SIGMA 2023

ASTROSOC i SIGMA'23 On the 21st of November, 2023 At the NPLT of Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Colombo. The Astronomical Society of University of Colombo proudly presents

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ASTROSOC iii Dahami Gunathilake President Level Four Undergraduate Department of Physics Faculty of Science Anjalee Sandathara Secretary Graduate (Bachelor of Science) Faculty of Science Sahan Liyanage Vice President Level Four Undergraduate Department of Physics Faculty of Science Sathira Deegala Assistant Secretary Level Four Undergraduate Department of Chemistry Faculty of Science Nisal Bimsara Junior Treasure Level Four Undergraduate Department of Mathematics Faculty of Science Board of Officials of the Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo 2022/23 Nipuni Wanniarachchi Editor Level Four Undergraduate Department of Zoology and Environment Sciences Faculty of Science Lalani Nishshanka Librarian Graduate (Bachelor of Science) Faculty of Science Isuru Wickramasinghe IT coordinator Level Four Undergraduate Department of Physics Faculty of Science A.Jalani J. Perera Organizer Level Four Undergraduate Department of Statistics Faculty of Science

ASTROSOC iv Colombo science faculty is the oldest science faculty in the country with 102 years of proud history, and the observatory that we own is even older than the science faculty. The Astronomical society of the University of Colombo is one of the oldest societies in the Sri Lankan university system. Established in 1950s, it comprises of university students and has a renowned proud history of astronomers such as Prof. N. Chandra Wickramasinghe who had been a past president of this society in his student hood. Prof. Asoka Mendis, Prof. V. K. Samaranayake, Prof. Valentine Joseph & several other eminent scientists also had held positions in this society when they were undergraduates. It has been one of the major institutions in covering activities Message by the Senior Treasurer and Advisor of the Astronomical Society : Prof. Chandana Jayaratne related to astronomy in Sri Lanka throughout history, and currently it consists of a membership of over 500 undergraduates from the university. Astronomy is by and large and observational science as compared to other experimental sciences. In astronomy, experiments occur automatically in stars, galaxies and interstellar mediums, and we observe them from earth. Hence the repetition of experiments on other sciences is replaced by statistical study of large samples, and changes in experimental conditions are taken into account by observations of a large variety of closely similar objects. To conduct observations locally , the Astronomical Society of University of Colombo owns several large telescopes, including the over 100 years old 32 cm Molesworth reflecting telescope located inside the astronomical observatory, and this telescope is considered as the forerunner of modern astronomy in Sri Lanka. This was the biggest telescope in Sri Lanka for nearly 100 years, i.e., up to 1996, till such time the new 45 cm telescope was commissioned at the Arthur C Clarke Institute. By far, this telescope and more than half century old Astronomical Society (Former Astronomical Society of the University of Ceylon) affiliated to it has been the kindergarten to more than dozen world renowned astronomers who emerged from Sri Lanka. This shows a bit of a proud and admirable history of the Astronomical Society. It is with great pleasure that I am sending this message of congratulations and best wishes to the members of the Astronomical Society (2023) on issuing another volume of Sigma magazine for creating a positive impact in the field of astronomy and Astrophysics among those who are interested throughout the island. Within the Society’s diverse range of activities, several national-level initiatives are orchestrated to disseminate cosmic knowledge. These include engaging cosmic lectures and hands-on workshops in collaboration with esteemed organizations, such as the Institute of Physics and the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Additionally, there is a strong emphasis on community outreach. At the regional level, the Society hosts astronomical night sky observation camps tailored for school children. Furthermore, significant support is extended towards the annual training of National Astronomy Olympiad teams, preparing them for participation in the International Olympiad on Astronomy and Astrophysics. Prof. K.P.S. Chandana Jayaratne Head of the Department of Physics , University of Colombo Senior Treasurer & Advisor of the Astronomical Society , University of Colombo 2023/11/15

ASTROSOC v The SIGMA magazine takes a step into the future with its 39th edition in 2023, marking the passage of time since the last publication in last year. The SIGMA magazine is one of the oldest astronomy-related magazines in Sri Lanka, taking a start in 1959 along with the origin of the Mathematical and Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo. This resounding society, which has produced more than dozens of world-renowned astronomers, was renamed the Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo in 2015. I consider it a privilege to embed this message as the President of the Astronomical Society in the 39th volume of the SIGMA magazine, the official journal of the Astronomical Society of the University of ColomMessage by the President of the Astronomical Society : Dahami Gunathilake bo. SIGMA is a collective product of the members of the Astronomical Society which has brought out the beauties and adventures of the universe. A handful of writers, editors, designers, and developers have brought up SIGMA to this height and their commitment and dedication must be admired. I would like to thank Dr. Henry Throop (NASA Astronomer), Dr. Janaka Addasooriya (Senior Lecturer) and Dr Isuru Gunawardhana for sharing their knowledge through articles in sigma magazine. Also, I would like to thank our Vice Chancellor Senior Prof. H. D. Karunaratne and the Dean of the Faculty of Science Senior Prof. Upul Sonnadara who had always been supportive of the activities conducted by the society. The Head of the Department of Physics and the Senior Treasurer and the Advisor of the Astronomical Society, Prof. K. P. S. Chandana Jayaratne’s leadership and guidance must be greatly appreciated at this moment. As undergraduates, we strongly believe that the SIGMA magazine would make an impact not only on undergraduates but also on the younger generation who have a thirst for exploring new dimensions of astronomy and space sciences. May this edition of SIGMA inspire continued curiosity and exploration of the cosmic wonders that surround us. Dahami Gunathilake President (2022/2023), Astronomical Society University of Colombo. 2023/11/15

ASTROSOC vi History and Significance: Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo The Astronomical Society of University of Colombo, is a cosmic sanctuary,where the students come together to explore the mysteries of the universe. Initiated as a collective fascination for the wonders of the sky, the Astronomical Society of University of Colombo traces its roots back to 1959 when a group of visionaries ignited the spark of curiosity about the cosmos. As one of the oldest societies in the University of Colombo, it acts as the bridge between disciplines such as physics, mathematics, and even philosophy which fosters the interdisciplinary connections. The pioneers who set the foundation for this celestial journey as the president and secretary were Prof. Chandra Wickramasinghe and the late Prof. V. K. Samaranayake respectively.Prof. Asoka Mendis, late Prof. Valentine Joseph are a few more individuals who contributed to the society and continued their cosmic explorations in academia and research. As a beacon of curiosity and discovery, the society grew as an entity nurturing thousands of students with captivating sessions, and engaging workshops, blending with awe-inspiring moments. The society was originally named as the “Mathematical and Astronomical Society” and it was renamed as the “Astronomical Society” in 2015, which is the present name of the society. As an indelible mark in the university level astronomical societies, our society stands as a testament to the unwavering visionaries shaping the trajectory of astronomical pursuits and inspiring generations of aspiring scientists in Sri Lanka. Today, the Astronomical Society is led by a dedicated team of passionate individuals under the guidance of Prof. Chandana Jayaratne, the adviser and the senior treasurer of the society. Their collective effort and commitment ensure the continuous improvement of the society and of astronomical exploration in Sri Lanka. As a leading Astronomical Society in Sri Lanka, it contributes to enhance and enrich the knowledge of astronomy with university students and even the general public through various programs spanning from starry night camps, cosmic lectures to hands-on workshops, seminars, webinars through collaboration with IPSL, SLASS, Ministry of education, and outreach with the community. Solar observation camps, water rocket competitions are also programs conducted by the society in shaping up the tapestry of astronomical exploration. Our Signature project “Star Quest: Inter-school Astronomical Quiz Competition” is another endeavor in fostering the enthusiasm for astronomy in school students to empower the budding scientists in Sri Lanka. Notably, the Sigma magazine which stands as an indispensable cornerstone of the society’s projects, provides a platform serving as a scholarly beacon, illuminating the latest discoveries, research, and insights within the realm of astronomy around the world and far beyond. The magazine acts as a base for dissemination of knowledge within the astronomical community. The Astronomical Society of University of Colombo, as a phenomenal pillar in Sri Lanka continues to navigate the realms of astronomy, while uncovering the cosmic wonders and captivating the astro-enthusiasts for the years to come.

ASTROSOC vii “Astronomy compels the soul to look upwards, and leads us from this world to another.” As the great words of Plato suggest, astronomy is a science that is fueled by humanity’s desire to explore the enigmatic universe and uncover its secrets. It is the study of everything above the Earth’s atmosphere, from our solar system to the boundaries of the universe. Astronomy is a treasure trove of knowledge with the ability to rouse curiosity in every mind. The Sigma Magazine is meant for such individuals who wish to expand their knowledge in Astronomy and delve into the world of celestial objects. The Sigma Magazine is the official magazine issued annually by the Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo. It has a rich and colourful history of many years and has been carefully nurtured by many generations. With its roots extending all the way back to 1957, countless great minds have influenced it in unique ways along its journey. The magazine was launched by the Mathematical and Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo, which is currently known as the Astronomical Society of the University of Colombo. The first volume was published during the years 1957 and 1958 as a journal consisting of the Annual Report of the organization and a diverse collection of articles written by both lecturers and students. Over its long journey of over 65 years and 38 volumes, the magazine has seen significant growth. It has evolved over the years just as astronomy as a field has expanded continuously. Over the course of its life it has adapted to many challenges and obstacles. In the year 2022, for the first time ever, the Sigma Magazine was published as a digital magazine. It was made available online to any readers interested. In addition to adapting to the global pandemic, this made the magazine a more accessible source of knowledge. The current volume is the 39th chapter of this wonderful journey of granting readers important insight into the world of astronomy. The Sigma Magazine is an excellent opportunity for undergraduates from all faculties. As the articles submitted are held to a high standard, students gain invaluable experience in academic and creative writing. The team behind the production of the magazine is a group of dedicated editors, associate editors, web developers, graphic designers and writers. The united efforts of this team is a significant factor in the success of the Sigma Magazine. The journey of the Sigma magazine has been long and exciting. Under the guidance of Prof. Chandana Jayaratne, it has continued to flourish in the past few years. With the valuable input of students and under the guidance of lecturers, the Sigma Magazine will continue on its journey of growth and evolution. A Brief History of the Sigma Magazine

ASTROSOC viii Editorial Note Many people believe that the best way to popularize science is either through dinosaurs or stars, and we as astrophiles couldn’t agree more. Astronomy is a unique branch of science where grey haired old college professors, as well as ever enthusiastic mischievous fifteen year olds can contribute to its knowledge alike. Various citizen science projects across the world are dedicated to making use of the latter. Without a doubt, science communication plays a pivotal role in popularizing any branch of science. And SIGMA ‘23 is the latest attempt of the Astronomical Society of University of Colombo to teach you about the stars. Through the pages of Sigma 2023, we will take you on a stellar journey from asteroids, planets to stars and massive black holes, while visiting space missions, telescopes and space research programs, along with a look into various astrophysical and astrobiological theories and phenomena. Having contributions from students as well as lecturers, this issue is also graced by an interview with a renowned astrophysicist. Lying in between deep, mind-blowing scientific articles are poems, short stories and movie reviews, where our writers have let their imaginations run wild. You will also be able to get a close look on many deep sky objects captured by our own members, using the telescopes and cameras we have, which showcase their astrophotography skills. Towards the end of the magazine, we have recalled some of the significant events conducted by the Astronomical Society. We hope these articles will help you to gain new knowledge, uplift thinking patterns, and inspire you to further follow this engrossing science. Hence, we invite you to buckle up and enjoy this ride, as we take you on a captivating journey into the stars.

ASTROSOC ix Contents 1. Gamma-Ray Binaries ……………………………………………………………………………...................................1 2. Life Detection Field Sampling on Martian Analogues; the FELDSPAR…………………….4 3. A Secret : Two Lovers, Two Planets.. ……………………..…………………………..………..........................7 4. DART Mission and Asteroid Mining ……………………………………………………………............................8 5. Don’t Look Up ….…………………………………………………………………………………...........................................12 6. Organosilicon ……………………………………………………………………………....................................................14 7. Interstellar Journey : Threads of Hope ………………………………………………...………......................18 8. › ,xldj wjg wju .=re;ajhla mj;skafka wehs@ ? …………………………………………..…...............21 9. Moon Missions are Back in Action ……………………………………………………..………..........................23 10. Artificial Photosynthesis………………………………………………………………….……….................................28 11. Astrology in the Perspective of a Scientist........................................................................33 12. Jupiter, The Failed Star………………………………………………………………………….....................................34 13. Green Life in Zero Gravity…………………………………………………………………...…..................................37 14. The Butterfly Cluster………………………………………………………………………….….......................................41 15. gpugQ;rj;jpd; gupzhk tsu;r;rp tsu;r;rp Fwpj;J N[k;]; ntg; (JAMES WEBB) tpz;ntsp njhiyfhl;bapd; Njly;…………………………………………….............................42 16. A Dip into the Fabric of Space-Time : A Brief Summary of Cosmological Concepts…..….......................................................................................................................................46 17. The Glitch ……………………………………………………………………………………...….............................................54 18. An Unlikely Coupling : Black Holes as Sources of Dark Energy………………………….…...56 19. Space Biology Research with Rodents and Microbes …………………………………….…...........59 20. Cover Story ……………………………………………………………………………………….............................................62 21. Peeping into the Multiverse …………..…………………………………………………..….…..............................64 22. Observation of Solar Radio Bursts using CALLISTO ………………………………….….….............68 23. Observational Astronomy beyond the Electromagnetic Spectrum …………………....…..70 24. Collided, The Shooting Star …………………………………………………………………….................................77 25. Stellar Enigma : Decrypting the Cosmic Fade - A journey through Hawking’s Riddles and Schwinger’s Shadows.......................................................................................78 26. The Fermi Paradox - Are We Truly Alone in the Universe? ……………………………..…........83 27. Galilean Moons ……………………………………………………………………………….…..........................................86 28. A Talk with Dr. Henry Throop ……………………………………………………………….…...............................88 29. The Posson Moon …………………………………………………………………………….…........................................92 30. Reflections …………………………………………………………………………………….….............................................93 31. New Horizons and Beyond - A Seminar with Dr. Henry Throop ………………………...…...94 32. Nights Under Star Light ……………………………………………………………………….….................................95 33. Star Quest 2022 - fh!jkhskaf.a ;drld úoHd fm<yr ……………………………………................99 34. To Quench Your Thirst of Curiosity - Webinars Conducted by the Astronomical Society ………………………………………………………………………………………………………......................................101 35. Stella Imago Phase 1 : The Astrophotography Workshop…………………………………….........103 36. Stellar Gallery ……………………………………………………………………………….…….......................................105 37. Contributors …………………………………………………………………………………..…..........................................106 38. Acknowledgments ………………………………………………………………………………......................................109

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ASTROSOC 1 Gamma-Ray Binaries Figure 2: General Orbital Sketch of a Binary System. (Source: Lopez-Oramas Ph.D. Thesis, 2014) I n Astronomy, a Binary System is a system that consists of two astronomical bodies that are gravitationally bound and orbit their common center of mass in elliptical or circular orbits (Figure 1). This article focus on those systems formed by a star and a compact object. These systems are called compact binaries. In these binaries, the compact object orbits the companion star. Some useful terms and definitions related to compact binaries are given below. The Periastron is the point in the orbit in which the distance between the compact object and the star is minimum. The Apastron is the point in the orbit in which the distance between the compact object and the star is maximum. The Inferior Conjunction (INFC) is the point in the orbit in which the compact object is in front of The Superior Conjunction (SUPC) is the point in the orbit in which the compact object is behind the star which is orbiting, over the line of sight of an external observer located on Earth. The Compact Object is a celestial body of very high density and mass. Also, it is a remnant of stellar evolution. Depending on the mass of the initial start which evolves and dies, it can either be a Black Hole (when the mass of the initial star ≥ 10 – 25 Mʘ) or an Neutron Star (when the mass of the initial star < 10 Mʘ). The Companion Star is a star, it refers to the optical star which losses mass into the compact object. Also, it is called the mass-donor star. The figure 2 shows the general sketch of these orbital definitions. the star which is orbiting, over the line of sight of an external observer located on Earth. Figure 1: Sketch of a Binary System (Source: COSMOS, 1999)

ASTROSOC 2 Figure 3: The Spectral Energy Distribution of PSR B1259-63 (Source: Abdo et al., 2011) Observations of binaries allowed accurate measurements of the masses and radii of stars, and binary radio pulsars have provided tests of general relativity. The X-ray binaries have provided the first dynamical evidence for black holes and accretion theory. The Gamma-Ray binaries have provided new opportunities for the study of particle acceleration, magnetized relativistic outflows, and accretion-ejection physics. Gamma-Ray binaries are systems that emit High Energy (0.1 – 100 GeV) and Very High Energy ( > 100 GeV) Gamma-Rays and their non-thermal emission peaks beyond 1 MeV in the spectral luminosity diagram, which means that the bulk of the non-thermal emission peaks in the Gamma-Ray domain (Figure 3). These systems, similar to X-Ray binaries, are composed of a massive star and a compact object, either a Black Hole (BH) or a Neutron Star (NS). In the late 1970s, Cos B observations led to the discovery of the first High Energy (HE) gamma ray source (2CG 135+01) where the search for a counterpart revealed a binary (Gregory and Taylor, 1978, Fig. 1). Then in the mid-2000s, the first Very High Energy (VHE) Binaries were detected by the HESS, MAGIC and VERITAS collaborations. The imprint of an incoming Gamma-ray from VHE Binaries was identified by using the latest generation of instruments that combines stereoscopic imaging, large collecting areas, high-resolution pixelation, and improved analysis techniques to reject background particle triggers, to lower the energy threshold, etc. The Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes (IACTs) were used to detect the number of known sources from a handful in 2004 to more than a hundred today. EGRET was followed in 2007 by AGILE and in 2008 by Fermi/ LAT, enabling the discovery of nearly 2000 sources of HE Gamma-Rays (Nolan et al., 2012). The emission of Gamma-Ray binaries from radio to VHE is variable along the orbit. The variability light curve and the spectral shape in the MeV domain provide information on the origin of the accelerated particles, the efficiency of the acceleration process, and the amplitude of the magnetic field. According to figure 3, the peak of the non-thermal emission is released at HEs, in the Gamma-Ray domain. It is an intrinsic characteristic of a Gamma Ray binary. Figure 4: Two Models of Gamma-Ray Binary Systems Emit Gamma-Rays. Left: a microquasar with a stellar-mass black hole accreting material from a massive companion star. Right: a binary system with a pulsar and a Be star. (Source: Mirabel, 2006) Gamma-ray binaries have a massive stellar companion, radio emission, modest X-ray fluxes, and hard X-ray spectra up to high energies. These characteristics indicate that Gamma-Ray binaries form a distinct class of systems from High-Mass X-Ray Binaries (HMXBs). Currently, five Gamma-Ray binary systems called PSR B1259-63, LS 5039, LS I +61° 303, HESS J0632+057, and 1FGL J1018.6-5856 are known but their Galactic population could reach several 100s. All five known Gamma-Ray binary systems are within ≈1° of the Galactic Plane. The detection of Gamma-Ray binaries initiated a debate as to whether the high energy emission was ultimately due to the accretion energy released in the form of a relativistic jet (microquasar model), or due to rotational energy released as a pulsar wind (pulsar model) with the cometary tail of shocked pulsar wind material mimicking a microquasar jet (Mirabel, 2006). The graphical representation of these two competing models is shown in Figure 4 below. They are the microquasar model(Figure 4: Left side image) and the pulsar model (Figure 4: Right Side image).

ASTROSOC 3 References Gamma-Ray binaries are thought to be powered by the spin-down of a highly magnetized (B ~ 1011– 1013 G) young pulsar, whose relativistic wind interacts with the stellar wind (and Be disc if present) of its massive companion star. The Pulsar inset shows the magnetic field lines within the light cylinder. Gamma-Ray emission can occur near the pulsar, within the pulsar wind, or at the shocks terminating the pulsar and stellar wind (Figure 5: Left side image). Pulsar Models • Abdo, A. A., Ackermann, M., Ajello, M., Allafort, A., Ballet, J., Barbiellini, G. et al. (2011). Discovery of high energy gamma-ray emission from the binary system PSR B1259 63/ LS 2883 around periastron with Fermi. The Astrophysical journal letters, 736(1), p.L11. • Albert, J., Aliu, E., Anderhub, H., Antoranz, P., Armada, A., Asensio, M. et al. (2006). Variable very-high-energy gamma-ray emission from the microquasar LS I+ 61 303. science, 312(5781), pp.1771-1773. • COSMOS (1999) BINARY STAR [Online] Available from: https://astronomy.swin.edu. au/cosmos/b/binary+star [Accessed: 24th June 2023] • Dubus, G. (2013). Gamma-ray binaries and related systems. The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review, 21(1), pp.1-71. • Gregory, P. C. & Taylor, A. R. (1978). New highly variable radio source, possible counterpart of γ-ray source CG135+ 1. Nature, 272(5655), pp.704-706. • Lopez-Oramas, A. (2014). Multi-year Campaign of the Gamma-Ray Binary LS I +61° 303 and search for VHE Emission from Gamma-Ray Binary Candidates with The MAGIC Telescopes. Ph.D. thesis. • Mirabel, I. F. (2006). Very energetic γ-rays from microquasars and binary pulsars. Science, 312(5781), pp.1759-1760. • Nolan, P. L., Abdo, A. A., Ackermann, M., Ajello, M., Allafort, A., Antolini, E. et al. (2012). Fermi large area telescope second source catalog. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 199(2), p.31. Microquasar Models Gamma-ray binaries are thought to be powered by the compact object (stellar-mass black hole) which accretes matter from the stellar wind or Be disc. Part of the energy released in the accretion disc is used to launch a relativistic jet. The launch of this plasma occurs through synchrotron emission and can be studied at longer wavelengths as radio. Gamma-ray emission can arise from the corona of the accretion disk, within the jet, or at the termination shock of the jet with the interstellar medium (Figure 5: Right side image). The non-thermal component of the jets can be detected in radio, Infrared (IR), and X-rays. LS I +61° 303 and LS 5039 were first identified as microquasars (Albert et al., 2006) as the VHE GR emission favored the accretion scenario. But still, the nature of the compact object hasnobeen confirmed. Figure 5: Models for Gamma-ray emission from Binaries (Source: Dubus, 2013) Main Image: https://www.pexels.com/photo/purpleand-brown-colored-planet-39561/ Dr. K. L. Isuru Gunawardhana PhD in Astrophysics (University of Colombo) Grad.IP (SL), B.Sc (Hons), Dip. in HRM Medical Physicist (SL 1, Grade III), Cancer Unit, Teaching Hospital Karapitiya, Galle.

ASTROSOC 4 Figure 1: Location of Holuhraun, the main study site in Iceland Life Detection Field Sampling on Martian Analogues; The FELDSPAR Synopsis Full Story F ELDSPAR (Field Exploration and Life Detection Sampling for Planetary Analogue Research) is an ongoing Mars analogue study which focuses on recent basaltic eruption sites in Iceland, with Holuhraun, a 2014 eruption site, serving as the primary study site. Only the intermediate results from the project’s first four years (2013-2017) have been released. The FELDSPAR project has conducted several field operations analogous to a Mars sample return mission. The central objective of the study was to see how life colonizes fresh lava. To accomplish this, scientists assayed the remarkable biomarker, Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). The presence of ATP indicates that life either currently thrives or once flourished in that very location. The significance of Mars analogous research is that they can pinpoint the most promising regions on Mars where life may thrive, where biology, chemistry, and geology correlations are the best. These studies facilitate the formulation of protocols for life detection instruments to collect just the right samples, paving the way for future Martian explorations. In Iceland, the land where ice meets fire, was a team of working astrobiologists from the Georgia Institute of Technology and NASA, by the name “Team FELDSPAR”. Amidst the harsh weather faced in the field, the team stood resolute as this effort of theirs was to aid in future Martian expeditions. Field Exploration and Life Detection Sampling for Planetary and Astrobiology Research (FELDSPAR) is a project led by the Georgia Institute of Technology and funded by the NASA Astrobiology’s PSTAR program. Earth is a blanket of life. Searching for lifeless areas on Earth is thus challenging! But there are a few so-called extreme environ-

ASTROSOC 5 ments that are best for conducting planetary analogous expeditions. Icelandic lava fields are one such example. In fact, they are Mars-analogous sites, and are characterized by geological youth, isolation from anthropogenic contaminations, and extreme conditions such as desiccation, low nutrient availability, extreme temperatures etc. Field expeditions at these analogous sites simulate scientific sampling and robotic operations on exo-planets, thus helping in establishing best practices that could be of positive contribution to future planetary exploration expeditions. So, what did team FELDSPAR do? The scientific expedition team studied how the probability of detecting life is distributed geographically. In other words, the team wanted to determine the most reliable smallest spatial scale to collect samples from a seemingly uniform area in a Mars-analogous site, with the objective of capturing accurate physicochemical variations while reducing statistical variations in sample sets used for biosignature detections. Among the Icelandic volcanic regions that were suitable as Mars analogous sites, the team’s main interest was a 2014 eruption site, Holuhraun, a newly formed land, where nothing was alive even down to the microbial level. The studies at this site mimicked the same procedures NASA conducts at Mars. They conducted a satellite survey where Google Earth was used instead of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) under a resolution scale of 1 pixel equaling 1 square kilometer. Following it was an automated aerial drone mapping where a 3D map of the field site was created combining hundreds of high-resolution photos. Afterwards, the team determined where to do the sampling work. The challenge they faced then was to collect a dataset that properly represents the area. Every field equipment used by the team corresponded to what is present in the Mars Curiosity Rover. During the expedition, all sample sites were carefully selected to be homogeneous in apparent color, morphology, and grain size, resembling coarse remote sensing resolution at the 1 m – 1 km scale. Thereafter, during field sampling, the team arranged locations hierarchically in nested grids at 10 cm, 1 m, 10 m, 100 m, and >1 km scales. One of the interests of the team was to detect the presence of any microbial life on these bare volcanic rocks. For this they had to be extra careful not to contaminate the study area with their own microbial data. The overall aim of the researchers was to study how life colonizes fresh lava. How do you detect “life” though? The team used the biomarker ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) . The presence of ATP hints at extinct or extant life, as ATP is the universal energy source for life on Earth and there is no way of making ATP without life.

ASTROSOC 6 W.A. Piyumi Uthpala Ruwanmalie Level Four Undergraduate Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Science. Field-collected samples were sent to the field lab at Akureyri, Iceland where they conducted time-sensitive analysis work such as ATP bioluminescence assay and some mineralogical tests. For further analysis, samples were shipped to their home lab at Georgia Tech. More biological tests such as DNA sequencing, q-PCR took place there together with more geological tests such as visible-IR spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence spectra to determine what elements were present in the sample. In conclusion, FELDSPAR was a pioneering effort to characterize the distribution of terrestrial biomarkers and relevant geochemical markers in a Mars analogous environment. References Image Courtesy • Vorobets, M. (2018, July 5). Pstar field work in Iceland. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/ earthscience/news/PSTAR_Field_Work_In_Iceland • Cable, M. L., Sessa, A. M., Rader, E., Simpson, A. C., Hanna, A. M., Gentry, D. M., Sutton, S. M., Amador, E. S., Novak, C., LeCates, C., Helmlinger, M., Stockton, A. M., Stockton (PI), A., Geppert, W., Cullen, D., Amador, E., Cable, M., Gentry, D., Murukesan, G., … King, D. (2023). Geochemical and physical variability of Icelandic tephra fields and glaciovolcanic sandur to inform spatial sampling in Mars biosignature searches. Planetary and Space Science, 232, 105694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2023.105694 • THE EFFECT OF GRAINSIZE, TEMPERATURE, SLOPE, AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ON BIOMASS IN MARS ANALOG SUBSTRATE FOR SAMPLE RETURN, ICELAND. (2019). https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2019/pdf/2553.pdf • Featured Image: https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/ uploads/filer_public_thumbnails/filer_public/0e/51/0e516935-8c5a-4427-b1b6-e6e109c0d97b/ landcruiser-rivercrossing-fx.png__1240x510_q85_ crop_subject_location-960%2C475_subsampling-2. jpg • Figure 1: https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/ styles/full_width/public/thumbnails/image/screen_ shot_2018-07-05_at_11.32.50_am.png?itok=ELnKujVI

ASTROSOC 7 Image tool https://h5.tu.qq.com/web/ai-2d/cartoon/index Thought this would be the ideal way, to ring a bell of a charming day. It has always been a coincidence, No! They had never met, how they felt, though! Under the starry sky on a moonless night, She heard him chant for the very first time! “What a gentle tone!”, she thought for a while. As if already knew her fantasizing mind, He left her a phrase of a rhythmic kind. The wave hit somewhere deeper in her soul. He never knew the lines made her feel whole. “Who knew he’d wait for years to pass… To hold her hand and walk through paths.” On a day, two planets be closer by Under the sky to be so high To leave the universe frozen behind To kiss her eyes, be frozen in time You see, “Time flies!” Indeed, it’s been a while. Since then, Nothing’s been harder. Hope made him a survivor. And yes! It’s never been harder for her either! Apoorwa Amarathunga Level Two Undergraduate Faculty of Science A secret : Two lovers, two planetS.... 7

ASTROSOC 8 Dart Mission and Asteroid Mining Asteroids, A Combination of Destruction and Creation The DART Mission: Adventures Begin Within the Universe T he ancient Greek philosopher and innovator Plato once said, “ Astronomy compels the soul to look upwards and leads us from this world to another. ” Hasn’t this happened to us? Since ancient times, humans have embarked on a journey of discovery in space, guided by the beacons of distant stars. It had taken these souls to another world filled with unique mysteries. What about the present day? With time, science and technology have spread across the globe and into people’s minds, leading to the most innovative stage of the human era. As a result of this massive transformation, thousands of enthusiastic individuals are moving to navigate the cosmic secrets, in pursuit of knowledge and understanding. In brief, from the profound insights of ancient astronomers who first mapped the universe using simple telescopes, to today’s space explorers, astronomy has been an unceasing quest to grasp the celestial mysteries. One of these mysteries, or wonders, are asteroids, and science and technology are connecting us with them. Asteroids can be described as rocky objects mainly found in the asteroid belt, which is a region of the solar system that As an initial step towards winning the challenge of preventing future asteroid strikes on Earth, the DART Mission, or Double Asteroid Redirection Test, was introduced. The first-ever mission dedicated to investigating and demonstrating one method of asteroid deflection by changing an asteroid’s motion in space through kinetic impact. Their main goal is to demonstrate asteroid deflection with a kinetic impactor. This mission was mainly funded by NASA. The SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket carrying the special system, which consists of the Didymos Reconnaissance and Asteroid Camera equipped with SMART Nav algorithms, was launched at 10:21 p.m. PST on November 23, 2021, from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. Their main scientific targets would be the asteroid Didymos and the moonlet Dimorphos. It did great work by identifying and intentionally crashing into Dimorphos at roughly 14,000 miles per hour to slightly slow down the lies more than 2 1/2 times as far from the Sun as Earth does, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Scientists categorize these objects as near-earth objects due to the motion of their orbits, which bring them in close proximity to our planet. The most famous event that quickly comes to mind is the Chicxulub impact crater, under the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, of an asteroid responsible for the disappearance of the dinosaurs millions of years ago. This is a good example of what a dangerous situation asteroids can create.

ASTROSOC 9 Figure 1: Illustration of how DART’s impact altered the orbit of Dimorphos about Didymos Figure 2: Image of the asteroid Dimorphos, with compass arrows, scale bar, and color key for reference asteroid’s orbital speed with the guidance of the DART team. The mission successfully achieved its target on September 26, 2022, by marking it as a remarkable day for humanity, on which the team had succeeded in altering the orbit of the asteroid Moonlet Dimorphous by a whopping 33 minutes. The investigation team had observed their target, Dimorphous, using ground-based telescopes, and confirmed that DART’s impact altered the asteroid’s orbit around Didymos. It is also important to note that NASA also successfully tested its new NEXT-C ion propulsion technology with its DART’s mission. The DART team had worked hard to analyze the data collected from the world’s first planetary defense test mission. This will be the path to developing kinetic impactor technology in the future to protect Earth.

ASTROSOC 10 The Promising Future of Asteroid Mining Supply the Skies, Tracing the Connection Between DART and Asteroid Mining DART Mission: Towards the Future of Asteroid Mining Asteroid composition varies in a wide range, from volatile element-rich bodies to metallic bodies of gold, silver, and platinum, as well as iron and nickel. Asteroid mining is a highly speculative technique for mining critical elements from these relatively small bodies. Yet, only a few companies are currently interested in and considering asteroid mining due to the difficulty inherent in mining asteroids. Moreover, major challenges have come up when studying this technique, which are listed below, 1. Difficulties in categorization and identification of mineable deposits 2. Difficulties in building the infrastructure to mine and refine asteroid material 3. Difficulties in creating the ability to move mined material onto Earth Asteroid mining and the DART Mission are two distinct, although possibly overlapping, concepts in the global economy of asteroids. The DART Mission will provide valuable information for the development of methods and technologies capable of landing on and extracting minerals and resources from asteroids in the near future. Also, the information and data on the composition, structure, and behavior of asteroids gained by DART can be used for asteroid mining. The high concentration of mineral resources in asteroids will turn the globe’s economy into something we never imagined before. Therefore, most communities tend to invest in DART missions at present. Unfortunately, great profit comes with enormous challenges. Because the main drawback is the high cost of fuel and machinery needed to transport the extracted material back to Earth. The DART mission is known to us as Humanity’s First Planetary Defense, and in the future, it will successfully alter the path of an asteroid and potentially prevent a collision with Earth with much greater effectiveness and technology. This will also open a new floor to studying asteroids and their composition in a way that will lead to successful and efficient asteroid mining in the future. Not only for asteroid mining but also for future construction and mining operations on the Moon and other celestial objects. In order to make it feasible for humans to live and work beyond the Earth, it may be needed to use resources found in space. As we delve into the cosmos, we are not mere spectators; we are explorers with a burning curiosity for its unrevealed secrets. Therefore, always keep in touch with the latest updates on space to gain knowledge and be ready for a brighter future. Figure 3: Illustration of the asteroid mining concept by NASA

ASTROSOC 11 Ashimi Rathmalgoda Level Three Undergraduate Faculty of Science References Image Courtesy • Asteroid Mining. (n.d.). https://web.mit.edu/12.000/ www/m2016/finalwebsite/solutions/asteroids.html • NASA and ESA Asteroid Missions Fuel Space Mining Outlook. (n.d.-b). https://en.unav.edu/web/ global-affairs/las-misiones-de-la-nasa-y-la-esasobre-asteroides-alimentan-la-perspectiva-de-lamineria-espacial • Bardan, R. (2022, October 11). NASA confirms Dart Mission Impact Changed Asteroid’s motion in space. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasaconfirms-dart-mission-impact-changed-asteroids-motion-in-space • Asteroids: What are they and where do they come from?. Sky & Telescope. (2020, April 20). https:// skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-resources/astronomy-questions-answers/what-are-asteroids/ • NASA. (2022, September 27). In depth DART Mission. NASA. https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/dart/in-depth/#:~:text=DART%20was%20 the%20first%2Dever,in%20space%20through%20 kinetic%20impact.&text=On%20Sept.%2026%2C%20 2022%2C,(160%20meters)%20in%20diameter. • 6. NASA’s DART data validates kinetic impact as planetary defense method. DART. (n.d.). https:// dart.jhuapl.edu/News-and-Resources/article. php?id=20230301 • Figure 1 - https://shorturl.at/cxBDU • Figure 2 - https://shorturl.at/kxOQ9 • Figure 3 -https://shorturl.at/cjzTY • Figure 4 - https://shorturl.at/acrV6 Figure 4: Future of DART mission and asteroid mining

ASTROSOC 12 MOVIE REVIEW Title : Don’t Look Up Starring : Leonardo DiCaprio Jennifer Lawrence, Meryl Streep, Cate Blanchett, Rob Morgan, Jonah Hill, Mark Rylance, Tyler Perry, Timothée Chalamet, Ron Perlman, Ariana Grande Written By : Adam McKay, David Sirota, David Sirota Directed by : Adam McKay Genre : Comedy/Sci-fi Running Time: 2h 25m Rating : 55% Rotten Tomatoes 7.2/10 IMDb T he 2021 comedy disaster film starring megastars Leonardo DiCaprio and Jennifer Lawrence, made headlines even before its release, as many anticipated this collaboration. Satirical and witty on the surface, the movie addresses pressing issues that continue to plague humanity, bringing a dark twist to the usually generic movie format. The story begins with DiCaprio’s and Lawrence’s characters discovering an unknown comet heading towards Earth, their calculations confirming that the comet will hit Earth in another 6 months. Together with their boss, they embark on a mission to present their apocalyptic findings to the president, only to be blown off and told to wait it out. What follows is a hilarious yet darkly satirical story on how they take matters into their hands and try to educate the public about the impending apocalypse. Theoretically, one would expect this information to wreak havoc and incentivize the government to pay attention and take measures, but in reality, what happens couldn’t be further away from that. From being dismissed by news anchors to being ridiculed online, complete, and total chaos occurs. Don’t Look Up: A Mordantly Witty Satire That Is Both Entertaining and Cautious

ASTROSOC 13 Fig 01: DiCaprio and Lawrence in a still for the movie W.S. Thishakya De Silva Level One Undergraduate, Faculty of Science. Image references Fig 01: https://bit.ly/46PUI0G Fig 02: https://bit.ly/456VR2r Fig 02: Lawrence and DiCaprio in a pivotal scene Fig 01: DiCaprio and Lawrence in a still for the movie MOVIE REVIEW Main Image https://www.netflix.com/lk/title/81252357 One of the most fascinating aspects of this movie is how it accurately predicted the mass hysteria and confusion that a disaster could cause, written before the COVID pandemic and filmed during it, it eerily predicts how humans would respond to an impending catastrophe and how the leadership that we are supposed to put our trust in, fails us. Another focal issue this movie raises is how much scientists are disregarded despite their best attempts to inform the public about pressing issues. One cannot miss the parallels between this impending catastrophe and the equally catastrophic real-life issue we all are facing, climate change. Watching events in this movie unfold feels eerily familiar, as it’s something that most of us have collectively seen unfold in real time. One cannot also miss the obvious political insinuations this movie makes, it isn’t difficult to find characters in real life that strongly resemble the characters on screen, with their comical actions and behavior unfortunately mirroring real life influential figures, most notably the character Peter Isherwell, whose character prompted much speculation as to who inspired how his character was written. The ending of the movie was what made it stand apart from other disaster movies, it’s both poignant and introspective, a paradoxically quiet yet powerful ending which perfectly encapsulated the essence of the movie, the stark contrast between the mundane conversation at the dinner table with the chaos of the outside world, truly magnifies the beauty of life, its depth, complexity, and also its rarity. It’s enough to keep you wondering long after the credits have rolled; what would become of us if and when such a situation eventually becomes a terrifying reality?

ASTROSOC 14 What are the chemical necessities for life to exist and continue? What are the most suitable elements to form life? Life, as we see, is purely based on Carbon. If we look at the periodic table, we can see that Silicon is right below Carbon, and in real life, they share many common physical properties. But on the universal scale, Silicon is much more abundant than carbon. Even in Earth’s crust, Silicon makes up 28%, while Carbon only makes up 0.02%. Atoms naturally try to get to the lowest energy possible because it prefers to exist at a much more stable level. Performing chemical reactions in such a way to reach low energy levels; by creating molecules with relatively less energy. As such, if we view life from a chemical viewpoint, life itself is an ongoing chain of chemical reactions. Because of that, in order for life to exist and continue, these reactions must keep going for a considerable amount of time as well as be in a dynamic equilibrium (reacTo choose the suitable elements to create complex life, first, we must look into the bonds that elements create with each other. Among the three major bond categories; • Ionic bonds are way too unstable to form complex structures. • Metallic bonds usually contain repetitive structures that lack molecular diversity, hence failing to develop complex biological structures. • This leaves covalent bonds as the only option; in covalent bonds, atoms share electrons in outer and valence shells with each other to reach a relatively stable energy level. This allows the creation of countless number of bonds. These conditions narrow the category to Organosilicon Moving Crystals, Walking Mountains or Something Much More? tions mustn’t be entirely unidirectional). This is called the balance between reactivity and stability.

ASTROSOC 15 Why Silicon was considered a suitable alternative to Carbon in the first place? Then why was Silicon dropped in the biochemical process of life and evolution? Because both Carbon and Silicon exist in the same periodic group (XIV), both elements share a number of similar qualities both elemental-wise as well as in molecular structures. Both Silicon and Carbon have 4 valence electrons in their outermost shell, leaving the possibility to create bonds with up to four separate atoms. This leaves a possibility that in a molecule where carbon acts as the central atom, there would be only minuscule differences if Carbon was swapped out to Silicon. The chemistry of those two elements is similar in most of the aspects. a small number of elements; Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P) and Sulfur (S). Out of these, for some reason, all the remaining elements are considered building blocks of life, except for Silicon. Figure 1 : Main six elements of life Figure 2 : Similarities between carbon and silicon Molecules Figure 3 : Similarities between carbon and silicon Molecules This seems weird, because even though both Carbon and Silicon form nearly identical molecules, Carbon acts as the most critical element of life while Silicon was simply left off in the process. All of this narrows down to two simple yet major reasons; • Silicon-based molecules are far more reactive with water than Carbon-based elements. Due to water being essential for life, frequent contact of water with Silicon-based molecules might create problems. • On the other hand, even though Silicon-based molecules are unstable in water, they are far more stable in Hydro carbon solvents, in liquid Ammonia, and in Sulfuric acid as well. Both Hydrocarbon solvents and liquid Ammonia are abundant in Jovian planets and their moons, while the atmosphere of Venus contains a huge percentage of Sulfuric acid. But these come with their own restrictions; * Most of the Hydrocarbon solvents and liquid Ammonia (and the planets/satellites they are present in) are very cold, which may slow down or halt the process of creating complex biological structures. * On the other hand, Sulfuric acid is way too aggressive and reactive to create a complex structure of molecules.

ASTROSOC 16 Figure 4 : Scientific and Artistic representation of Hydrocarbon Lakes on Titan Figure 5 : Sulphuric acid Rich Venus Atmosphere and Ammonia Rich Jupiter Atmosphere Figure 6 : Xenomorph from ‘Alien’ and the Giant Sand Worm from ‘Dune’ So does that mean Silicon is not ideal to create complex biological structures? So are there no real-life examples of Silicon-based life forms? Not exactly. Silicon is not ideal to create life in an environment where water or Oxygen is present in abundance. Due to Silicon’s extremely reactive nature with Oxygen, it doesn’t exist in pure form; instead, they form Silicon Dioxide, or SiO2 in both rock and crystal forms. This will especially create problems in the respiratory system of the life we know because Silicon reacts with Oxygen and creates SiO2 or sand in the lungs. But for an environment where water and oxygen are scarce or non-existent, along with the presence of a suitable solvent, Silicon can create complex molecular structures. For example, we can take the existence of Silicon-based alien life in Sci-Fi movies; Xenomorphs from the ‘Alien’ franchise, and the Giant sand worm from ‘Dune’. Both of their natural habitats didn’t contain Oxygen or Water, which might have given them the chance to develop Silicon-based life with the help of a suitable solvent. Surprisingly, there are two; although they can’t be considered as perfect examples. There is a variety of plankton called ‘Diatoms’ with a cell wall made out of Silicon, and a type of sponge called ‘Glass sponge’ in the class Hexactinellida where Silicon particles are present

ASTROSOC 17 Pumudu Ramuditha Level One Undergraduate Faculty of Science References Image Courtesy • PBS Space Time. (2023, January 26). What If Alien Life Were Silicon-Based? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=469chceiiUQ • What If. (2019, October 21). What If Alien Life Was Silicon-Based? [Video]. YouTube. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=4GmGO__75NY • Could silicon be the basis for alien life forms, just as carbon is on Earth? (1998, February 23). Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/could-silicon-be-the-basi/ • Figure 2, 3: An illustration of the CH/SiLi analogy for planar aromatic Si-based. . . (n.d.). ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/ figure/An-illustration-of-the-CH-SiLi-analogyfor-planar-aromatic-Si-based-structures-Topand_fig11_51450782 • Figure 4: Now, A. (2015, June 21). The mysterious ‘lakes’ on Saturn’s moon Titan – Astronomy Now. https://astronomynow.com/2015/06/21/ the-mysterious-lakes-on-saturns-moon-titan/ and https://www.sci.news/space/deep-methane-dominated-lakes-titan-07094.html • Figure 5: How did life finally get detected on the planet Venus? (n.d.). Quora. https://www.quora. com/How-did-life-finally-get-detected-on-theplanet-Venus and Greicius, T. (2020). “Shallow Lightning” and “Mushballs” Reveal Ammonia to NASA’s Juno Scie. NASA. https://www.nasa. gov/feature/jpl/shallow-lightning-and-mushballs-reveal-ammonia-to-nasas-juno-scientists/ • Figure 6: Xenomorph | Alien Species | Fandom. (n.d.). Alien Species. https://aliens.fandom.com/ wiki/Xenomorph and Romain, L. (2020, May 21). What You Need to Know About DUNE’s Sandworms - Nerdist. Nerdist. https://nerdist.com/ article/dune-sandworm-explained/ • Figure 7: Gramling, C. (2019, September 10). Ocean acidification could weaken diatoms’ glass houses. Science News. https://www.sciencenews. org/article/ocean-acidification-could-weaken-diatoms-glass-houses • Cover image - https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic. com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRU36v1NlRHm6YGHgTsJpE-XTooY04IdUTHuvm-5JM9XzU3vXwCUs2s7dxJAFCgW-InNHo&usqp=CAU Figure 7 : Oxygen producing diatoms with a silicon cell wall in outer tissues. Although the majority of their internal organs are made of Carbon (which makes them Carbon-based life as well), they show that incorporating Silicon into biological structures is indeed a good possibility. Due to the rapid development of science, we may see Silicon-based life forms in the future. Until then, except for a sudden Silicon-based alien life contact, we won’t have much evidence for it. But who knows what the future holds?

ASTROSOC 18 Interstellar Journey The whole of the military base of Vazyl, the capital of Zalari, awoke to blaring loud alarms, that meant only one thing: danger of the most critical kind. “The space station has detected an unidentified object, at an altitude of about 35,000 km from the surface level. It is neither a comet nor an asteroid. They reckon it might be a spacecraft, Sir,” a captain reported in Atari, the language of the Zalarians. “How could that be? There are no stellar bodies with life, within billions of kilometres from Zalari. It’s impossible, unless….” Lieutenant General Taran Azev looked out into the starry night sky, with a pensive look in his eyes. “If things are as you speculate, Captain, this would mean we have visitors from afar.” “Sir, do you think it could be…” Brigadier General Encell Lekov spoke up in surprise, his voice imbued with a hint of excitement. “Yes, I do. There is no time to waste. Prepare for impact and possible invasion. Expect the worst, but do not engage, unless provoked, or in danger, do I make myself clear?” his firm voice reverberated through the room, the harsh tonality of Atari, aiding him in getting his point across. “Yes, Sir.” The two captains, three colonels, and the sole Brigadier General present at the emergency meeting, knew the importance of their superior’s words. THREADS OF HOPE Short Story “The next few hours could quite possibly make history,” he mused quietly, his eyes zeroed in on Kasae, Zalari’s largest satellite, by land mass. ... 2 hours later After countless times of circling around Zalari, when the object finally landed upon the Banin desert, located to the East of Vazyl, the Zalarians knew for certain, that what was before them was a large spacecraft. The military surrounded the vessel, armed to the teeth, with large firearms, field guns, and carronades. A few minutes later, the hatch of the spacecraft opened, and three white-clad individuals stepped out, space rifles in their hands. Coming up to about 6 feet in height, they were smaller than the Zalarians, who on average, stood at around 7 to 8 feet high. “Drop your weapons and identify yourselves!” a booming voice came out of the loudspeakers far behind, speaking in Atari, the Zalarian mother tongue. The three intruders looked at each other, and then back at the crowd. The one in the middle, who seemed like the leader of the trio, spread his free arm out and made an openpalm gesture, whilst shaking his head. “We do not understand you,” he spoke up loud in English, so that the Zalarians could hear him, even from the distance they were standing at. “Can you speak English?” Lieutenant General Azev turned to a Major standing near him.

ASTROSOC 19 The Banin Desert and Kasae, Zalari’s largest satellite “Yes, Sir,” he replied at once. “Then go and repeat those instructions in the language our visitors understand,” he commanded. “Drop your weapons and identify yourselves!” the loudspeakers spoke again, after a few moments, this time in English. At first, the three intruders stood still, unmoving, before hesitantly lowering their weapons to the ground. They probably realised that armed or not, there was no way they could fight their way out of the armed forces that were surrounding them. “Identify yourselves!” the loudspeakers sounded again, more insistent this time. “Greetings…we come from afar, from a planet called Earth, located in the Milky Way galaxy. We come in peace, in search of a new home,” the one in the middle started speaking slowly, yet clearly. “What species are you? And why do you seek a new home?” Lieutenant General Azev immediately asked. “Is it just the three of you on board this spacecraft?” “We are humans, of the species Homo sapiens. There are nine others in the spacecraft. We seek a new home, as Earth, our planet, has been destroyed by a catastrophic nuclear war that erupted just a few months before we left. We have come searching for a new beginning. May we know who you are, and which planet this is?” There was a low murmur among the Zalarians gathered, before Brigadier General Lekov spoke up, “This is planet Zalari, and we are the Zalarians. We, like you, are humans, but of the species Homo conscius. Should your Earth have had a different fate, perhaps over time, you would have become like us.” “If it is peace you come in, you have no reason to fear us. Invite the rest of your crew to join us here,” Lieutenant General Azev’s words were firm, yet bore no ill-will. Within ten minutes, all the Earthlings were standing on Zalarian ground. It appeared that they had been prepared to disembark the spacecraft, the moment they were given the green light by the three, who first got to Zalari. As there was no assurance that the Earthlings had not brought any type of disease, pollutant, or toxin with them, caution was maintained. After obtaining confirmation that they were able to respire, as long as they had the spacesuits on, the twelve individuals were taken to an airtight container that acted as a transportable vacuum. After a short journey of a few miles, they reached a large research facility, located at the edge of the Banin desert. The Earthlings were then directed towards the central containment chamber, in order to test for possible infection, presence of toxins, and more importantly, their compatibility with the atmosphere of Zalari. Lieutenant General Azev, Brigadier

ASTROSOC 20 Shehara De Silva Level Two Undergraduate Faculty of Science General Lekov, three Colonels, two Captains, and a Major General, all stood outside the containment chamber, watching the proceedings, through its transparent walls. . . . Later in the day “What’s the verdict?” Lieutenant General Azev inquired of the researchers, who finally left the containment chamber. “All is clear, Sir” one of them replied. “They have no issues, healthwise, apart from experiencing fatigue, nausea, and bouts of dizziness, which are all classic symptoms of space sickness.” “Let me see their information,” Major General Garrick Slayr held out his hand for the files. “Seven males and five females. Two of them are adolescents – an 18-year-old boy and a 17-year-old girl. The rest are in their twenties and thirties,” he read off the files. “So it’s true. They are of the species Homo sapiens. I never thought I’d ever see one. They are as short and weak as I imagined them to be, though,” he chuckled. “What was their reaction to us being humans too?” Lieutenant General Azev sounded curious. “They were surprised, but mostly by the fact that we were a different species to them. They asked us many times if we were an evolved form of them. I think they were hoping we’d reply in the negative,” the researchers seemed a little amused. “They cannot fathom being any more intelligent than they already are. I suppose that is part of the problem, being a Homo sapien. They believe they are creatures of great intelligence and wisdom. Little do they know, they are on the lower rungs, when it comes to the abilities of the brain and mind.” “Oh, and their life span really is as short as our history annals reported. Just before the destruction of Earth, the average human had a life expectancy of about 90 to 125 years. They seemed to be proud of their ‘long’ lifespan. Pity I had to put an end to their delusion. They almost went into cardiac arrest, upon hearing that we Zalarians have a minimum life expectancy of about 360 years,” another researcher added. They all cracked a smile at that. The sad fate of the Homo sapiens, would be a thing of the past, now that they had come to Zalari. “Do we know how long they’ve been on that spacecraft, Sir?” Brigadier General Lekov suddenly inquired of his direct superior. “Four years, five months, and nine days. Earth years,” Major General Slayr checked the file. “As I recall, one day on Earth coincides with how long the planet takes to spin once, on its own axis. An Earth year, being 365 such Earth days,” Lieutenant General Azev remarked, deep in thought. “Given that their planet is somewhere roughly halfway between the center and the edge of the Milky Way Galaxy, does it not raise questions, as to how they made a journey of over 12,000 light years, to make their way to Zalari, in a mere four and a half Earth years?” “But didn’t that unmanned space probe do the same in just under four years, Sir?” Major General Slayr’s voice shook in agitation. “Its origin was also Earth, wasn’t it? We found it circling Zalari, caught in its gravitational field, just over ten years ago.” “The Earthlings had sent out information to Interstellar Space, through that probe. And we intercepted it. That is how we speak their language, know who they are, and where their planet is located in the galaxy. What we found then, is proof that they have not the technology to cross space like this,” he clenched his fists hard. “Then how did they get here? Do you think that somewhere out there, there might be…a wormhole?” Brigadier General Lekov sounded hesitant. Lieutenant General Azev looked out into the great unknown, a little smile adorning his face, “Yes gentlemen, I think there just might be.” -The End-

ASTROSOC 21 › ,xldj wjg wju .=re;ajhla mj;skafka wehs@ isoaOdka;j neÆ l, wjldYfha ;sfnk ´kEu ialkaOhla iys; mod¾:hla u.ska .=re;ajdl¾IK n,hla we;s lrkq ,nk w;r tu lafIa;%fha m%n,;ajh uQ,slj u wod, jia;=fõ ialkaO jHdma;sh wkqj fjkia fõ. kdid wdh;kh óg jir lsysmhlg fmr pkaøsld ;dlaIKh fhdod .ksñka mDÓú f.da,fha .=re;ajh úp,kh ù ;sfnk wdldrh is;shï.; lsÍfï jHdmD;shla Èh;a l< w;r tu.ska › ,xldj wjg f,dalfha wfkla rgj,a j,g idfmalaIj wju .=re;ajhla mj;sk nj ;yjqre lr .ekSug yels úh. › ,xldfõ ysßjvqkak m%foaYfha fuu wju .=re;ajh jd¾;d ù we;s w;r iuia;hla jYfhka .;a l, ,xldfõ ol=Kq È. fmfofia .=re;ajh fuf,i wju w.hla .kq ,nhs. ixLHd;aul w.hkaf.ka mejiqfjd;a f,dj fndfyda rgj, .=re;ajc ;ajrKfha fï idudkH w.h 9.81 ms-2 jk úg ysßjvqkak m%foaYfha .=re;ajc ;ajrKfha w.h 9.78 ms-2 jk nj fidhdf.k we;s w;r fuh ie,lsh hq;= m%udKfha fjkialuls. ksoiqkla f,i .;a l, 80 kg n/;s mqoa.,fhla ysßjvqkak m%foaYhg meñK ;u nr uekSulg ,la l,fyd;a ienE w.hg jvd 200 g la wvqfjka nr igyka ù we;s whqre olakg ,efnk w;r fuh ie,lsh hq;= m%udKfha wvq ùuls. mDÓú mDIaGfha >k;aj úp,kh fuf,i .=re;ajh ;ekska ;ek tlsfklg fjkia w.hka .ekSug n,md ;sfnk m%Odk;u fya;= ldrKh jk w;r mod¾: >k;ajh by, ysud, l÷jeáh wdY%s;j idfmalaIj jeä .=re;ajhla oel .; yels jkafka fuu ldrKh ksidh. ;jo mod¾: >k;ajh b;d my< w.hla .kakd ußhdkd wd.dOh wdY%s;j .=re;ajfha w.h idfmalaIj wvq w.hla .ekSfukao fuu ldrKh fyd¢kau meyeÈ,s fõ. › ,xldj wjg fuf,i wvq .=re;ajhla yg .;af;a flfiao hkak ms<sn|j úúO u; bÈßm;a ù we;s w;r N+;, >Ügkh ksid fuu ;;a;ajh Wod jQ nj oekg fndfyda fokd úiska ms<s.kq ,nk u;hhs. mDÓúh ks¾udKh jQ ld,jljdkqfõ § › ,xldj wh;a jk bkaÈhdkq N+;,h wdishdkq N+;,h iu. >Ügkh ù we;s w;r, tys m%;sM,hla f,i wdishdkq N+;,h by<g .uka lr › ,xldj wh;a jk bkaÈhdkq N+;,h my,g .uka lr we;. fuf,i mDÓú wNHka;r foig .uka l, bkaÈhdkq N+;,h tys mj;sk c,h iu. m%;sl%shd lr c,Sh mdIdK ksmojd we;s w;r fuf,i ìys jQ c,Sh mdIdK idudkH mdIdK j,g jvd >k;ajh wvq úh. fï fya;=j ksid mod¾: >k;ajh wvq ù we;s w;r › ,xldj wjg wju .=re;ajhla we;s ùug fuuÕska

ASTROSOC 22 wjia:dj Wod úh. fuf,i › ,xldj wjg wju .=re;ajhla ;sîu jdisodhl o@ ke;skï tu.ska lsis÷ hym;a fyda whym;la isÿ jkafka keoao@ fï ms<sn|j l;d lsÍug hdfï § bf,daka uialaf.a SpaceX .ek ioyka l, hq;=h. wNHjldY mÍËK wdh;khla jk fuh uE;l § l, mÍlaIKhl § weußldfõ f*daßvdys § frdlÜ hdkdjla .=jka.; lsÍug jeh jk uqo,g jvd fvd,¾ 190,000 la wvqfjka jeh lr › ,xldfõ mj;sk wju .=re;ajh fhdod .ksñka frdlÜ hdkdjla .=jka.; l, yels nj wkdjrKh lr f.k ;sfí. f*daßvdys iy › ,xldfõ .=re;ajc ;ajrK idudkH w.hka .;a l, ms<sfj,ska 9.7979 ms-2iy 9.7773 ms-2 jk w;r hï ialkaOhla fuu ia:dk fofla § 100m l Wil isg my<g w;ay< úg th mDIaGh fj; <Õd ùug .; jk ld,hka w;r fjki 21.5 ms jk nj o fidhdf.k we;. fï wkqj fmkS hkafka frdlÜ hdkd .=jka.; lsÍug › ,xldfõ mj;sk wju .=re;ajh jdisodhl jk njh. idudkHfhka frdlÜ hdkdjla .=jka.; lsÍug hk úhofuka ie,lsh hq;= m%udKhla fuuÕska wvq lr .; yels w;r o, jYfhka th 0.2% la muK fõ. kuq;a › ,xldj wNHjldY hdkd .=jka.; lsÍfï uOHia:dkhla njg m;a lsÍu f,ais myiq lghq;a;la fkdjk w;r m%udKj;a há;, myiqlï fkdue;s ùu fuys § uqyqK §ug isÿjk m%Odk wNsfhda.hla fõ. ;jo wm rfÜ oekg wNHjldY hdkd ksmoùug ;rï m%udKj;a ;dlaIKhla fkdue;s ksid weußldfõ wod, hdkd ksmojd furgg /f.k tAug isÿ fõ. fï wkqj fndfyda wjia:dj, § bkaOk wju ùu ksid b;sß jk uqo,g jvd jeä uqo,la fuu úhoï ioyd jeh jkq we;. kuq;a fuu ish¨ m%Yak j,g úiÿï fidhd .ksñka › ,xldj wNHjldY hdkd .=jka.; lsÍfï uOHia:dkhla lsÍug wm yg yelshdj ,enqfKd;a ksielju th wkd.;fha isÿ lsÍug ie,iqï lr ;sfnk wÕyre ckmolrKhg fnfyúkau bjy,a jk w;r th ñksia j¾.hd f,i wm bÈßhg ;enQ oejeka; mshjrla jkq fkdwkqudkh. wxcq .hd;S% f;jk jir úoHd mSGh Image Courtesy References • https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a011200/ a011234/cover-1920.jpg • https://www.echelon.lk/gravity-in-sri-lanka/ • https://repo.lib.sab.ac.lk:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/158

ASTROSOC 23 Humans have always been a curious species. That never-ending curiosity led man to explore vast space, a place with no human existence, a place where only stars and galaxies exist, and a place where they assume that aliens would exist. When Yuri Gagarin from Soviet Russia became the 1st person ever to go to space on April 12th, 1961, the USA wanted to send someone to the Moon so that they could surpass Russia. As a result, the Apollo mission was born; Neil Armstrong set foot on the Moon for the first time on July 20th, 1969. From there until the last Apollo mission in 1972, various Apollo missions were carried out, and it has stopped ever since. But those missions left a significant impact. Now that technology is further developed, why don’t we resume those missions? That is why NASA brought Moon missions and space exploration missions back to life with their newest Artemis program. With the Artemis Program, NASA wants to land the 1st woman and the 1st person of colour on the Moon using innovative technologies to explore more of the Moon’s surface than Where Did the Name Artemis Come From? Introduction to Artemis. In Greek Mythology, Artemis is the goddess of the Moon and also the twin sister of the god Apollo. So it’s clear that NASA wants to bring the Moon missions back to life. According to them, Artemis personifies their path to the Moon as the name of NASA’s efforts to return astronauts. The Artemis program is a robotic and human space exploration mission led by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) in collaboration with other agencies - ESA (European Space Agency), JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency), and CSA (Canadian Space Agency). The main parts of the program are the Space Launch System (SLS), the Orion Spacecraft, the Lunar Gateway space station, and the commercial Human Landing Systems. This program’s long-term objective is to build a permanent base on the Moon to make human expeditions to Mars practical. The Artemis program was formally established in 2017. Many of its components, including the Orion spacecraft, were created during and after the previous Constellation program (2005– 2010). The Artemis crew organized the project around Space Launch System (SLS) missions. They planned from Artemis 1 through Artemis 5, meaning future missions have also been proposed. Moon Missions are Back in Action ever before. Figure 1 : Artemis Mission Patch. (n.d.).

ASTROSOC 24 Artemis 1 - mission map. (n.d.-b). NASA. SLS Missions Artemis 1 Artemis 1 was the first successful uncrewed test of the SLS and Orion and was the 1st test flight for both crafts. The Orion spacecraft’s first launch was planned for 2016, but it was rescheduled and brought back as Artemis 1 and launched on 6th November 2022, with robots and mannequins aboard. They placed Orion into the Lunar orbit through this mission and then returned to Earth. Artemis 2 is planned to be the first crewed test flight of the SLS and Orion spacecraft. The launch is scheduled to be carried out in November 2024. Extensive testing by the four crew members will occur in Earth orbit, after which Orion will be sent into a free-return course around the Moon, returning it to Earth for re-entry and splashdown. Artemis 3 - First crewed Lunar landing scheduled to be carried out in December 2025. Artemis 4 - This will be the second crewed lunar landing mission which will take place in September 2028. Artemis 5 - Scheduled to take place in September 202, this will be the third crewed mission that will deliver four astronauts to the Gateway Space Station. It was November 16th, 2022. All eyes were on the historic Launch Complex 39B. The Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket were ready to lift off for the first time from NASA’s modernized Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Artemis I’s main objectives are to ensure a safe re-entry, descent, splashdown, and recovery. It also aims to showcase Orion’s capabilities in a spaceflight environment. The Orion spacecraft’s upper stage split after entering Earth orbit, performed a translunar injection, then released Orion and 10 CubeSat satellites. On November 21st, Orion made a flyby of the Moon, went into a far-off retrograde orbit for six days, and then made another flyby of the Moon on December 5th. Also, Orion carried three astronaut-like mannequins equipped with sensors to provide data on what crew members may experience during a trip to the Moon. During the flight, the spacecraft launched the most powerful rocket in the world and flew farther than any other spacecraft built for humans has ever flown. Orion stayed in space longer than any ship for astronauts

ASTROSOC 25 has done without docking to a space station and returned home faster. After its 1.4 million-mile mission beyond the Moon and back, the Orion spacecraft arrived at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center on December 30th. The capsule splashed down in the pacific ocean on December 11th and was transported by a truck across the country. Quick Facts • Launch date: November 16, 2022 • Mission duration: 25 days, 10 hours, 53 minutes. • Total distance traveled: 1.4 million miles • Re-entry speed: 24,581 mph • Splashdown: December 11, 2022 Artemis 1 launch. (n.d.). NASA/Joel Kowsky. Artemis II - Mission Map. (n.d.). Earth viewed from the Orion spacecraft after trans-lunar injection. (n.d.). NASA. Artemis I Flight Day 13: Orion, Earth, and Moon. (n.d.). NASA. Artemis 2 After the success of Artemis 1, NASA is prepared to launch Artemis II, the follow-up mission. It is the first crewed mission of NASA’s Orion spacecraft, which is scheduled to launch in November 2024, and the second mission of the NASA Artemis program. After doing a flyby of the Moon, it will land back on Earth. Since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972, this spacecraft will be the first to travel to the Moon and beyond low earth orbit. Artemis 2 will be crewed by four astronauts, including the first woman, the first person of colour, and the first non-American to travel beyond low Earth Orbit.

ASTROSOC 26 The Artemis II crew in an Orion simulator at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. From left to right, astronauts Jeremy Hansen, Victor Glover, Reid Wiseman, and Christina Koch. NASA/James Blair. (n.d.). Meet the crew. About the Crew Future with Artemis CSA Astronaut Jeremy Hansen: Jeremy Roger Hansen is a Canadian astronaut, fighter pilot, physicist, and former aquanaut. He is the first non-American to travel beyond the Earth. He is a fighter pilot with the Royal Canadian Air Force and was selected by the CSA (Canadian Space Agency) in 2009. Jeremy Hansen will serve as the mission specialist during the Artemis 2 mission. NASA Pilot Victor Glover: Glover will be the first Black astronaut to fly around the Moon. In his first spaceflight mission, Glover, a Naval aviator, piloted aircraft in the US, Italy, Japan, and the Middle East. He will be serving as the pilot for the mission. NASA Commander Reid Wiseman: Wiseman, a pilot in the US Navy, was chosen by NASA in 2009 while working as a test pilot and project officer at Naval Air Station Patuxent River in Maryland. Wiseman’s subsequent expedition will be Artemis 2. On Expedition 41, which traveled to the International Space Station between May and November of 2014, he spent 165 days in space. NASA Mission Specialist Christina Koch: Koch, a scientist, and engineer, has worked on missions at Johns Hopkins, NASA, and Antarctica. She set a record for female spaceflight with the first all-female spacewalk and 328 days on the ISS. She is the first woman to travel beyond Earth. Depending on the mission’s goals, it may last up to three weeks, but it is anticipated to last eight to ten days. If the new mission achieves its anticipated maximum altitude of 5,523 miles (8,889 km) above the Moon’s surface, the four astronauts aboard Artemis 2 will have traveled the farthest from Earth since 1970’s Apollo 13. Mission tasks, scientific investigations, and emergency drills will be included during the coasting, Moon-circling, and Earth-orbiting phases. To practice docking with NASA’s next Gateway station, the astronauts will be requested to do a “rendezvous and proximity operations demonstration” in Earth orbit. The 3rd Artemis mission will land people on the Moon for the first time since Apollo 17 in 1972. Four astronauts on board the Orion module will continue the legacy of the Artemis 2 mission by docking with the Lunar Gateway and spending 30 days in space. The two astronauts will then be transported by the human landing system to the South Pole of the Moon, a location that has never been explored by humans. The astronauts will spend a week on the surface exploring and conducting a range of scientific investigations, including collecting water ice, which was discovered for the first time on the Moon in 1971. Right now, NASA is primarily focusing its attention on Artemis missions 1 to 3. This doesn’t mean that they have not planned for the future. They are also looking ahead to future projects and already awarded contracts for boosters on rockets up to Artemis 13. With the advancement of technology, scientists and astronauts are working hard to discover the unexplored universe. Artemis’s mission is yet another little try to solve this massive puzzle. Eventually, they will find a solution to land humans on Mars, which is only inhabited by robots.

ASTROSOC 27 References • Dunbar, B. (2021b). What is Artemis? NASA. https:// www.nasa.gov/what-is-artemis • NASA: Artemis. (n.d.). NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/ specials/artemis/ • Wikipedia contributors. (2023). Artemis program. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_program • Townsend, J. (2019). Earth blue, Rocket red, and Lunar silver: a new identity for Artemis. NASA. https://www. nasa.gov/feature/artemis-identity • Artemis Programme: what you need to know about NASA’s Moon missions. (n.d.). https://www.rmg.co.uk/ stories/topics/nasa-Moon-mission-artemis-program-launch-date • Mann, A., & Harvey, A. (2022). NASA’s Artemis program: Everything you need to know. Space.com. https://www.space.com/artemis-program.html • Dunbar, B. (2021). What is Artemis? NASA. https:// www.nasa.gov/what-is-artemis • Wikipedia contributors. (2023a). Artemis 1. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_1 • Hambleton, K. (2022). Around the Moon with NASA’s First Launch of SLS with Orion. NASA. https://www. nasa.gov/feature/around-the-Moon-with-nasa-sfirst-launch-of-sls-with-orion • Luabeya, M. (2022). We are going: Artemis I launches. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/we-aregoing-artemis-i-launches • Mohon, L. (2022). Artemis I Launch. NASA. https:// www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/artemis-i-launch.html • Tuttle, A. M. (2022, December 30). Artemis I Orion Spacecraft Returns to Kennedy Space Center – Artemis. https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/12/30/artemis-i-orion-spacecraft-returns-to-kennedy-spacecenter/ • Dobrijevic, D. (2022, November 16). Artemis 1 launch photos: Amazing views of NASA’s Moon rocket debut (gallery). Space.com. https://www.space.com/artemis-1-Moon-rocket-launch-photos • Wikipedia contributors. (2023b). Artemis 2. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_2 • Howell, E., & Dobrijevic, D. (2023). NASA’s Artemis 2 mission: Everything you need to know. Space. com. https://www.space.com/artemis-2-humans-Moon-orbit • NASA: Artemis II crew. (n.d.). NASA. https://www.nasa. gov/specials/artemis-ii/ Devanga De Silva Level Three Undergraduate Faculty of Science Image Courtesy • https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/styles/ side_image/public/thumbnails/image/artemis_ identity_Moon_mars.jpg?itok=Ak8KMpTE • https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/artemis-i-map Figure 1 | Extraction of fossil fuels • https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/ styles/full_width_feature/public/thumbnails/ image/nhq202211160002.jpg • https://images.nasa.gov/details-art001e000095%20 FD1%20Earth1 • https://images.nasa.gov/details-art001e000672 • https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/artemis-ii-map • https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-ii/img/ jsc2023e016453.jpg

ASTROSOC 28 When you live on planet Earth and start to observe the things around you, you tend to notice different life forms that live here, plants that can live for thousands of years, animals that depend either on plants or other animals, or microorganisms that feed on already dead plant or animal bodies. One thing common among these living beings and even us humans is that we live by consuming energy, especially for humans we use energy not only to sustain our body from consuming food, we use energy to make our lifestyle much easier. In modern times, we can categorize the energy that we consume into two main types, • Renewable energy • Non-renewable energy To understand the need for artificial photosynthesis we must first analyze the pros and cons of the current forms of energy production. Non-renewable energy - this type of energy comes from sources that will either run out or will not be replenished in our lifetimes, examples such as, • Coal • Natural gas • Oil Pros Cons Easy to store and transport The energy sources will deplete in the foreseeable future Relatively cheap Contribution to the climate change More reliable than renewable energy at the moment If not properly handled can cause disasters (oil spills, explosions) Relatively high energy density Figure 2 | Fossil fuel types Figure 1 | Extraction of fossil fuels Artificial Photosynthesis

ASTROSOC 29 Renewable energy - this type of energy is derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed, for example, • Solar power • Wind power • Hydropower • Geothermal energy Pros Cons Lower maintenance requirement High capital cost Minimal effect on the environment Not very reliable Won’t run out for a long time (billions of years) Limited storage capacity Geographic limitations Figure 3 | Types of renewable energy sources “If photosynthesis ceased, there would soon be little to no food or other organic matter on Earth.” We need an energy source with the best of both sides. Trees do a process that has some of these characteristics called photosynthesis. It would be impossible to overestimate the importance of photosynthesis in the maintenance of life on Earth. If photosynthesis ceased, there would soon be little to no food or other organic matter on Earth. Most organisms would disappear. We will first learn about the process of natural photosynthesis. Natural photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and organic-rich compounds using sunlight. This is done by the chlorophylls in the cells of the tree leaves.

ASTROSOC 30 Photosynthesis takes place in two distinct stages; Light reaction - this reaction uses light energy to create two molecules that are needed for the next stage of photosynthesis, ATP(Adenosine Triphosphate) the energy storage molecule, and the reduced electron carrier NADPH (Dihydronicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate); Dark reaction - ATP and NADPH are used to make glucose and other sugar molecules and this process does not require sunlight hence the name. Figure 4 | The chemical equation of photosynthesis Figure 5 | Light reaction And Dark reaction that made up photosynthesis However, scientists observed that this process is inefficient and also takes up a lot of space. So, they have tried to mimic this process with higher efficiency and taking up less space. As a result, they have found many mechanisms for recreating the photosynthetic process artificially. Uses of artificial photosynthesis, • Electricity production • Food and fuel production • Synthesis of hydrogen and oxygen using water For this process, we need a molecular machine that would transform carbon dioxide into fuel. Chemists would use catalysts to do this process. Catalysts provide a path for a chemical reaction without being spent in the process. Materials that change the rate of a chemical reaction on exposure to light are known as photocatalysts. Figure 6 | Catalysts lower the activation energy barrier or provide several smaller intermediate steps. (Image source: cK-12) Many scientists around the world have attempted to recreate photosynthesis by artificial means and they have experimented on various mechanisms to mimic the process. A few of the mechanisms are mentioned below. Using Catalysts Zirconium (Zr) and Cobalt (Co) pair is used as a photocatalyst. When exposed to light electrons are transferred from Co to Zr by a process called metal-to-metal charge transfer but then the Zr atom will be in an unstable state (a similar process takes place in the light reaction of photosynthesis involving protein electron carriers to create ATP and NADPH). So either the electron moves back to Co or it will react with carbon dioxide to make formic acid which can either be directly used in fuel cells or can be used to make other hydrocarbon fuels.

ASTROSOC 31 Figure 7 | Photosynthesis using bacteria There is also a type of bacteria called cyanobacteria that is capable of doing photosynthesis naturally. They can be engineered with the methods of synthetic biology so that they acquire the ability to directly convert CO2 to biomass/biofuel. Figure 8 | Cyanobacteria Photosynthesis is one of, if not the most important process performed by nature. It is one of the only few ways Earth could manage to harness the power of the sun. If we could manage to do this process artificially, more efficiently and cost effectively, we might be able to supply even more power than it demands. One can also realize how helpful this will be for space exploration within the sun’s proximity, astronauts will be able to produce both food and oxygen on their own. This will also be very helpful if we were ever to colonize the Moon or Mars. Scientists have found a way to convert solar energy into chemical energy using bacteria. What’s interesting is the bacteria that was used. It was a non-photosynthetic bacterium called M. thermoacetica. When it is mixed with cadmium sulfide nanoparticles they can produce acetic acid from carbon dioxide at efficiencies and yield comparable to the natural photosynthetic process. Using Bacteria Hasala Kalubowila Level Two Undergraduate Faculty of Science We can also use photocatalysts to split water back into hydrogen and oxygen. This is a separate process of artificial photosynthesis that doesn’t involve the conversion of CO2 into your typical hydrocarbon fuel but the hydrogen that is produced can be used as a source of fuel. In theory, catalysts can be used over and over indefinitely, however, in practice the performance of catalysts degrades over time. Scientists have developed a catalyst aluminium-doped SrTiO3 which retains 80% of its initial activity after 55 days of continuous use. This combined with rhodium–chromium mixed oxide (RhCrOx/STO:Al) efficiently promotes photocatalytic activity (in this case the overall water splitting) with an apparent quantum yield (AQY) of 56% under 365 nm ultraviolet (UV) light.

ASTROSOC 32 References Image credits/sources: • Figure 1:- https://bit.ly/3D0onXu • Figure 2:- https://bit.ly/3D0onXu • Figure 3:- https://bit.ly/3JKWqGO • Figure 4:- https://bit.ly/3OAxILW • Figure 5:- https://bit.ly/47ayE0U • Figure 6:- https://bit.ly/3NDukOL • Figure 7:- https://bit.ly/3PI9JM0 • Figure 8:- https://bit.ly/46Cweb2 • Anta, M. E., Alonso, C. G., Tagliavini, E., & Sainz, D. (2022). Sustainable chemistry. In Elsevier eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12- 824315-2.00242-6 • Chen, Q. Y., Montesarchio, D., & Hellingwerf, K. J. (2016). ‘Direct Conversion.’ In Advances in Botanical Research (pp. 43–62). Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/ bs.abr.2016.03.001 • Non-Renewable Energy. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/non-renewable-energy/ • Pros and cons of fossil fuels & why can fossil fuels be good? (n.d.). https://group.met.com/en/mind-the-fyouture/mindthefyouture/pros-and-cons-of-fossil-fuels • Q&A: How the catalytic converters in cars go bad and why it matters | Stanford University School of Engineering. (2019, August 12). Stanford University School of Engineering. https://engineering.stanford.edu/magazine/article/ qa-how-catalytic-converters-cars-go-bad-and-whyit-matters#:~:text=In%20theory%2C%20catalysts%20 can%20be,of%20catalysts%20degrades%20over%20 time. • Royal Society of Chemistry. (n.d.). Fuel from sunlight. https://www.rsc.org/news-events/journals-highlights/2019/feb/fuel-from-sunlight/ • TEDx Talks. (2016, December 10). Artificial Photosynthesis | Adam Hill | TEDxStLawrenceU [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bhH3_EY6uq8 • Thoubboron, K. (2022). What are the pros and cons of renewable energy? EnergySage Blog. https://news.energysage.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-renewable-energy / • United Nations. (n.d.). What is renewable energy? | United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/what-is-renewable-energy#:~:text=Renewable%20energy%20 is%20energy%20derived,that%20are%20constantly%20 being%20replenished. • Yarris, L. (2016, January 4). Scientists teach bacterium a new trick for artificial photosynthesis. https://phys.org/news/2016-01-scientists-bacterium-artificial-photosynthesis.html#:~:text=The%20 bacterium%20Moorella%20thermoacetica%20is,sunlight%20into%20valuable%20chemical%20products. • Bassham, J. A., & Lambers, H. (2023, June 28). Photosynthesis | Definition, Formula, Process, Diagram, reactants, Products, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/photosynthesis • Cooper, G. M. (2000). Photosynthesis. The Cell - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9861/#:~:- text=Photosynthesis%20takes%20place%20in%20 two,light%20reactions%20drive%20glucose%20synthesis. • Dunn, J. (2023, February 13). Physiology, adenosine triphosphate. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553175/#:~:- text=Adenosine%20triphosphate%20(ATP)%20is%20 the,three%20serially%20bonded%20phosphate%20 groups. • Light-dependent reactions (photosynthesis reaction) (article) | Khan Academy. (n.d.). Khan Academy. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cellular-energetics/photosynthesis/a/light-dependent-reactions#:~:text=The%20light%2Ddependent%20reactions%20 use,membranes%20of%20organelles%20called%20chloroplasts . • N, S. (2021). Dark reaction of photosynthesis. Biology Reader. https://biologyreader.com/dark-reaction-of-photosynthesis.html • PubChem. (n.d.). NADPH. PubChem. https://pubchem.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/compound/nadph • Chiang, T. H., Lyu, H., Hisatomi, T., Goto, Y., Takata, T., Katayama, M., Minegishi, T., & Domen, K. (2018). Efficient Photocatalytic Water Splitting Using Al-Doped SrTiO3 Coloaded with Molybdenum Oxide and Rhodium–Chromium Oxide. ACS Catalysis, 8(4), 2782–2788. https://doi.org/10.1021/ acscatal.7b04264 • Dobson, R. S., & Burgess, J. (2007). Biological treatment of precious metal refinery wastewater: A review. Minerals Engineering, 20(6), 519–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. mineng.2006.10.011

ASTROSOC 33 You were madness, That made me dream, Of a lady more mystical than Nyx, The goddess of the Night, With freckles made out of stars, Creating constellations across her valleys And obsidian eyes concealing galaxies, larger than the cosmos known, making me reach, Further into something that’s out of reach Like a madman running after a hallucination, Entangled within the phantoms of the mind, Unable to break free yet intrigued to know more. Who are you? Taasha Hewa Matarage Level One Undergraduate Faculty of Science I portray astrology in the perspective of a scientist like a person does to a lover. Astrology in the perspective of a scientist ASTROSOC Image credits: https://pin.it/5JMZia8 33

ASTROSOC 343 JUPITER The failed star ; is it for the best ? Have you ever looked at the evening horizon and noticed a point of light so bright that you wonder if it is even a star? Because stars twinkle, but these objects just seem to be constantly burning. Well, these could very well be the set of planets we refer to as “naked-eye planets”. Jupiter being one such planet can be seen very clearly compared to other planets. Through a telescope, it’s a breathtaking sight. The planet, renowned for its giant red spot, has been quietly helping life to evolve on the inner solar system planets for millennia now. Thanks to its enormous mass and gravitational pull, most asteroids that wander into our solar system are snatched up by it, granting these planets a sense of safety from many violent impacts. But what if the largest planet in our solar system hadn’t become a planet at all? What if it had been a star? And why didn’t it become one? To understand that, we have to go back in time to when our solar system was first formed, 4.6 billion years ago. ASTROSOC 34

ASTROSOC 35 Our solar system started out as nothing more than a cloud of interstellar gas and dust. This cloud then collapsed, forming what’s known as a “solar nebula”, most likely due to the shockwave of a nearby supernova or something similar to that. The dust and gas particles in this spinning, swirling mass then clung to one another, causing the mass at the center of this disk to go up. And as the mass goes up, so does the gravitational force caused by it. Because of this, at the center, gravity kept pulling material in until the pressure in the core was so high, the hydrogen atoms started to fuse and form helium. This reaction caused the release of an extremely large amount of energy and a star was jects such as asteroids and comets. During the early stages of our solar system, the extremely high temperatures closer to the sun only allowed rocky materials to survive, so the planets that formed there were terrestrial planets. Moving towards the outer edges of the solar system, where the temperatures were lower and more gasses remained, the larger gas giants were formed. Beyond them, where temperatures were even lower, the ice giants were formed. Considering the sheer size of Jupiter, many still believe that it should’ve turned into born - the Sun. The remaining chunks of debris then started colliding with each other, forming larger objects and the ones with stronger gravitational fields formed spherical objects such as planets, dwarf planets and moons. The rest formed oba star. It is made of the same ingredients as a star. After all, there are some red dwarfs like EBLM J0555-57Ab which are smaller than Jupiter. And is it really that uncommon to have a two-star system? Figure 1: possible planetary orbits in a binary star system

ASTROSOC 36 References Image Courtesy • In Depth | Jupiter – NASA Solar System Exploration. (n.d.). NASA Solar System Exploration. https:// solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/jupiter/in-depth/ • Our Solar System. NASA Solar System Exploration. https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/solar-system/ our-solar-system/in-depth/.html • Eicher DJ. Is Jupiter a Failed Star? Astronomy Magazine. Published online May 18, 2023. https:// www.astronomy.com/science/is-jupiter-a-failedstar/ • Space.com Staff. (2018). Binary Star Systems: Classification and Evolution. Space.com. https://www. space.com/22509-binary-stars.html • Cover Image : https://tinyurl.com/3fw95jr7 • Figure 1 : https://bit.ly/3XQ87C1 Single stars like our Sun are quite rare But why did it fail to become a star? The most common of all are binary star systems. That is where two stars orbit a common center of mass. The brighter star of the two is classified as the primary star while the dimmer one is called the secondary star. In instances where both stars are of equal brightness, the designation given by the discoverer is respected. If Jupiter was on its way to becoming a star, firstly, it should’ve started pulling in gas and matter towards its core right after the sun was formed. Then once enough mass accumulated at the core, the gravitational force should have been strong enough to cause hydrogen to fuse into helium releasing energy as any star should. Ultimately, it all comes down to mass. Even though Jupiter looks enormous, it is comparably light. It does not have the mass required to cause hydrogen fusion. Even the smallest stars known to us have a mass almost 83 times that of Jupiter. Scientists have determined that Jupiter needs at least 75 times its current mass to ignite fusion. Had Jupiter formed as a star, life as we know it may never have evolved in our solar system, let alone Earth. Given the sheer proximity Earth shares with Jupiter, the temperature would’ve been too high to even support liquid water, the key component scientists look for when it comes to planet habitability. And that’s not all, had this been a binary system, the whole orbital of planets would’ve been extremely different. All that’s to say, this spectacular gas giant is nothing short of a marvel. Star or not, it has shaped life on Earth in ways we never even realized. And though it did not have the chance to shine, it definitely was not a failure in any regard. Leandra Shiyara Welagedara Level One Undergraduate Faculty of Science

ASTROSOC 37 Green Life in Zero Gravity History Planet Earth is filled with green crops; our primary facilitator of food and oxygen. Since ancient times humans have grown and cultivated plants for their nutritional needs and survival. Due to the demand for food, they cultivate on mass scales using agricultural techniques. Today humans have reached space and are thinking about space traveling and tourism. Thus, it is essential to think about crop plantations in space to establish the future of the demands regarding space travel and exploration. The progress of space exploration and colonization depends on the primary sources of the crew for their metabolic needs; oxygen, water, and food. As space ventures take a long time, the demand for nutritional needs and other demands takes a huge cost per exploration. To gain fresh nutrition and fresh foods at a reasonable cost, the practice of the following agricultural techniques in space is more reliable. Since 1880 various thoughts about the plant and human coexistence in space were introduced by scientific thought, but the initial step was started by NASA and the US Air Force in the 1950s and 60s by Jack Myers et al. These studies were focused on algae by providing near total light absorption and finding about photosynthetic requirements and the power requirements for the cultivation. Later on, some plants such as Lettuce, Cabbage etc. which grew in low lights with higher productivity were tested. NASA initiated the CELSS program in 1978 for Closed (or Controlled) Ecological Life Support Systems to assess the yield of crops with better nutritional needs with a broader list of crops. NASA also funded the LED lighting systems, watering systems in microgravity and the development of a biomass production chamber (BPC) from 1988-2000 which was a 20m2 sealed chamber with hydroponically grown plants vertically by the nutrient film technique (NFT). In the late 1980s, a privately sponsored Biosphere 2 facility which contains an atmospherically closed structure was constructed. It contained multiple ecosystems, and human living quarters with complex environmental management controlling abilities. Their main goal was to understand the ecological systems and challenges in agricultural and biological approaches for space life support. Although the Biosphere 2 project discontinued its maiden mission, now it has become a center for climate research. Despite USA, other countries such as Russia, Europe and later China, Canada, and Japan were also involved in space farming. Russia was involved in bio-regenerative studies in Krasnoyarsk in 1975, human crews started farming their food in a closed environment with recycled nutrients from their urine and laundry water. Their studies carried out for 15 years with plants like wheat, tomatoes, and potatoes and this was almost the first developed closed agricultural system in space conditions at that time with better yields. Europe started their space farming research with the Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative (MELiSSA) project which focussed on waste processing using microbial systems. This project tested plants for stress and remote sensing in controlled environments.

ASTROSOC 38 Figure 1: A look at the Biomass Production Chamber at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center back in 1991. Photo credit: NASA Growing in the ISS Veggie Advanced Plant Habitat (APH) Combining the efforts of all research together, the ISS now has plant growth units namely the Vegetable Production System (Veggie), the Advanced plant habitat (APH) and Biological Research in Canisters (BRIC) with many phases running up to the present. The more sophisticated Advanced Plant Habitat was built enclosed with 180 sensors, and automated cameras with a remote monitoring team at the Kennedy Space Center back home. Simply, it is a more developed system of Veggie and has an automated controlled release system of water, nutrients and oxygen to the plant roots with a more developed LED lighting system. Starting its first test run with Arabidopsis thaliana and dwarf wheat in 2018, researchers including Dr. Norman Lewis studied the genetic, biochemical level changes and structural changes that occur for plants in space. It also conducted different phases from fundamental research up to having the plants consumed as foods such as Chili pepper. Veggie was first built by the ORBITEC in Madison, and its earlier versions tested at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center. It was installed in the Columbus Laboratory Module on May 7, 2014. Currently, there are two Veggie units including a more developed growth chamber, the Advanced Plant Habitat. Veggie is a small space garden having the size of a carry-on piece of luggage and it holds six plants. With 70 watts of power, each plant grows in a “pillow” which helps to distribute water, nutrients, and air. Each pillow is filled with clay-based growth media and fertilizer. In the absence of gravity, plants use other environmental factors such as light to guide growth. Up to the present, this unit successfully grew various plants including lettuce, Chinese cabbage, mizuna mustard, red Russian kale and zinnia flowers. Some crops were consumed by the crew members while the remaining were sent to the earth to analyze. Although contamination was not observed in the preceding cultivations, it still remains as one of the main challenges for the growth of these plants. They have continued to cultivate different plants and are now planning to expand to more plants such as tomatoes, peppers, berries etc. The primary aim of Veggie was to study plant growth in microgravity while adding fresh food to the astronauts’ diet and enhancing happiness and well-being in the orbiting laboratory.