276 Renu Tyagi and Tattwamasi Paltasingh elderly should be obtained by them. The police need to be made more accountable for the protection of the elderly from crime as well as fear of crime. Police should implement neighbourhood watch programmes through community policing. Police-friendly mobile system should be implemented by police to attend elderly problems, especially those related with the safety and security of the elderly (Patel, 2013). Positive ageing may be achieved towards the various challenges faced by the elderly by encouraging and supporting the elderly in their own capacity for continuous physical, cognitive and social involvements in the family and the society. Participation of the elderly should be encouraged in cultural, economic, political, social life and for lifelong learning by providing them more opportunities (UN, 2002). Active ageing is a process of optimizing opportunities for health, participation and security for better quality of life as people age (WHO, 2002). The word ‘active’ refers to continued participation in social, economic, cultural, spiritual, civic affairs in addition to being physically or economically active. Active ageing recognizes the UN’s principles of independence, participation, dignity, care and self-fulfilment. Social inclusion has been identified as one of the key determinants of positive ageing. Having a role and lively contribution as a family member, friend and community member are important factors to combat loneliness and social isolation. In United Kingdom, needs of older people are met by social services at a very basic level. However, the social inclusion is largely ignored, resulting in a bigger number of isolated and excluded senior citizens with implications for social and health provisions. In Taiwan, the service providers receive subsidies from the central government and cooperate with the local authority to stimulate new ideas—such as the ‘support saving account’ and ‘care charging reduction’ programmes—in promoting social inclusion in developing care system. Older people in Taiwan are partly included because they are respected as a member of the family and the family is often heavily supportive of them. The new policies are aimed at continuing this inclusion, as families become less able to offer full-time support (Chen, 2009). Encouragement of the intergenerational programme is mutually beneficial to the young as well as the older generation and it further helps to reduce the intergenerational gap. Such programme keeps the elderly productively engaged and prevents isolation among the elderly. The intergenerational exchange, including financial, emotional and social, strengthen the intergenerational relationship (Jamuna, 2007). Periodic participation in various activities and wider social networking improve
Ageing Well and Way Forward 277 health and well-being in old age (Glass, 2003; Fried, 2004; Zedlewski and Schaner, 2006). Children and younger generation involved with the older generation have been found to perform better in academics (Rebok, 2004). In addition, these interactions help in developing better social skill and discourage negative behaviour in the younger generation (Tierney, Grossman and Resch, 2000). Adequate financial resources, good physical and mental health, active lifestyle, continued and wider social networks and social roles influenced positive and healthy ageing (Batra, 2004). Social support and security are provided by family, friends, neighbours and members of local organizations. Social support enables seniors to improve their self-efficacy, self-esteem and coping skills, as well as their overall quality of life. These capacities, in turn, help older adults negotiate the activities of daily living, cope with life transitions and loss and interact with their environment with greater ease, confidence and comfort. Volunteering has long been considered a productive, health-enhancing and life-satisfying activity that provides meaningful ways to be socially engaged. Encouraging individuals of various ages to come together and understand one another fosters the reciprocity of the generations by challenging negative stereotypes of youth and older adults. Social support has the potential to inspire active living and other health behaviour patterns and choices. Conclusion Positive ageing inspires us to be positive about ageing. Ageing is a lifelong process, whereby positive attitudes towards ageing can encourage the continued participation of senior citizens in the community. However, the negative aspects of ageing cannot be overlooked or ignored, but there should not be the perpetuation of mistaken beliefs that old age is a period of inevitable decline and social exclusion. A careful balance should be maintained. While some people age successfully, others experience increasing difficulties in later years. Economic autonomy, lifestyle factors, security and social inclusion of the elderly determine successful ageing to a great extent. However, an extensive research is needed to understand the factors contributing to the diversity in successful ageing. Older people’s associations are reported to be beneficial towards greater social contact and support, more learning opportunities, better access to health, security measures towards crime against the elderly, social welfare services and
278 Renu Tyagi and Tattwamasi Paltasingh greater participation in the community. Education and public awareness campaigns have been reported to be vital for informing people about some important issues related with socio-economic welfare such as ‘willmaking’ and preventive measures for avoiding crime against the elderly, elder abuse and productive and participative involvement, etc. Despite the growing problem of elder abuse, there is no specific legislation for this important issue. Elder abuse is usually covered, either by criminal law or by laws dealing with civil rights, property rights, family violence or mental health. Specific and comprehensive legislations on the abuse of older people would imply a much stronger commitment to eradicate the problem. The wisdom and contributions of the elderly should be properly acknowledged in the family as well as in the community. Participatory ageing empowers the elderly as well as supports positive ageing. There is need to work towards the more participation of the elderly with an active involvement of different stakeholders including government, NGOs, associations, federations of elderly peoples, academicians and media. It is an urgent need of the hour to create and promote the safer cities with accessible public transport for the protection and wellbeing of the elderly. Encouragement of positive social relationships, wider social networks and new social roles as volunteers, productive involvement as per their capabilities and expertise and discouraging negative behaviour in the younger generation support the positive ageing. Frequent interaction between individuals of various ages or different generations fosters the reciprocity of the generations while challenging negative stereotypes of youth and older adults. Fostering independence and providing adequate safety support system may lead to active, safe and healthy ageing. References Alam, M. (2007). Ageing in India: Socio-economic and health dimensions. Delhi: Academic Foundation. Bakshi, P.M. (2000). Homes for the aged—legal aspects. In P.C. Bhatla (Ed.), Lecture Series in Geriatrics, Health Care Promotion Trust (pp. 416–417). New Delhi: National Institute of Primary Health Care. Bali, A.P. (1999). Understanding greying people of India (p.197). New Delhi: Inter India Publications.
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About the Editors and Contributors Editors Tattwamasi Paltasingh is an Associate Professor at Sardar Patel Institute of Economic and Social Research, Ahmedabad. Renu Tyagi is an Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) Postdoctoral Fellow in the area of Social Gerontology at Sardar Patel Institute of Economic and Social Research, Ahmedabad. Contributors Heemanshu Aurora is a doctoral fellow in Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi. Her area of interest lies in nutrition and public health domain with specialization in infectious diseases. Sanjeev Bakshi is PhD and teaches statistics at the Ravenshaw University, Odisha. He has worked on the ageing of Indian population at the Population Studies Unit of Indian Statistical Institute (ISI), Kolkata. His current research is focused on the well-being of older adults in India. His areas of interest include population and environment, applied statistics, data analysis and systems science. Prerna Bhasin is Senior Research Fellow, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi. She is pursuing her doctoral thesis on reproductive profile of women and its correlation among the urban and tribal populations. Her research interests include body composition studies, reproductive health among women, child care and ageing.
282 Caring for the Elderly Subhadra Mitra Channa is PhD and working as Professor in Social Anthropology, University of Delhi. Her interest areas include gender studies, issues on marginalized groups, religion and ecology, border studies, anthropological theory and methodology. She has been a visiting faculty to many universities in India and abroad. Anupama Datta is MPhil from Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU). Presently, she is serving as Director, Policy Research and Development at HelpAge India. She was trained in Social Gerontology and Policy Formulation, Planning, Implementation and Monitoring of Madrid Plan of Action on Ageing from UN International Institute on Ageing, Malta. She has worked on research and advocacy for the rights of older persons in the country. Meenal Dhall is PhD and presently working as Assistant Professor in Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi. She has been actively working on public health problems, especially obesity and cardio metabolic disease, nutritional status, physical activity and its related health outcome among different populations. Usha Dixit is PhD from Central Food Technological Institute (CFTRI), Mysore and worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow at Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan. Dr Dixit has contributed towards the development and management of some new scientific programmes such as Technology Interventions for Elderly in addition to many other scientific contributions. V.C. Goyal is PhD from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Roorkee and heads the Research Management and Outreach Division at National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), Roorkee. Dr Goyal also served in the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, New Delhi. Anup K. Kapoor is PhD from University of Delhi. He is presently working as Professor in Anthropology, University of Delhi. He has done extensive research on bio-social anthropological aspects among tribes, caste and ethnic population groups in India. He was the former Vice Chancellor at Jiwaji University, Gwalior.
About the Editors and Contributors 283 Satwanti Kapoor is PhD from University of Delhi and Post Doctoral Fellow from University of Glasgow and Loughborough University, UK. She is presently working as Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi. Her research and teaching interests include physiological anthropology, obesity and biology of ageing. She is a member of many national and international bodies and has been a visiting fellow to different universities in India and abroad. J. John Kattakayam is PhD and also the Honorary Director at the Centre for Gerontological Studies, Trivandrum. He is also Former Director, UGC Academic Staff College and Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Kerala. Besides this, he is also Former Member of Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) and Former President of Indian Sociological Society, New Delhi. A.M. Khan is PhD and presently Director, Astron Institute of Social Sciences, Delhi. He also served as Professor and Head, Department of Social Sciences, National Institute of Health and Family Welfare (NIHFW), New Delhi. He has specialized in Research Methodology, Health System Research, Social Gerontology, Child Development, Maternal Health and Geriatric Care. Pawan Kumar is working as the Chief Medical Officer in Central Health Services, Delhi. He has also worked as a State Program Officer at National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and contributed in evaluation of national health programmes. His areas of interest include health care administration, human resource management, public health and health laws. N.K. Mungreiphy is PhD and also a Postdoctoral Fellow in Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi. Her areas of specialization are obesity, physique, biosocial study, tribes and cardiometabolic health research. Aswini Kumar Mishra is PhD from Nabakrushna Choudhary Centre for Development Studies (NKCCDS), Bhubaneswar. Presently, he is Assistant Professor for Economics in Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS) at K.K. Birla Goa Campus. His research and teaching
284 Caring for the Elderly interests include industrial economics, econometrics, social security, poverty, infrastructure and financial inclusion. Prasanta Pathak is PhD and heads the Sampling and Official Statistics Unit. He is also the Member-Secretary, Board of Directors, International Statistical Education Centre, Kolkata. He has worked in areas of health, family planning, action research and operations management, human resource management. His research areas include health, population policy, reproductive health, population dynamism, ageing and HR planning. Indumathi Rao is PhD and Founder Member of Community-based Rehabilitation (CBR) Network for South Asian countries. She has been a member of the National Commission for Persons with Disabilities at the Policy Making Advisory Board of Inclusive Education in National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). Dr Rao also received the Rotherberg Fellowship from the Royal Society, UK. Mala Kapur Shankardass is PhD and works as Associate Professor at Department of Sociology, Maitreyi College, New Delhi. She is a sociologist, gerontologist, health and development social scientist. She is the consultant for United Nations agencies at New York and India office and many national and international organizations. Deepali Verma is Doctoral Fellow in Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi. Her research interest includes public health with a specialization in non-communicable diseases in ethnically and geographically diverse population.
Index active ageing, 234–235, 276 technology support, 245–260 activity theory, 24 assumptions, 24 ageing active, 234–235 age-specific behavioural dispositions, 233–234 challenges of, 232–233 denial of naturalness of, 233–234 ‘Ageing in Place’ policy, 253 ageing theories activity theory, 24 biological, 21 continuity theory, 24–25 disengagement theory, 23 exchange theory, 25 feminist theory, 28–29 modernization theory, 25–26 need for theoretical development, 30–32 psychological, 22 sociological, 22–26 age-related health risks, study of, 120–121. See also disabilities among elderly; health care of elderly materials and methods, 126 mean systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP), 127–132 age-specific behavioural dispositions, 233–234 age stratification, theory on, 23 Agewell Foundation, 93 Alzheimer’s disease, 30, 163, 259 Annapurna scheme, 89, 91–92 Article 41 of the Directive Principles of State Policy, 83 Ashiana Utsav, 252 Athashri, 252 The Benevolent Society (TBS), 253 Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL) schemes for elderly, 87–88 biological theory of ageing, 21 bio-medical models of age and ageing, 28 bio-psycho-social approach to ageing, 19 Classic Kudumbam, 252 cognitive plasticity theory, 22 continuity theory, 23–25 convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW), 185 capitalism, 28 crime and mistreatment against the elderly, 267–270 Criminal Procedure Code, 84, 272 cross-cultural studies of ageing American’s attitude towards ageing, 216 Bengali culture, 216 child marriage and joint family living, 210 colonial period, 225 cultural models of role expectations, 207
286 Caring for the Elderly cultural variables affecting physiological process of ageing, 208–213 Indian scenario, 211–216 Judeo-Christian traditions, 217–218 life cycle in South Asia, 216–217 life expectancy in South Asian region, 211–212 time dimensions of ageing, 213–216 Delhi, urban population of, 125 demographic transition epidemiological transition and implications, 159–160 and increased life expectancy of people, 79–82 Dignity Lifestyle, 252 disabilities among elderly best practices for tackling, 152–153 chronic co-morbid conditions, 141 dementia, 142 global scenario, 140–141 Indian context, 141–144 Older Adults Technology Services programme, 152 physical mobility, 145 policy initiatives, 146–149 rate, 143–144 regional and gender disparity, 142–146 self-help groups (SHGs) for tackling, 150–151 social isolation and loneliness, 142 tackling, inclusive approach to, 149–152 visual and hearing disabilities, 142 disengagement theory, 23, 26 double disease burden, 100 elderly care. See also technology support for elderly; welfare measures and initiatives for elderly crisis of care, 236 during the last stage of life, 235–236 pillars of, 226–227 elderly friendly cities, 168–169 Employees State Insurance Scheme (ESIS), 186 empowerment of elderly, 168 equilibrium theory, 26 exchange theory, 23, 25 family-self, 230 feminist theory, 20, 28–29 feminization of ageing population, 192–193 formal social security, 65 free radical theory, 21 gender and ageing, 175–176. See also neglect of older women and widows attention needs, 187–188 crime against elderly women, 183 cultural and social bias, 179–180 discrimination in health, 181–182 distribution of workloads within households, 184 economic needs, 180–181 education and employment opportunities, 179 elderly women population, 176–178 exclusion of elderly women, 182 gender discrimination and unequal access, 178–183 National Policy for Older Persons (NPOP) 1999, 185 old-age pension (OAP) schemes, 180 paid activities and unpaid activities, 184 policy initiatives, 184–187 property rights, 180–181 widows issues, 182–183 women’s working time, 183–184
Index 287 gerontology background, 1–2 health issues, 6–9. See also health care of elderly longevity and life expectancy, 9 positive ageing, 11–13 social insecurities and economic issues, 4–6 in terms of gender and culture, 9–11. See cross-cultural studies of ageing; gender and ageing understanding, 2–3 gerotranscendence theory, 23 Golden Nest Senior Commune, 252 Harraway, Donna, 209 health, definition, 99 health care of elderly, 86–87, 160–164 caregiver’s concerns, 163 economic constraints, 164 long-term care (LTC), 160–163 nutritional requirements and risk management, 162 healthy ageing, 152, 164–169 Hefner, Hugh, 218 HelpAge India, 68 high fertility mortality regime, 158 Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 83, 199, 270 Hindu Succession Act 2005, 272 hormonal theories, 21 immunological theories, 21 India’s elderly population, 39, 79–80, 121, 246, 264 disabilities among elderly, 141–142 Indira Gandhi National Disability Pension Scheme (IGNDPS), 89 Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS), 67, 89, 272 Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme (IGNWPS), 89 Integrated Programme for Older Persons (IPOP), 92–94, 246 intergenerational gap, 236–243 Kerala pension scheme, 63 Ki-Moon, Ban, 245 labelling theory, 25 legal provisions and fundamental rights of elderly people, 82–84 LICHFL Care Homes Ltd., 252 life expectancy, 7, 9, 19, 40, 79, 86, 93, 99–100, 132–133, 141–142, 153, 157, 160, 177, 181, 191, 203, 211, 216, 267 life expectancy at birth, 99 lifespan development theory, 22 ‘Look After Me’ concept, 259 low fertility mortality regime, 158 Madrid Plan of Action on Ageing (MIPAA), 192 Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act 2007, 199, 217 Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Bill, 2007, 115 Mental Health Act 1987, 147 Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (MoSJE), 246–247 modernization theory, 25–26 National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS), 89–90, 186 National Institute of Social Defence (NISD), 247 National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS), 53–54, 55n2, 66, 88–90, 186 National Policy for Older Persons (NPOP), 60, 148–149, 185, 226, 238 gender concerns, 193–203 National Policy for Persons with Disabilities Act 2005, 148
288 Caring for the Elderly National Policy for Senior Citizens (NPSC-2011), 149, 151, 186 National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP), 115, 166, 191, 273–274 National Policy statement active and productive involvement of older persons, 61 allocation of adequate budgetary resources, 62 goal, 61 life cycle, views on, 61 objectives of, 62 National Programme for the Health Care of Elderly (NPHCE), 274 National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP), 59, 89, 92, 186, 272 National Trust Act 1999, 147 natural claim, right for, 167 neglect of older women and widows, 195–199 abuse of older women, 199–201 rural-urban division and economic dimensions, 201–203 NEST, 252–253 Nolias, 122 mean systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP), risk of, 128–129, 131, 134 non-contributory pension in India, 66–67 OASIS-Senior Citizen Communes, 253 Odisha aged population in, 41–42 day-to-day maintenance of livelihood of elderly, 49–51 demographic characteristics of elderly, 43–44 dimensions of socio-economic insecurity among, 45–53 economic support providers, 51–53 living arrangement of elderly, 49–50 old-age dependency ratio in, 45 poverty incidence, 47–48 profiles of households having aged persons, 48 protective social security arrangements for elderly, 53–54 old-age as resource, 166–167 as social construct, 165–166 old-age dependency ratio, 45 old-age pension, study of effects general characteristics of respondents, 69–73 lifestyle and poverty, impact on, 73 in Mandla district, 71 monitoring groups, status of, 73–76 pension, impact of, 72–73 purpose and methodology, 68–69 quality of life, 69–70 in Unnao district, 70 use of pension, 71–72 old-age planning, 166–167 pathological ageing, 22, 25 Payment of Gratuity Act (1972), 186 Pearl’s theory of wear and tear, 21 Person–Environment (PE) Congruence Model, 161 Persons with Disabilities Act 1995, 147 Persons with Disability (PWD) Act, 139 phenomenology, 27 political economy theory, 28 Poorest Areas Civil Society (PACS) programme, 68, 73, 75 population ageing, 19 positive ageing, 11–13, 24, 264–265, 273–277 challenges, 266–270 postmodern gerontology, 30 poverty in old age, 58–59 Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005, 201 psychological theory of ageing, 22
Index 289 Rajis, 122–123 mean systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP), risk of, 128–129, 131, 134 Rajputs, 124–125 mean systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP), risk of, 129–134 Rehabilitation Council of India Act 1992, 147 Riverdale Consortium, 252 Selective Optimisation with Compensation Theory (SOC), 22 self-concept, 22 self-esteem, 22 self-image, 22 self-reported diseases, 115 Senior Care Comfort homes, 253 senior citizen association (SCA), 85 Shue, Andrew, 239 social gerontology, developments, 26–27 social security, 4–6, 39–55, 58–60, 79, 81–82, 148, 185, 202 challenges, 63–66 measures, 84–88 Social Security Cell (SSC), 87 social stratification theory, 26 socio-economic deprivation and disparities, 266–267 socio-economic environment of older adults, study burden of chronic diseases and burden of impairments, 106–113 conceptual framework, 101–102 data and methods, 102–105 health-seeking behaviour of an older adult, 104 living arrangements, types of, 105 mean age of older adults, 105 per capita monthly expenditure (PCME) of household, 104 Poisson regression models, 105 representative sample, 102–103 in terms of caste and religion, 105 widowhood among older adults, 114–115 socio-economic security, 78–79, 81 sociological theories on ageing, 26–27 sociological theory of ageing, 22–26 somatic mutation, 21 State-centric model of elderly care, 228 State Old Age Pension Scheme (SOAPS), 53, 55n3 Stiglitz, Joseph, 40 succession laws, 272 Tangkhul Naga, 123–124 mean systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP), risk of, 129–134 ‘Technology Interventions for Elderly (TIE)’, 247 technology support for elderly, 245–260 assistive and enabling devices, 253–254 bank schemes, 248 community-based and recreationoriented programmes, 258–260 health diagnostic kits and equipment, 249 home-based support, 254–257 information for elderly, 247 ‘Infotainment package for Elderly,’ 259 old-age homes/retirement township, 251–253 ‘Senior Citizens Initiative at Facebook’, 258 social networking, 257–258 specialized goods and services, 250–251 in utilization of resources, 249 tertiary ageing, 21 TracFone service, 87–88 traditional family vs modern family, 228–230 shift from family to self, 230–232
290 Caring for the Elderly United Nations First International Plan of Action on Ageing, 82 universal social security in India, 63–66 Universities of Third Age (U3As), 258 US Foster Grandparents Programme, 152 Vridh Sangh, 73–75 welfare measures and initiatives for elderly, 270–274 ‘Draft National Policy for Senior Citizens, 2011’, 274 economic security measures, 88–92 health care, 86–87 integrated programme for older persons, 92–94 round-the-clock senior citizens helpline, 275 senior citizen association (SCA), 85 Social Security Cell (SSC), 87 social security measures, 84–88 suggestions, 94–95 TracFone service, 87–88 Workmen’s Compensation Act (1923), 186