1good" because it protects life on which react with ozone and de~ttoy it.
Earth by absorbing some of the sun's harmful Ultra
Violet (UV) rays. · ,... The rate at which ozone is being de.stroyed is much
faster than the rate at which it is bemg formed.
The ozone layer is very important because the
configuration of the ozone molecule and its chemical ,... It implies that there is a significant decrease in
·properties are such that ozone efficiently absorbs the concentration of ozone in a particular region
ultraviolet light, thus acting like a sun-screen. of the atmosphere, hence the name 'ozone hole'.

The UV rays cause direct damage to the > The best example of such an ozone hole is the,
genetic material or DNA of animal and plant cells.
Exposure of mammals to UV light has been shown atmosphere over the Antarctic ~hich has only''
to act on the immune system, thereby making the about 50 percent of the ozone that originally
body more susceptible to diseases. occurred there. The actual realization of ozone-

In doing so, ozone protects oxygen at lower depletion came only in 1985.
altitudes from being broken up by the action of
16.1.2. Sources
ultravioletlightand also keeps most of the ultraviolet
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): .
radiation from reaching the earth's surface.
CFCs molecules are made up of chlorine,
It helps in reducing the risks of mutation and
hann to plant and animal life. Too much UV rays fluorine and carbon.
' can cause skin cancer and will also harm all plants
and animals. Life on Earth could not exist without Where it is used?
the protective shi~l~ of the ozone layer.
They are used as ·refrigetatj~Jpropellents

in aerosol sprays, foaming agents in plastic

manufacturing, fire extinguishfug agents, solvents

for cleaning el~ctronic ariclmE:!tallicrn~ponents, for
freezing foods etc . .... . ' . ' ..

Two-thirds of CFC ii{ u:S.ecf'as t¢frigerants

wrute . one-:third is psed as}>lqw}ng a,,gerits in foam

mSUlation products. · ·
(:, .,, c. <' .: ' - .• - ~ ·: o. • • •

W:hy CFCs,,are,•US'ed?

CFCs·b.qs ii\ wide and varied application due to its
·propertieslike non-corrosiveness, non-inflammability,
lc'.>w toxicity and chemical stability, etc;

Liretime & removal of CFCs

Unlike other chemicals, CFCs cannotbe eliminated

fifomthe atmosphere by the usual scavengingprocesse8
lik~ photodissociation, rain-out and oxidation.

£\, SH=INKAR IAS ACAOEMY f<-l ENVIRONMENT ~"ii

Jnfact, the residence time ofCFCs in the atmosphere CFC substitutes characteristics
estimated to be between 40 and 150 years. During this
period, the CFCs move upwards by random diffusion, > The substitute for CFCs should be safe, low cost,
from the troposphere to the stratosphere.
increased energy efficiency of CFC replacement
The escape of CFCs technology, effective refrigerants with low .
ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) and low
The CFCs enter into the atmosphere by gradual global warming potential (GWP).

evaporation from their source. CFCs can escape into > CFC-12 (R-12) isa widely used refrigerant. HFC

the atmosphere from a discarded refrigerator. Since 134a (R-134a) is the most promising alternative
(R-143a) and (R-152a) can also be used.
the CFCs· are thermally stable they can survive in

the troposphere. But in the stratosphere, they are

exposed to UV radiation. · · .

The chemical reaction 16.1.4. Nitrogen Oxides:

The t;noleyU:les of CFCs when exposed to UV Source
radiation break up, thus freeing chlorine atoms. A
free chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule to The sources of nitrogen oxides are mainly
form chlonne monoxide (CIO). The molecules of explosions of thermonuclear weapons, industrial
chlorine monoxide further combine with an atom emissions and agricultural fertilizers.
of oxygen, This reaction results in the formation of
an oxygen molecule (02) and reformation of the free The chemical reaction
chlorine atom (0).
Nitric oxide (NO) catalytically destroys ozone.

Chlorine+ Chlorine monoxide Nitric oxide + ozone _ _... Nitrogen dioxide
+oxygen +Oxygen
Nitrogen dioxide Nitric oxide
Chlorine monoxide +monoxide +Oxygen
+monoxide (o)
Chlorine+ Oxygen
Nefreac.tioll: ··
The escape of N 0
ozone+ monoxide (o) ____.. oxygen+ oxygen 2

Nitrous oxide (N 0) is released from solid
2

through denitrification of nitrates ~der anaerobic
conditions and nitrification of ammonia under
aerobic conditions. This N 0 can gradually reach the

2

middle of the stratosphere, where it is photolytically
destroyed to yield nitric oxide which in turn destroys
ozone.

Other substances:

The depletion of 03 is catalystic. The el~~ent Bromine containing compounds called halons
and HBFCs, i.e. hydrobromo fluorocarbons [both
that destroys 03 (i.e chlorine) is being refotaj.ed.at used in fire extinguishers and methyl bromide (a
the end of cycle. A single chlorine atom d,e~ti:oys' widely used pesticide)]. Each bromine atom destroys
thou~ands _of ozone molecules before encoriilt~ring: hundred times of more ozone molecules than what
reactive mtrogen or hydrogen compound~' that a chlorine atom does.

eventuall,yretum chlorine to its reservoirs. .. • · Bromine + ozone -+ Bromine monoxide
+Oxygen
Bromine monoxide Oxygen + Bromine
+ chlorine monoxide +chlorine

Bromine (Br) combines with ozone forming
bromine monoxide (BrO) and Oxygen (02). The
BrO further reacts with chlorine monoxide (CIO) ·
to give oxygen (02) and free atoms of bromine (Br)
and chlorine (Cl). This free atoms can further react
with ozone.

-------····-·~·-~··

IRS ACAi:lEM.,.. ·:· OZONE HOLE ·:·

Sulphuric acid particles: These particles free Co nvers10nof Chlorine. from
. ,chlorine from molecular reservoirs, and convert "Active" to "Inactive" States
. reactive nitrogen into inert forms thus preventing
Jhe formation of chlorine reservoirs. . . f.:_"'"ttt:•••:•••: UV R:adi:aticn

Carbon tetrachloride (a cheap, highly toxic .. Cl
solvent) and methyl chloroform (used as a cleaning
solveht for clothes and metals, and a propellant in a + t -t
. Wide range of consumer products, such as correction ..!!.,.... Cl0 N02 ... CIONOi
\fluid, dry cleaning sprays, spray adhesives) and
;other aerosols. OH4 ~ HCI

-chlorln1ted "Active" t
Fluorocarbon Chlorine "lmu:tiv•ft
Chlorine
(CFC)"

Monitoring the Ozone Layer Effect of Polar Stratospheric Clouds

> Some organizations that help in monitoring the ·inactive" "Active"
Chlorine
atmosphere and form a network ofinformations
+ ~tt+:... . . • __,}CZCH•"'2
communication about the atmosphere, UV Radiation: : ,: Chlorine 02
ct ..... CIO
including ozone layer monitoring are:
HCI Clz....... Os + __):
> World Meteorological Organization (WMO) ,:>·· Cl ....... CIO •UV
> World Weather Watch (WWW)
> Integrated Global Ocean Services Systems • ••• • . \._ t ...

(IGOSS) • ••• • · CliOz'

> Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) HNOa 02

16.1.5. Role of polar stratospheric cl~mds in There is a correlation exist between the cycle
ozone depletion. of ozone depletion and the presence of polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs) i.e. the ice particles-Qf
There are three types of stratospheric clouds. the cloud provided substrates for chemical reactions'· ·
which freed chlorine from its reservoirs. Usually the
They are: · reaction between HCl and ClON02 is very slow, but
this reaction occurs at a faster rate in the presence
1. Nacreous clouds extend from 10 to lOOkm in of a suitable substrate which is provided by the
length and several kilometers in thickness. They stratospheric clouds at the poles.
are also called 'mother-of-pearl' clouds due to
their glow with a sea-shell like iridescence. IHCl + Chlorine nitrate -+ molecular Chlorine J

·· 2. ,The second type of clouds contain nitric acid It results in the formation of molecular chlorine
instead of pure water. and nitric acid. The molecUlar chlorine formed in the
above reaction canbebroken down to atomic chlorine
3. The third type of clouds have the same Chemical and the ozone depletion reaction would continue. The
composition as nacreous clouds, but form at a PSCs not only activate chlorine, but they also absorb
slower rate, which results in a larger cloud with
no iridescence. reactive nitrogen; If nitt€1genr oxides were present

The chlorine released by the breakdown of they would combirte.withJ:ihlotine monoxide to form
CFCs exiSts initially as pure chlorine or as ~orine a reservoir of chlorinemtrate,(OONO),

monoxide (active chlorine I instable) but th~se two Dimer of chlorine rrtof1oxide : Stratospheric
chlorine monoxide reatjs~thitSelf forming a dimer
forms react further to form compouhds Quorine
free0202. Thisdiin~~s~~silydi,ssociated by sunlight,
nitrate and HCL that are stable (iriacfive'dUdrine).
giving rise' to ch16rine'atoms which can further
orine monoxide __. + . . ! react to de5troy ozone; ·. · ·
, ,Nitrogen dioxide
methyl,iUJI),~ti,qn(CH3 '_:;_. ;.'_,:
Every spring, q. holeas big as the USA develops
-+ Chlorine rutrate
in the ozone layer, over Antarctica, in the South
The stable compounds HCL and CLON02 are
reservoirs of chlorine, and therefore for chlorine to Pole. A smaller h()le develops each year over the
Arctii:;:, at the North Pole. And there are signs that
take part in reactions of any sort, it has to be freed.
the ozone layer is getting thinner all over the planet.

ASl'!:lr:;iNKRR IRS ACADEMY f6V ENVIRONMENT\,~

16.1.6. Why is the ozone hole predominant at );;> The ozone depletion over the northern
the Antarctic? hemisphere has been increasing steadily since
the winter of 1992.
> The Antarctic stratosphere is much colder. The
> Apart from the build-up of ozone depleting
l.ow temperature enables the formation of Polcir
stratospheric Clouds (PSCs), below 20 km. chemicals, the main cause is,the increasing cold
temperature in the arctic stratosphere which
> Ozone absorbs sunlight, causing the characteristic encourages the formulation of PSCs.

inc;rease in temperature with increase in altitud~ How ozone is measured?
int]:).~stratosphere. If ozone is being depleted,
the a~r becomes cooler, further adding to the > The ozone measurement instruments and
favotlrable conditions for the formation of PSCs
techniques are varied. , So:tne of them are
and ~tabilization of the vortex. The vortex is a
the Dobson spectrophotometer and the
ring ~f rapidly circulating air that confines the
filter ozonometer called M83, and total
ozone depletion in the Antarctic region. >
!• . ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS) in the

> · Th~ lp!1g~tjvity of the Antarctic vortex is an,other Nimbus-7 satellite. ·

· factor, enhancing favourable conditions for the The Umheher technique
deple):iotiot ozone. The vortex remains, in _fact,
thJioU'ghoutthe polar winter, well intomidspring > The most common measure of total ozone
whehfa.s"tlie vortex in the Arctic disintegrates by
abundance is the Dobson urtlt (named after
the time the polar spring (March-April) arrives. the pioneering atmospheric physical Gordon
Dobson) which is the thickness of the ozone
> Typical happenings in the winter months column (compressed at StandardTemperature
and Pressure (STP)) in milli~centimeters. At_
lei\ldir}g to.the ozone hole over the Antarctic. STP one Dobson unit is ~qu:al to 2.69xl020
molecules per square meter•.
);> . · Jn tfu~e.Antarctic winter Lc.:>gins, the vortex
G\~y~qp~.~d the temperature falls eno'l:lgh ~fqr 16.1.8. Environmental Effects Of Ozone
fu~r ggu~s, to form. Depletion

> ..nU,'.rq\gJuly and August PSCs denitrify and Decrease in the quantity of total-column ozone;
tend to cause increased penetration of solar UV-B
4$yd:r,atethe stratosphere throughpredpitatiop, radiation (290-315nm} to the earth's surface. UV-B
hyqcr,~,clJ.Jiprk acid and chlorine nitrate react radiation is the most energetic component of sunlight
reaching the earth's surface. It has profound effects
o:rt cloud surfaces to free chlorine and winter on human health, animals,. plants, micro-organisms,
materials and on air quality.·
. .te'tJ:lpereit:ures drops to their lowest point.
Effects of human and animal health
> lt't ~:Pt.¢ID:J::)er sunlight returns to the centre qf
> Potential risks include an increase in the
the *9,11;e)( as the austral spring begins and PSCs
~F~~useofincreasingtemperatrn;e. 00- incidence of and morbidity from eye diseases,
qo,a.nd, Og.BrO catalystic cycles destroy ozo11;e. skin cancer and infectious diseases.

>· During October lowest levels of ozon,e a:re > UV rad.iation has been shown in experimental

,reached.. systems to damage ~e cornea and lens of the eye.
Experiments in animals sho"1' that UV exposure
.> InN6veinber, Polar vortex breaks down, ozone- decreases the immune response to skin cancers,
infectious agents and other antigens and canlead
rith are from the mid-latitudes replenishes to unresponsiveneSl'i upon repeated challenges.

the Antarctic stratosphere and ozone-pqor' air > In susceptible (light-f)kpl coloured) populations,

sprna_ds over the southern hemisphere. UV.:B radiations is the key risk factor for
development of non-melanoma skin cancer
16.1.7~ Arctic Ozone Hole , .· · (NMSC}.

, • ,•. • . .-r.' ~- ~: . -'

». · 'If~. pz9i:ie hole has been increasingly ~vWlent

over the Arctic as well. ,

> . The.Ar.cticozonehole which swept across Britain

ifrMarch96 was the greatest depletion of ozone

'ever seen,in the northern hemisphere.

> SclentlstSclaim that it had been caused; in past,

by c\·.<fr~atic cooling of the upper atmosphere

iri-tfle1riorthern latitudes over:

,lSHRNKAR IAS ACAOEMY •:• OZONE HOLE ·:·

Effects on air quality

~ Reduction in stratospheric ozone and the

concomitant increase in UV-B radiation

penetrating to the lower atmosphere result in

higher photo dissociation rates of key trace

gases that control the chemical reactivity of the

troposphere.

Effects on terrestrial plants ~ This can increase both production and

~ Psy¢hological and developmental processes of destruction of ozone (03) and related oxidants

plants are affected by UV-B radiation. · · such as hydrogen peroxj.de (F(202), which are

~ Response to UV-B also varies conside'rably known to have adverse ~ff'ed$;ophuman health,

among species and also cultivars df'tfle'same terrestrial plants, and outdoor fiiaterials.

•• !. .! ,

speeies. In agriculture, this will n.Ei·2essitate ~ Changes in the atmO!iiph~ri,c;concentrations

usin:g more UV-B tolerant cultivars and breeding of the hydroxyl raqic~'(QkJ:iiUay change the

new ones. atmospheric lifetimes of "cli:ill,~#cally important

~ In forests and grasslands, this is likely tO result in gases such as methane (CR4) and the CFC
substitutes.)
Changes in the composition of species; therefore

there are implications for the biodiversity in ~ Increased tropospheric reactivity could also lead

different eco-systems. · to increased production of particulates such as
cloud condensation nuclei, from the oxidation
~ Indir.ect changes caused by UV-B such as
changes in plant form, biomass allocation to and subsequent nucleation of sUlphur, of both
parts of the plant, timing of developmental
phases and second metabolism. may be equally antropogenic and natUral origin (e.g. carbonyl
orsometimes more important that the damaging
effects of UV-B. sulphide and dimethylsrilphide. ·

Effects on aquatic ecosystems Effects on materials

~ Exposure to solar UV-B radiation has been > Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring bio-

shown to affect both orientation mechanisms~ polymers, as well as some other materials of
'. '. •. - -• l ..
commercial interest are adversely affected by
and motility in phytoplankton, resqlting in
solar UV radiation..
reduced survival rates for these. organisms:
~ The application of these materials! particularly,
> Solar UV-B radiation has been found to cause
plastics, in situaticms whlep ~emand routine
damage in the early developmental stages
exposure to sUnlight is o~y ·J?<?~si~,le through the
of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians an~ other
use of light-stabiliz~ an.dI ~r s,urface treatment
animals. The most severe effects are.decreased
reproductive capacity and impaired lar~al to protect them from Surtlight.

, development. > Any increase in solar liy~B conteritdue to partial

Effects ori bio-geochemical cycles i ozone depletion, w:ill"'~~ll~~Q~~' 9ccelerate the

> Increases in solar UV radiation coul~ affect photogradation rat~'s <:)1f.1ieij ID,aterials, limiting

their life outdoors, ··· ' ·· ··

.._~

terrestrial and aquatic bio-geoehemi<:i;\li .cycles,

thus, alteringbothsources and sinks of~ouse

and chemicatly important trace ga5es.,;:f ;,;

> >. _;: :. ~ ! :

These potential changes wquld collmb,11te to

bio-sphere atmosphere feedbacks thap~einforce

the atmospheric build-up of these gases.

• ' •• ·,_·!

----..,.--------j~ CHAPTER· 17 ~1----------~

17.1.AGRICULTURE AND FOOD levels, could mainly affect agriculture through
inundatiof! of low lying lands.
SECURITY
> In a recent study, the International Commission
);:> Climate chanie can affect crop yield as well as
the types of crops that can be grown in certain for Snow and lee (ICSE) reported that Himalayan
areas, by iinpacting agricultural inputs such as glaciers- that are the principal dry-season water
water for irrigation, amounts of solar radiation sources of Asia's biggest rivers - Ganges, Indus,
that affect plant growth, as well as the prevalence Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween and
of pests. Yellow are shrinking quicker than anywhere
else and that if current trends continue they
);:> Rise in temperatures caused by increasing could disappear altogether by 2035.
green house gases is likely to affect crops
differently from region to region. For example, > If agricultural production in the low-income
moderatewflTiliing(increase of 1 to 3°C in mean
temperatur~~ is expected to benefit crop yields developing countries of Asia and Africa is
in temperate regions, while in lower latitudes adversely affected by climate change, tht;
especially seasonally dry tropics, even moderate livelihoods of large numbers of the rural
temperature increases (1 to 2°C ) are likely to will be put at risk and their vulnerability to
have negative impacts for major cereal crops. insecurity will be manifold.

Warming Of rhore than 3oC is expected to have 17.1.1. Impacts on Indian agriculture
negative effect on production in all regions.
);:> A large part of the arable land in India is rain-
> The Third Assessment Report of the IPCC, 2001 fed, the productivity of agriculture depends on
the rainfall and its pattern.
concluded that climate change would hit the
poorest countries severely in terms of reducing > Agriculture will be adversely affected not only
the agricultural products.
by an increase or decrease in the overall amounts
> The Repoft ql~imed that crop yield wo.uld of rainfall but also by shifts in the timing of the
rainfall.
inbe reduced most tropical and sub-tropical
> Any change in rainfall patterns poses a serious
regions due to decreased water availability, and
new or changed insect/pest incidence. threat to agriculture, and therefore to the
economy and food security.
> In South Asia losses of many regional staples,
> Summer rainfall accounts for almost 70 per cent
such as rice, Inillet and maize could top 10 per
cent by 2030. of the total annual rainfall over India and is
crucial to Indian agriculture.
> .A!> aresult.of thawing of snow, the arpount of
> However, studies predict decline in summer
arable)ail.d in high-latitude region is likely to
.increase by reduction of the amount of frozen rainfall by the 2050s.
lands.

> At the same time arable land along the coast

Illies are bound to be reduced as a result of
rising sea level.

? Erosion, submergence of shorelines, salinity
of the water table due to the increased sea

£\ SHRNKRR IRS RCROEMY ·:· IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ·:·

> Semi arid regions of western India are expected > This will in turn le~d to reducing water

to receive higher than normal rainfall as availability, hydropower potential, and would
temperatures soar, while central India will change the seasonal flow of rivers in regions
experience a decrease of between 10 and 20 per
cent in winter rainfall by the 2050s. supplied by melt water from major mountain

> Relatively small climate changes can cause large ranges (e.g. Hindu-Kush, Himalaya, Andes).

water resources problems particularly in arid > By 2050s freshwater availability in Central,
and semi arid regions such as northwesflndia.
South, East and South-East Asia, particularlv
> Productivity of most crops may decrease due to
in large river basins, is projected to decrease. ·
increase in temperature and decrease in water
availability, especially in Indo-Gangetic plains. > A warmer climate wiUaccelerate the hydrologic

> ·This apart, there would be a decline in the cycle, altering rainfall, magnitude and timing

prodµctivity of rabi as compared to kharif season of run-off.
crops.
> Available research suggests a significant future
> Rising temperature would increase fertilizer
increase in heavy rainfall events in many
requirement for the same production targets
and result in higher CHG emissions, ammonia regions, while in some regions the mean rainfall
volatilization and cost of crop production.
is projected to decrease. ·
> Increased frequencies of droughts, floods,
> The frequency of severe floods in large river
storms and cyclones are likely to increase
agricultµral production variability. basins has increaseg puring the 20th century.

17.2.WATER STRESS AND WATER );> Increasing floods poses challenges to society,
- ·1NSECURITY physical infrastructure and water quality.

> Lack of access to water is a perturbing issue, > Rising temperatures will further affect the

particularly in developing countries. physical, chemical and biological proputies of
fresh water lakes and rivers, with predominantly,,,
· > Climate change is expected to exacerbate current adverse impacts on many individual fresh water ·
species, community composition and water
stresses on water resources. quality.
By 2020, between 75 and 250 million people are
projected to be exposed to increased water stress );> In coastal areas, sea level rise will exacerbate
due to climate change. water resource constraints due to increased
salinisation of groundwater supplies.
> Spreading water scarcity is contributing tp food
17.2.1: Impacts on water situation in India
insecurity and heightened competitioii.s for
water both within and between countries'. )- Water resom:ces will come under increasing
pressure in the Indian subcontinent due to the
As the world population ·expa~,~ij.: the· changing climate.

consumption of water. ~piral~ l1pwari,l~f1~~er );> The Himalayan glaciers are a sou,rce of fresh

problems are bound to mtens1fy. .. di;' water for perennial rivers, in particular the
~ -· ~ --r--.--:_: Indus, Ganga, and Br~~J}t1ga,th~ersystems.

Increase in temperature due to clim@:t~'®.~ge > In recent decades, the ~fuaj.~yat:l region seems

has been widespread over the globe. :- f-'' to have undergone Sll.PStantial .changes as a
Warming has resulted in decline in m9tJ;:ntai:n result of extensive land use (~.g. deforestation,
agricultural practices ru:\lfut;~mJization), leading
glaciers and snow cover in both hemi~pl\eres to frequent hydrologic?tl disasters, enhanced
and this is projected to accelerate throughout sedimentation and poll~tiori of lakes.
the 21st century.
> There is evidence that some Himalayan glaciers

have retreated significantlysince the 19th century.

> Available records suggest that the Gangotri

glacier is retreating about 28 m per year.

> Glacial melt is expected to increase under

changed climate conditions, which would lead

to increased summer flows in some river systems

for a few decades, followed by a reduction in f(-.;? ENVll~Ol\JMLf\JT .•~
,.flow as the glaciers disappear.
·------~'----··~--~-~----·~
)> As a result of increase in temperature significant
r In tJrdL'i tu meet this demand, augnwnL1tlc•n of
changes in rainfall pattern have been observed
tlw C.\isting water resources by dc\Tluprncnt
during the 20th century in India. · ol ,1cklitional sources of water or consei-v,1tion
of tlw vxisting resources and their efficient use
);> Aserious environmental problem has also been
· .witnessed in the Indo-Gangetic Plain Region \\·ill bv needed.
(IGPR) in the past whereby different rivers
(including Kosi, Ganga, Ghaghara, Son, Indus );> It is l'\'ident that the impact of rrlohal w,1n11incr
and its tributaries and Yamuna) changed their hb
course a number of times. thrcJb <tre many and alarming.

);> The recent devastating floods in Nepal and Bihar >- Water S(:'curity in terms of q1J ntitv ,rnd
· due to change of course of River Kosi is a case
in point. qu,1\ pose problems for both dc\·el\lpcd ,rnd
d1.'\·clnping countries.
);> Available study suggests that food production
has to be increased to the tune of 300 mt by 2020 > Iluwcv1.'r, the consequences of futmc clim,1tic
in order to feed India's ever-growing population,
whichis likely to reach 1.30 billionby the year 2020. ch,rngt' may be felt more severely in developing
countries such as India, whose ccunumy is
);> The total foodgrain production has to be \Jxgcly dependent on agriculture and is already
increased by 50 per cent by 2020 to meet the under stress due to current population increase
requirement. and associated demands for energy, freshwater
2md food.
);>i It is feared that the fast increasing deir.and for
food in the next two or three decades could be · Do you know?·
quite grim particularly in view of tile serious
problem of soil degradation and climate change. Indian Flying Fo~·a~ethe fruit eating bats.

);> The rise in population will increase the demand This species is foundin roosts in large colonies
· foiwater leading to faster withdrawal of water of hundreds to tho\lsa.fld~9findividuals on large
and this in turn would reduce the recharging trees in rural andurb~~~~!;ls, dose to agricultura!
.time of the water ·tables. fields, ponds .and by.m~,siQ:eof roads.

);> As a result, availability of water is bound to reach 17.3. RISE IN SEA LEVELS
critical levels sooner or later. During the past four
decades, there has been a phenomena.I increase >- Sea level rise is both due to thermal expansion
in the growth of groundwater abstraction
structures. as well as melting of ice sheets.

);> Growing demand of water in agriculture, > Satellite observations available since the early

industrial and domestic sectors, has J;>rqught 1990s show that since 1993, sea level has been
rising at a rate per year, significantly higher than
problems of overexploitation ofthe groundwater the average during the previous half-century.

resource to the fore. :1 > IPCC predicts that sea levels could rise rapidly

» The falling groundwater levels in variqµs parts with accelerated ice sheet disintegration.

qftJi.e country have threatened the sust,~abili,ty > Global temperature increases of 3-4°C could

of thegroundwater resources. ·r;. i result in 330 million people being permanently
or temporarily displaced through flooding
);> At present, available statistics on water ,9.eman~
>- Warming seas will also fuel more intense tropical
shows that the agriculture .sector is t11i{largest
storms.
consumer of water in India. ·
17.3.1. Impacts on Coastal States in India
> About 83% of the available water is used for
> The coastal states of Maharashtra, Goa and
a9riculture alone. If used judicio~sly, the
Gujarat face a grave risk from the sea level rise,
demand may come down to.about 68% by the which could flood land (including agricultural ·
land) and cause damage to coastal infrastructure
year 2050, though agriculture will still remain and other property.

· the largest consumer. >- Goa will be the worst hit, losing a large

percentage of its total land area, including many ·
of its famous beaches and tourist infrastructure.

·:· IMPACT OF CLIMATE: C::1J.i\NGE ·:·

r Mumbai's northern suburbs like Versova beach ,,giant squirr~.

and other populated areas along tidal mud flats ·pc:tricm forest .
and creeks are also vulnerable to land loss and
increased flooding due to sea level rise. mill forests int

);> Flooding will displace a large number of people ,,$ofsouthernlr{
from the coasts putting a greater pressure on the
civic amenities and rapid urbanisation. 17.4.IMPACTS ON INDIA'S
BIODIVERSITY
r Sea water percolation due to inundations can
~ India is a land of mega-biodiversity,
diminish freshwater supplies making water encompassing features from glaciers to deserts.
scarcer. However, climate change is posing grave threat
to its ecosystems.
)r The states along the coasts like Orissa will
experience worse cyclones. M1ny species living ~ Mountain ecosystems are hot spots of
along the coastline are also threatened. biodiversity. However, temperature increases
and human activities are causing fragmentation
.Y The coral reefs that India has in its biosphere and degradation of mountain biodiversity.
reserves are also saline sensitive and thus the
rising sea level threatens their existence too, ~ The Himalayan Ecosystem is considered as
not only the coral reefs but the phytoplankton,
the fish stocks and the human lives that are the lifeline not only to India but also to our
dependent on it are also in grave danger.
neighbouring countries such as China, Pakistan,
;r People living in the Ganges Delta share the flood
Nepal, owing to the perennial rivers that arise
risks associated with rising sea levels.
out of the melting glaciers. '.,.
17.4.ECOSYSTEMS AND BIO-
~ It is home to the largest amount ofglaciers after
DIVERSITY the North and the South Poles. However, climate

.)r Climate Change has the potential to cause - change is threatening this life giver drastically.
immense biodiversity loss, affecting both
individual species and their ecosystems that ~ It is also predicted that there will be an.increase
supporteconomic growth and human well being.
in the phenomenon of Glacial Lf!~e:Qutl?~r~t
The projected extinctions of flora and fauna Floods (GLOFs) in the eastern and th~ centlfal
in the futur.e will be human driven i.e. due to ·Himalayas, causing catasti;p,plii~;fl'Opdi,11.g
adverse impac(of human activities.
downstream,. with serious d'a.ip;~g~ li(} 'Iite.i
According to International World Wildlife Fund property, forests, farms, a. n.d. :l..l.u.:h.t.:._,,a,._.ftsM~·':~rw e•~J.i, :.
(WWF) species from the tropics to the poles are
at risk. » Tue melting glaciers of the ~~J~f~~11~\f~-~a

Many species may be unable to move to new serious impact given the fact.~t"tllf~Y:.giyerise
areas quickly enough to survive changes that
rising temperatures will bring to their historic to the perenniai rivers tha:t fi\trtF\irrJlotlrishes
habitats.
the agriculture. •'ii "'''/··v:;;i.;:.~1-~'*=~r
WWF asserted that one-fifth of the world's
most vulnerable natural areas may be facing a » The Himalayan rivers are closely interlinked
"catastrophic" loss of species.
with the lndo-Gangetic.Ecosy'stexn,, .which is
It have catastrophic impact on the marine
ecosystems. They will be affected not only by . primarily an agricultµral ecosrs~em, nearly
an increase in sea temperature and changes in
ocean circulation, but also by ocean acidification; 65-'70% of Iridians haVing agricriltt,ite as their
as the concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide
(carbonic acid) rises. '' p:nniary occupation. ·

This is expected to negatively affect shell Jhe)i National Environment Policy, 2006 states
forming organisms, corals and their dependent
ecosystems. ,th.at t:tielndian Desert Ecosystems (arid and

.semi-arid region) occupies 127.3 mha (38.8%)

of the country's geographical area and spreads

over 10 states. .

~ The Indian desert fauna is extremely rich in
species diversity of mammals and winter
migratory birds.

!\§~KR~ IRS ACADEMY f(l ENVIRONMENT ').}i

)> ·Recent studies have shown that ·deserts have ? Climatt• change has a direct impact on human
shown signs of expansion, thus leading to a health.

. process called desertification. ? For example, the warmer the clim<1te the
likelihood of its impact on human he<1lth
)> ~the climate patterns have altered the natural becomes worse.

attributes of a desert region; for example ? It is anticipated that there will be an incre;:ise in
the nurnber of deaths due to greater frequency
•tpe floods in the desert district of 'Barmer in and severity of heat waves and other extreme
weather events.
Rajasthan in 2006.
·? Clirnate change and the resulting higher global
)> Coastal .and Marine Ecosystem is one of the temperatures are causing increasing frequency
of floods ·and droughts leading to the risk of
assets of India. disease infections.

)> The mangrove forests (wetlands) of the rivers and ? Lack of freshwater during droughts and
;fue'coasts acts as carbon sink as well as a habitat for contamination of freshwater supplies during
a1:1J:lique and diverse species of plants and animals. floods compromise hygiene1 thus increasing
rates of diarrhoeal disease.
)> The wetlands act as a natural barrier to flooding
)> Endemic morbidity and mortality due to
(that may be caused by the rising sea levels) and diarrhoeal disease primarily associated with ·
cyclones. .floods and droughts are expected to rise in East,
South and South-East Asia due to projected
)> The most explicit event in the perspective of changes in hydrological cycle.

dim.ate change affecting the marine ecosystem )> Flooding also creates opportunities for breedirig
of disease carrying insects such as mosquitoes.
is the example of coral bleaching, ·
)> Areas affected by frequent floods and drought
)> Jh ·the Peninsular India, even the rivers of the conditions also witness large scale migration of
populations to relatively stable regions 1eading
Peninsula are dependent on the monsoons, thus to overcrowding and unhygienic conditions
resulting in transmission. of diseases like
the Perrlrisular Ecosystem is basically a monsoon Japanese encephalitis and malaria.

dependent ecosystem. )> Climate change is a major factor in the spread.· .
of infectious diseases. Diseases, confined to one
> India is heavily dependent on the monsoon to specific geographic region spread to other areas.
meetitsagricultural and water needs, arid also for
> The World Health Organization (WHO) in
protecting and propagating its ricltbiodiversity.
their studies have indicated that due to rising
Giifuate change is linked with the Changing temperatures, malaria cases are now being
;patf;errts observed inthe monsoons of India. reported for the first time from countries like •·
Nepal and Bhutan.
17.S. CLIMATE CHANGE AND
)> It has also been predicted that an additional
HEALTH 220-400 million people could be exposed to
malaria- a disease that claims around 1 million
> Climate change poses a host of threats to the lives annually.

survival of mankind. )> Dengue fever is already in evidence at higher
levels of elevation in Latin America and parts ·
» Each year, about 800,000 people die frorp causes of East Asia.

attributable to air pollution, 1.8 Il).iJJ.ibn from )> Studies suggest that climate change may swell
diarrhoea tesulting from lack of acce~s to clean the population at risk of malaria in Africa by 90 ·
million by 2030, and the global population at •.
water supply, sanitation, and poor hygiene, 3.5 risk of dengue by 2 billion by 2080s.

triillion ·from malnutrition and approximately

60,000 in·natural disasters. .

.» Awarmer and more variable climate would

.result in higher levels of some air pollutants,

increased :transmission of diseases through

unclean water and through contaminated food.

? Rising temperatures and changing patterns of •:· IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE •:•
rainfall are projected to decrease crop yields
in many developing countries, stressing food > The projections by WHO and IPCC suggest that
supplies. This will ultimately translate into wider
.prevalence of malnutrition/ undernutrition. ln the negative effects of climate change on health
some African countries, yields from rain-fed are greater.
agriculture could be reduced by up to' 50 per
cent by 2020. · > In addition, the negative effects are cori.cenfrated

? Emission of the Green House Gases have been on poor populations that already have
responsible for the depletion of ozone layer, compromised health prospects, thus widening
which protects the Earth from the harmful direct the mequality gap between the most and the
rays of the sun. Depletion of stratospheric ozone le(l.st privileged.
results in higher exposure to the ultra violet
rays of the sun, leading to an increase in the > The balance of positive and negative health
incidents of skin.cancer. It could also lead to an
increase in the number of people suffering from ifnpl:lcts will vary from one location to another,
eye diseases such as cataract. It is also thought
to cause suppression of the immune system: .and will alter.over time as temperatures continue

· f.:orise.

_ _---~~...__

18.1.CARBON SEQUESTRATION: atmosphere. These can be discussed under three
main categories:
> Carbon capture and storage, also known
> Ocean Sequestration: Carbon stored in oceans
as \CS pr carbqn sequestration, descril,>~s
the technologies designed to tackle global · through direct injection or fertilization.

warr:Qing by capturing C02 at power stations, > Geologic Sequestration: Natural pore spaces in
·indusfr'i<tl sites or even directly from the air and
geologic formations serve as reservoirs for long-
pern,rnnently storing it underground. term carbon dioxide storage.
~ Terrestrial Sequestration: A large amount of
> Carb~:fn_s~questration describes lo.ng-,term carbon is stored in soils and vegetation, which
are our natural carbon sinks. Increasing carbon
storage of carbon dioxide or other forms fixation through photosynthesis, slowing down
of carbpr} to either mitigate or defer global or reducing decomposition of organic matter,
warmirlg: · ., · · and changing land use practices can
carbon uptake in these natural sinks.
> It has been proposed as a way to slow the
> Geologic Sequestration is thought to have the
atmospheric and marine accumulation of
greenho'use gases, which are released by burning largest potential for near-term application.
fossil fuels.
Geologic Sequestration Trapping Mechanisms
Sinks
> Hydrodynamic Trapping: Carbon dioxide
> Carbon sequestration may be carried out by
trapped as a gas under low-permeability cap rock
pumping.carbon into 'carbon sinks'- an area (much like natural gas is stored in gas reservoirs).
that absorbs carbon.
> Solubility Trapping: Carbon dioxide can be
• Nattiral ;:;illks - Oceans, forests, soil etc.
dissolved into a liquid, such as water or oil.
• Artificial .sinks - Depleted oil reserves,
uhmineable mines, etc. > Mineral Carbonation: Carbon dioxide canreactwith

> Carbon capture has actually been in use for the minerals, fluids, and organic matterin a geologic
formation to form stable compo_unds/minerals; ·
years. The oil and gas industries have used largely calcium, iron, and magnesium carbonates.
carbon capture for decades as a way to enhance
oil and gas recovery. Only recently have ·we > Carbon dioxide can be effectively stored in the
started thinking about capturing carbon for
erivironmental reasons. earth's subsurface by hydrodynamic trapping
and solubility trapping - usually a combination
There are three main steps to carbon capture and of the two is most effective.

storage (CCS)-

> trapping and separating the C02 from other

gases,

> transporting this captured C02 to a storag~

location, and ·

> storing that C02 far away from the atmosphere

(underground or deep in the ocean).

Types of Sequestration:

> There are number of technologies under

investigation for sequestering carbon from the

IA SHRNKRR IRS RCRDEMY ·:· MITIGATION STRATEGIES.<·

18.2.CARBON SINK >- When lost they not only stop sequest~r.ip.g

Uniike black and brown carbon that contribute carbon but also release their stores of ca+bon,and
to atmospheric green house gases, green and
blue carbon sequestrate the atmosphere green become new sources of climate chang:i"S~~sing
house gases
carbon emissions which can last for c~tlft(rfes.
f\;,,:,j. ~.'·>
The Blue Carbon Initiative
·

Green Carbon > The Blue Carbon Initiative is the first integ~ated

Green carbon is carbon removed by program with a comprehensive and coor~ted
photosynthesis and stored in the plants and
soil of natural ecosystems and is a vital part of global agenda focused on mitigating c~iJiiate
the global carbon cycle.
change through the conservation and restOration
Many plants and most crops, have short lives
and release much of their carbon at the end of of ~oastal marine ecosystems. ·'

Irit~iy:i3Jional Cooperation ·' '·

> Conservation International (CI), the Intematipnal

each season, but forest biomass accumulates Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)', .and

carbon over decades and centuries. the .Intergovernmental Oceanic Commission

Furthermore, forests can accumulate large (IOC) of UNESCO is collaborating with
amounts of C02 in relatively short periods, governments, research institutions> non-
typically several decades. governmental and international orgarrlzafions,
and communities around the world to
J,> Afforestation and reforestation are measures
that can be taken to enhance biological carbon > Develop management approaches, financial
sequestration.
incentives and policy mechanisms for ensuring
Blue Carbon conservation and restoration of coastal Blue
Carbon ecosystems;

Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and marine Engage local, national, and international''
carbon sinks held by the indicative vegetation, governments to ensure policies .and reguliltions
marine organism and sediments. support coastal Blue Carbon conservation,

In particular, coastal ecosystems such as tidal management and financing;

marshes, mangroves, and seagrasses remove Develop comprehensive methods for coastal

carbon from the atmosphere and ocean, storing > carbon accounting; ·· '.
it in plants and depositing it in the sediment .
below them by natural processes. Develop incentive mechanisms su~ ~$' carbon
payment schemes for Blue Carbon,:ptq!~; and
These coastal ecosystems are very efficient at
sequestering and storing carbon - each square Implement projects around the.c~u.r1d that
mile of these systems can remove carbon from
the atmosphere and oceans at rates higher than demonstrate the feasibility qf C'\)~~~.al;~lue
each square mile of mature tropical forests.. Carbon accounting, management, .·~d):t\c¢ptive

agreements; ' : '·~:~· ·; .>

Furthermore, coastal ecosystems have been Support scientific research into therole and
found to store huge quantities of carbon in iffiportance of coastal Blue C:arboriecosystems
organic rid\ se9iments - up to 5 ·times more for climate change mitigation.

carbon than many temperate and tropical forests.

\ '.

~ These ecosysterns are found in all continents,

except Antarctica.· ·

Why is Blue Carbon Ecosystem Important?

ift ).:- Preventing degradation and destruction and ...
promoting restoration of co.astal ecm;ystems
is a significant tool to mi~gate climate change.

~ The coastal ecosystems of mangroves, tidal
marshes, and seagrasses are some of the most
rapidly disappearing natural systems on Earth.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing,

g SHr:INKr:I~ IFIS r:IC:r:IOEMY

18.3.CARBON CREDIT

);> A carbon credit is a tradeable certificate or Several species of nitr:·
permit representing the right to emit one tonne
ofcarbon or carbon dioxide equivalent (tC02e). J;iizobium, live ins''
~guminous trees.
» One carbon credit is equal to one ton of carbon gen'""fixing mycelial ba

dioxide, or in some markets, carbon dioxide iotically with the·.r({
equivalent gases. egume plants, indµ
. i~, Myrita and Rub.
How does orte earn a carbon credit?
_are capable of fPcil).~>
);> An organisation which produces one tonne less
of carbon or carbon dioxide equivalent than the 18.4. CARBON OFFSETTING:
standard level of carbon emission allowed for its
outfit or activitjr, earns a carbon credit. > Carbon offsets are credits ·for reductions in

How does I thelp? greenhouse gas emissions made at another
location, such as wind farms which create
> Countries which are signatories to the Kyoto renewable energy and reduce the need for fossil-
fuel powered energy.
Protocol under the UNFCCC have laid down
gas emission norms for their companies to be >• Carbon offsets are quantified and sold in metric
met by 2012. In such cases, a company has two
ways to reduce emissions. tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (C02e).

(i) It can reduce the GHG (greenhouse gases) > Buying one tonne of carbon offsets means there
by adopting new technology or improving
upon the existing technology to attain the will be one less tonne of carbon dioxide in the
new norms for emission of gases. atmosphere than there would otherwise have
been.
(ii) It can pe up with developing nations and
> Carbon offsetting is often the fastest way to
help them set up new technology that is eco-
friendly, thereby helping developing country achieve the deepest reductions within businesses
·or its companies 'earn' credits. This credit and it also often delivers added benefits at the
becomes a permit for the company to emit project site, such as employment opportunities,
~HGs in .its own country. However, only a community development programmes and
portion of carbon credits of the company in training and education.
developing country can be transferred to the
company in developed country. > For a carbon offset to be credible it must meet

Developmgcountries essential quality criteria, including proof that it
is additional (the reduction in emissions would
);> Developing countries like India and China not have occurred without the carbon finance),
that it will be retired from the carbon market so it
are likely to emerge as the biggest sellers and cannot be double counted, and that it addresses
issues such as permanence (it delivers the
Europe is going to be the biggest buyers of reductions it stated) and leakage (the emission
reduction in one area doesn't cause an increase
carbon credits. in emissions somewhere else)

> Last year global carbon credit trading was Example:

estimated at $5 billion, with India's contrib:ution: > Business Al is unable to reduce 100 tonnes of its

at around, $1 billion. C02 emissions in the short term.

> Chiri:a is curre;ntly the largest seller ofcarbon . > There is a project somewhere else in the world

credits controlling about 70% of the market which could save 100 tonnes easily, but they
need a cash injection.
share~
> For example, a community in India could swap
> Carbon, like any other commodity, has begun
from carbon intensive kerosene as an energy
to be traded on India's Multi Commodity source to solar panels but they can't afford
Exchange.· the solar panels.

> MCX has become first exchange in Asia to trade

carbon credits. -

.£SHANKAR IAS ACADEMY ·:· MITIGATION STRATEGIES·:·

,_, Through the purchase of carbon offsets, you barriers are not going to be WTO-compatible
provide the financial assistance to subsidise the
cost of getting solar panels onto housing, and and we will fight it." - the minister, MoEF
through that means you have enabled a saving
of 100 tonnes of C02. );>- Both United States and European Union have
discussed the possibility of imposing tariffs
Business Al has therefore reduced global net or other forms of "border carbon adjustment''
C02 emissions by 100 tonnes. on goods imported from countries with tax
regulations on greenhouse gas emissions.
The added benefit is thatBusiness Al has helped
facilitate a step change in local technology in a
developing market.

18.5. CARBON TAX :

Carbon tax is the potential alternative to the

'cap and trade' method currently used by the

protocol. ,· 18.6. GEO·ENGllNEERING:

This tax is based on the amount of carbon ? Geo-engineering primarily aims at modifying
contained in a fuel such as coal, etc. and cooling Earth's environment, defeating the
environmental damage and ensuing climate
The aim of this tax is to cause less fossil fuel use changes to make the planet more inhabitable.
and hopefully cause an incentive to use other Geoengineering, at this point, is still only a
sources of energy. theoretical Concept

If the carbon tax was implemented it would ? Hoisting parasols, placing mirrors in space,
be gradual and start at a low amount and whitening the stratosphere with sulfate aerosols,
increase over time to allow better industry and whitewashing building roofs to reflect sunlight
technology to be developed. or flinging iron filings into the ocean to promote
carbon-gulping algae are some of the modes.
Five primary reasons why a carbon tax could
prove more beneficial than the 'cap and trade' How Geoengineering Works: 5 Big Plans to Stop
system. Gl.obal Warming

Predictability- the tax could help predict energy 1. Copy a Volcano
prices which might also help investments in
energy efficiency and alternate fuels. ;,:. A volcanic eruption can bellow many million
tons of sulfur-dioxide gas into the atmosphere,
Implementation - a carbon tax coul<i be put into
use much quicker compared to the legalities that creating a. cloud that blocks some of the sun's
go along with the 'cap and trade' method.
radiation. By inj¢ctirig the atmosphere with
Understandable - the carbon tax is simpler to sulfur, some scientists believe they could
understand and may therefore be embraced
more by everyday people likewise block solar radiation and potentially

Lack of Manipulation - special interest groups coolthe planet.
have less of a chance to manipulate a carbon tax
because of its simplicity. ? Those clroplets are particularly good at scattering
the sun'slight back out into space. And because
Rebates like other forms of taxes, the .carbon sulfur doesn't heat the stratosphere as much
tax could be open for rebates to the public as other aerosols, it wouldn't work against the
cooling effect. Hydrogen sulfide is an evenbetter .
India's Position on carbon tax: candidate for atmospheric seeding than sulfur
dioxide.
India will bring a WTO challenge against any
"carbon taxes" that rich countries impose on 2. Shoot Mirrors Into Space
Indian imports.
,_, In order to deflect enough sunlight to bring the
"If they impose such a tax, we will take them to Earth's climate back to its pre-industrial level,
the WTO dispute settlement forum," "We will geoengineers plan to launch a mirror, the size of
deal [with this] through hard negotiations. Such

All Rights Reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without permission in writing. Im

!\.SHANKAR IRS ACRDEM'T p J ENVIRONMENT )-\A j

Greenland and strategically position it between » The chemical reaction vvi th the steam causes the :
the planet and the sun.
solid to release the carbon it has captured, whic:h
3. Seed the Sea with Iron
can then seize as liquid coy
;;.. Scientist suggests iron will be the key to tum » But pulling carbon dioxide from the atmosphere ·
things around. Phytoplankton, which dwell near
the surface, prefer iron. is only half the battle--afterwards it must be ·
sequestered, or permanently trapped.
';;> They are also adapt at pulling carbon out of the
atmosphere during photosynthesis. How sequestrated C0 can be commercials used?
2
> When they die.after about 60 days, the carbon
» Horticulturists need CO, in greenhouses for
the organisms have consumed falls to the bottom
of the ocean. plants to use during photc)synthesis,

> By pumpll{g iron into the sea and stimulating > For dry ice production, and
> For developing new kinds of plastic and concrete
phytoplankton to grow like crazy, scientist
believe, global warming could be reversed. that can be made with co2.

4. Whiten the Clouds with Wind-Powered Drawbacks
Ships ~ Scientists have no idea whether they could

> Scientist hopes, like the volcanic eruption, down some of these geoengineering projects
once they start.
the tops of clouds also reflect solar radiation.
Spraying a lot of seawater into the sky by wind > Geoengineering treats the symptoms of global
powered remotely activated ships to whiten the
clouds and thus it will reflect solar radiation. warming, and could very well undermine efforts
to address the root cause.
5. Build Fake Trees
» people may feel as thcmgh they don't need to
> ''artificial tree,", a scaled-down version of an
reduce their personal carbon emissions and
earlier prototyp~ sapable of capturing a ton of companies may continue to conduct business
as usual, expecting researchers to clean up the
carbon in theat::rllosphere per day. mess.

> Panels ~overing the surface of the tree--which » The cost, maintenance for geoengineering

would need to be about 50 square meters--will projects are too high.

be made of an absorbent resin that reacts with

carbon dioxide in the air to form a solid.

> It can be compared to a furnace filter, capable of

pulling particles out of the air.

> The panels, or "boxes," can be removed and

exposed to 113 F steam, which effectively cleans

the filter. ·

------------'.~ CHAPTER· 19 ~1-----------

19.1.INDIA'S POSITION ON 19.2.IND IA'S PROACTIVE
CLIMATE CHANGE CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE
CHANGE NEGOTIATIONS
);;.>- Prime Minister has stated that India's per capi ta
emission levels will never exceed that of the per );> Actively in"volved with G77 & China to evolve
capita emission levels of devefoped countries. commbn position on negotiations

);;.>- India cannot and will not take on emission );> Made 9 submissions to UNFCCC on Finance,
reduction targets because: Technology, Forestry and other areas,

• Poverty eradication and social and e.g.,
economic development are the first and
over-riding priorities. • Suggested a mechanism for technology
transfer and development
• Each human being has equal right to global
atmospheric resources (i.e., Principle of • Suggested a financial architecture for
Equity). climate change

• /1Commonbutdifferentiatedresponsibility" • Presented a proposal for comprehensive
is the basis for all climate change actions.
approach to REDD+
);;.>- India will continue to be a low-carbon economy
(World Bank study). );> Worked with China, Brazil, South Africa and33
other countries to present a joint proposal for
);;.>- India's primary focus is-on "adaptation", with emissionreduction targets by Annex 1 countries
specific focus for "mitigation". in .second commitment period

);;.>- India has already unveiled a comprehensive 19.3. CURRENT CARBON DIOXiDE
National Action Plan on Climate Change whose EMIS,SION$ IN INDIA
activities are in the public domain. Work on the
Action Plan has been initiated. );> India's co.2 e~ions per capita are well below

> Only those Nationally Appropriate Mitigation the worldis average. Per capita carbon dioxide
ofemissions s~irte regions in the world in 2004
Actions (NAMAs) can be subject to international
monitoring, reporting and verification that are are as follows:
enabled and supported by international finance
and technology transfer. J\> · t~PiP~~~\'J,tfof India's per capita GHG

> India wants a cmnprehensive 'ap.ptoach to. em1ssit1hs With some other countries

Reducing Emissions from D~forest;ltion & Forest Country Per-Capita Carbon-dioxide
Degradation (REDD) and advocates REDD+ emissions (metric tons)
that includes conservation, affor.estation and ,.-.
sustainable management of forests. 20.01
l]SA
> India advocates collaborative research in future
EU 9.40
low-carbon technology and access to intellectual
property rights (IPRs) as global public goods. Japan 9.87

China 3.60

Russia 11.71

India 1.02

World Average 4.25

.@. SHRNKi-IR li-15 i-ICi-IOEM'r' f{} ENVIRONMENT ~CA

19.4.0BSERVED CLIMATE AND 19.4.5. Impacts on Himalayan Glaciers

WEATHER CHANGES IN INDIA >- The Himalayas possess one of the largest

> India's National Communication (NATCOM) to resources of snow and ice and its glaciers form
a source of water for the perennial rivers such
UNFCCC has consolidated some of the observed as the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra.
changes in climate parameters in India. No firm
link between the documented.changes described > Glacial melt may impact their long-term lean-·•
below and warming due to anthropogenic climate
change has yet been established. season flows, with adverse impacts on the'
economy in terms of water availability and .
19.4.1. Surface Temperature hydropower generation.

> At the national level, increase of - 0.4° Chas > The available monitoring data on Himalayan

been observed in surface air temperatures over glaciers inditates that while recession of some .
the past century. A warmiri:g trend has been glaciers h$. Qccurred in some Himalayan regions ·
observed along the west coast, in central India, in recent y~an;, the trend is not consistent across the
the interior peninsula, and north-eastern India. entire molll).tain chain. It is accordingly, too early
However, cooling trends have been observed in to establish long-term trends, or their causation,
north-west India and pa,rls of south India. in respect of which there are several hypotheses.

19.4.2. Rainfall 19.5.CURRENT ACTIONS FOR
ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION
> While the observed monsoon rainfall at the all-
> Adaptation, in the context of climate change,
India level does notshow. ariy significant trend,
regional monsoon variations havebeen recorded. comprises the measures taken to minimize
the adverse impacts of climate change, e.g.
> A trend of increasing rnonso<:;;nseasonal rainfall relocating the communities living close to the
sea shore, for instance, to cope with the rising
has been found along the west coast, northern sea level or switching to crops that can withstand
Andhra Pradesh, andnottH-Westerriindia (+10% higher temperatures.
to +12% of the non:fial over 1:he last 100 years)
while a trend of decreasing monsoon seasonal > Mitigation comprises measures to reduce the
rainfall has been observed ()ver eastern Madhya
Pradesh, north-eastern India, and some parts of emissions of greenhouse gases that cause climate
Gujarat and Kerala (-6% to. · .6% of.the normal change in !}le first place, e.g. by switching to
over the last 100 years). .. ·.. renewable sources of energy such as solar energy
or wind energy, or nuclear energy instead of
19.4.3. Extreme Weather Events burning fossil fuel in thermal power stations.

> Instrument records over the past 13.0 years do > Current Indian government expenditure on

not indicate any marked long-term trend in the adaptation to climate variability, exceeds 2.6%
frequencies of large-scale droughts and floods. of the GDP, with agriculture, water resources,
Trends are however observed in multi-decadal health and sanitation, forests, coastal-zone
periods of more frequent droughts, followed by infrastructure and extreme weather events,
less severe droughts. being specific areas of concern.
19.5.1. AGRICULTURE
> There has been an overall increasing trend in
> Two risk-financing programmes support
severe stormindden~ along the coast at the rate
of 0.011 events per year. While the states of West adaptation to climate impacts. The Crop
Bengal and Gujarat have reported increasing Insurance Scheme sup-ports the insurance of
trends, a decline has been observed in Orissa.

19.4.4. Rise in Sea Level

> The records of coastal tide gauges in the north

Indian Ocean for more than 40 years, reports that
sea level rise was between 1.06-1.75 mm per year.
These rates are consistentwith 1-2 mm per year
global sea level rise estimates of IPCC