Advanced Educational Psychology

complex systems of information .A student with this belief is likely
to seek simple answers to questions and ignore connections across
topics.

b. Belief that knowledge is absolute. Students who believe in the
certainty of knowledge are likely to accept the word of the teacher or
textbook as the authority and not question.

c. Belief that the ability to learn is innate. Students who believe this,
view learning as unaffected by effort or strategic behavior.

d. Belief that learning occurs quickly or not at all, tend to think that
success is unrelated to hard work, so that concentrated effort is a
waste of time.

2. Attribution

Attribution theory states that in their effort to make sense of
their own behavior or performance, individuals are motivated to discover
its underlying causes. Attributions are perceived causes of outcome(
Santrock, 2001).

• Bernard Weiner (1986,1992) identified three dimensions of causal
attributions: 1) locus, whether the cause is internal or external to the
actor; 2) stability, the extent to which the cause remains the same or
changes; and 3) controllability, the extent to which the individual can
control the cause. Combinations of these three produce different
explanations of failure and success.

• Combinations of Causal Attributions and Explanations for Failure

Combination of Causal Attributions Reasons Students Give for Failure
internal- stable- uncontrollable Low aptitude
internal- stable- controllable Never study
internal- unstable- uncontrollable Sick the day of the test
internal- unstable- controllable Did not study for this particular test
external- stable- uncontrollable School has tough requirements
external- stable- controllable The instructor is biased
external –unstable- uncontrollable Bad luck
external- unstable- controllable Friends failed to help

* Educational psychologists often recommend providing students with a
planned series of experiences in achievement contexts in which modeling,
information about strategies, practice, and feedback are used to help them
1) concentrate on the task at hand rather than worrying about failing, 2)
cope with failures by retracing their steps to discover their mistake or
analyzing the problem to discover another approach, and 3) attribute their
failures to a lack of effort rather than lack of ability ( Brophy,1998; Dweck
& Elliott,1983).

3. SELF- EFFICACY

As cited by Santrock, it is the belief that one can master a
situation and produce positive outcomes( Bandura,1997,1982). Self-
efficacy is the belief that “ I can; helplessness is the belief that “ I cannot “ (
Stipek, 1996). Students with high self- efficacy endorse such statements
that “ I know that I will be able to learn the materials in this class” and “ I
expect to be able to do well at this activity”.

Students’ beliefs about their own ability to perform successfully
influence their motivation. On future tests of this nature, students who
believe they can’t do well will not put forth the effort required to perform well.

Students develop expectations of self- efficacy from a number
of sources. These are the following:

a. simple self-observation
b. observation of others
c. encouragement
d. emotional arousal

A number of good strategies for improving students’ self-efficacy
(Stupek,1996) was enumerated by Santrock, 2001.

Some Good Strategies for Improving Students’ Self- efficacy

1. Teach students specific strategies, such as outlining and summarizing,
that can improve their ability to focus on their tasks.

2. Guide students in setting goals, especially in creating short-term goals
after they have made long-term goals.

3. Give students performance-contingent rewards, which are more likely
to signal mastery.

4. Combine strategy training with an emphasis on goals, and give
feedback to students on how their learning strategies relate to their
performance.

5. Provide students with support.
6. Make sure that students are not overly aroused and anxious. If this is

the case, their self- efficacy diminishes.
7. Provide students with positive adult and peer models.

5. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS

According to Santrock (2001),an ability attribution for failure
provides learners with a negative self- perception. They have failed and the
reason they have failed is that they lack ability, an internal, stable source.
Students who fail consistently and attribute these failures to causes that
are not under their control can develop a serious motivation problem
called learned helplessness ( Dweck, 1975; Seligman & Meier, 1967)
Students who have learned –helplessness orientation feel that they nothing
they do matters. They tend to attribute failures to reasons that are internal
and stable. For example, “ I do not succeed because I am dumb.
Therefore, nothing I do will improve my situation. I will always fail.”

6. ANXIETY

Santrock (2001) cited the following about anxiety:
• Anxiety is a vague, highly unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension.
• High anxiety can result from unrealistic parental expectations
• Students’ anxiety increases as they get older and face more evaluation,

social comparison , and failure ( for some students).
• Anxiety intervention programs linked to the worry- aspect of anxiety

emphasize changing the negative, self- damaging thoughts of anxious
students and replacing them with positive, task- focused thoughts
(Meicehnbaum & Butler, 1980). These programs have been more effec-
tive than relaxation programs in benefiting student achievement.

7. IMPACTS of CULTURAL BELIEFS and VALUES on
STUDENT MOTIVATION

Do attributions as defined by Weiner and others exist across cultures?

Weinwer’s attribution theory identifies luck as a major attribution of school
children from England. For children from Shri Lanka, however, luck was not a
frequent attribution, but karma was. This suggests that attribution theory should
be used along classification dimensions that are consistent with the culture of the
child rather than with the culture of the researcher or teacher (McCrown, 1995).

In the Philippines, three dimensions of attribution theory appeared to be
useful in identifying differences between male and female children ( Watkins &
Astilla,1984). For females in this study, attributions that are external and
uncontrollable led to a preference of rote learning approaches. Males on the
other hand, tended more to internal and controllable attributions, which led to an
emphasis on internalizing and approaches to study that resulted in higher
achievement ( McCrown, 1995).

These studies suggest that cultural background influences attributions.
When you see a child’s attributions to gauge motivation, you should take cultural
differences into account ( McCrown.,1995)

Summary

Motivation is an important psychological construct that affects
learning and performance. It increases an individual’s energy and
activity level toward certain goals. Many sources of motivation arise
within the learner, but as many come from the learning environment.
Understanding these factors can aid teachers in helping students to
develop adaptive motivational patterns.There are also factors that
affect students’ motivation- beliefs about knowledge and ability,
attribution, self-efficacy, learned helplessness, anxiety, and cultural
beliefs and values.

The various tasks used in instruction( such as meaningful
learning opportunities), teacher-student relations ( such as giving
students opportunities for responsibility and independence) , and
evaluation/ recognition ( such as recognizing students’ efforts) ,can
influence student’s motivation in areas like intrinsic motivation,
attributions based on effort, and live engagement. It is important to
consider the students’ self- generated motivational beliefs and
performance, as well as the teacher’s expectations.

Learning Activities

A. Test Yourself

Direction: Read and understand each statement below. State whether the

item is correct or incorrect. If the item is incorrect, restructure the sentence to
make it a correct one. Write your answer in the blank space before the number.

___________1. Motivation increases the likehood that people will begin some-
thing on their own effort and persist in the face of difficulty.

___________2. High school teachers can benefit students by thinking of ways
to make these school settings more personal, less formal, and
more extrinsically challenging.

___________3. Flow occurs more often when people develop a sense of mas-
tery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while they
engage in an activity.

___________4. When rewards convey information and mastery, they are more
likely to increase student feeling of anxiety.

___________5. When tangible rewards were offered contingent on the task per-
formance or given unexpectedly, intrinsic motivation was main-
tained.

___________6. Combination of locus, stability, and controllability produce diffe-
rent explanations of failure and success.

___________7. Over aroused and anxious students result to increase of self-
efficacy.

___________8. High anxiety can result from unrealistic parental expectations.
___________9. Instructional strategies that emphasize “ I can do it” benefit

students.
___________10. A student with mastery information focuses on the task rather

than on his ability and includes solution on the problem as part
of his strategies.

B. Answer the following questions:

1. Explain how motivation affects learning and performance.
2. Discuss the different views on the sources of intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation.
3. List the different sources of motivation which comes from the learner and

from the environment.
4. Discuss the different factors that affect motivation.

B. Enrichment Activities

1. Observe a group of pre-school or elementary students undergoing instruction
or engaging in an activity. Note and list instances where motivation has ta-
ken place. Explain why do you consider such as examples of motivation.
Identify also the possible sources of these motivations.

2. Read thoroughly about B. Weiner’s three dimensions of causal attributions
( locus, stability , and controllability). Cite its implication in the teaching-
learning process.

3. Go back to enrichment number 1. If you were the teacher during that activity,
how can you enhance your students’ motivation to learn.Devise your own stra-
tegies of enhancing your students’ motivation.

.

References

1. Elliot, Stephen N. ,et.al (2000) Educational Psychology .New York. Mc-
Graw Hill Comp. Inc.

2. McCrown, Rick, et.al ( 1995) Educational Psychiology. 2nd ed. New York.
Mc-Graw Hill Comp. Inc.

3. Santrock, John W. ( 2001) Educational Psychology. New York. Mc-Graw
Hill Comp. Inc.

MODULE 8 Current
Intelligence : Traditional And
Views

Learning Objectives

After going through this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Discuss the early views or concepts of intelligence.
2. Explain the Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence.
3. Discuss the eight types of intelligence of Gardner.
4. Discuss the implication of multiple intelligence theory to teaching and

learning.

Introduction

What does intelligence mean? The idea that people vary in what
we call intelligence has been with us for a long time. Plato discussed similar
variations over 2,000 years ago. Most early theories about the nature of
intelligence involved one or more of the following three themes: 1) the capacity to
learn; 2) the total knowledge a person has acquired; and 3) the ability to adapt
successfully to new situations and to the environment in general (Woolfolk,1998).

In this century, Santrock (2001) claims that there has been
considerable controversy over the meaning of intelligence.In 1986 at a
symposium on intelligence, 24 psychologists offered 24 different views about the
nature of intelligence (Sternberg & Detterman,1986). Over half of the experts did
mention higher level thinking processes such as abstract reasoning, problem
solving, and decision making as important aspects of intelligence- whether it is a
single ability or many separate abilities ( Gustafsson & Undheim, 1996).

This module focuses on the traditional and current definitions of
intelligence.

EARLY VIEWS ON THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE

Binet and Stern both focused on a concept of general intelligence, which
Stern called IQ as cited in Elliot (2000). Wechsler believed it is possible and
important to describe both a person’s personal intelligence and more specific
verbal and performance intelligences. He was building on the ideas of Charles
Spearman (1972) who said that people both have a general intelligence which
he called g, and specific types of intelligence, which he called s. As early as the
1930’s, L.L. Thurstone (1938) said people have seven of these abilities, which he
called primary abilities: verbal comprehension, number ability, word fluency,
spatial visualization, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed. More
recently, the search for specific types of intelligence has heated up (Gregory,
2000; Torff, 2000).

GARDNER’S EIGHT FRAMES OF MIND

Howard Gardner (1983, 1993) believes that there are eight types of
intelligence ( Santrock,2001).They are described below:

1) Verbal skills: the ability to think in words and use language to
express meaning ( authors, journalists, speakers)

2) Mathematical skills: the ability to carry out mathematical
operations ( engineers, accountants)

3) Spatial skills: the ability to think three-dimensionally (architects,
artist, sailors)

4) Bodily: kinesthetic skills: the ability to manipulate objects and be
physically adept ( surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes

5) Musical skills: a sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm and tone
( composers, musicians, and sensitive listeners)

6) Interpersonal skills: the ability to understand and effectively
interact with others ( successful teachers, mental health
professionals)

7) Intrapersonal skills: the ability to understand oneself and
effectively direct one’s life ( theologians, psychologists)

8) Naturalist skills: the ability to observe patterns in nature and
understand natural and human-made systems ( farmers,
botanists, ecologists, landscapers)

Gardner says that the different forms of intelligence can be destroyed by
brain damage, that each involves unique cognitive skills, and that each shows up
in unique ways in both the gifted and idiot savants.

STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY

According to Robert J. Sternberg’s (1986) triarchic theory of
intelligence, intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative , and
practical intelligence ( Woolfolk, 1998)
.

1. Analytical intelligence- involves the ability to analyze, judge, eva-
luate, compare , and contrast

2. Creative intelligence – consists of the ability to create, design, invent,
originate, and imagine

3. Practical intelligence – focuses on the ability to use, apply, implement
and put into practice.

Some students are equally high in all three areas; other do well in one
or two.

As cited by Santrock (2001), Sternberg (1997a,1999,2000; Sternberg,
Torff, & Grigorenko, 1998) says that students with different triarchic patterns
“look different” in school. Students with high analytical ability tend to be favored
in conventional schooling. They often do well in direct instruction in which the
teachers lectures and students are given objective/ tests. They often are
considered to be smart students who get good grades, show up in high level
tracks, do well on traditional tests of intelligence, and later get admitted to
competitive colleges.

Students who are high in creative intelligence often are not on the top
rung of their class. Sternberg says that creatively intelligent students, instead of

giving conformist answers, they give unique answers for which they sometimes
get reprimanded or marked down.

Students with high practical intelligence often do not relate well to the
demands of school. However, they often do well outside the classroom. They
might have excellent social skills and good common sense. As adults, they
sometime become successful managers, entrepreneurs, or politicians, despite
undistinguished school records.

Sternberg believes that few tasks are purely analytical. Most require
some combination of these skills. For example, when students write a book
report, they might 1) analyze the book’s main themes 2) generate new ideas
about how the book might have been written better, and 3) think about how the
book’s themes can be applied to peoples ‘ lives.

Sternberg believes it is important in teaching to balance instruction
related to the three types of intelligence. That is, students should be given
opportunities to learn through analytic, creative, and practical thinking, in addition
to conventional strategies that focus on simply “learning” and remembering a
body of information.

EVALUATING THE MULTIPLE-INTELLIGENCE APPROACHES

Many educators believe that Sternberg and Gardner’s approaches
have much to offer. These approaches have stimulated teachers to think
more broadly about what makes up a student’s competencies, and they
have motivated educators to develop programs that instruct students in
multiple domains. They also have contributed to the interest in assessing
intelligence and classroom learning in innovative ways that go beyond
conventional standardized paper- and pencil memory tasks.

Some critics say that classifying musical skills as a main type of
intelligence is off base, because it seems to imply that many other skill
domain also should be classified that way. For example, there are
outstanding chess players, writers, politicians, and poets- yet do not refer
to chess intelligence, and son on . Other critics say that research has not
yet been done to support the thesis that Sternberg’s three intelligencers and
Gardner’s eight intelligences are the best ways to categorize intelligence
(Santrock, 2001).

You have just finished reading another module.
Relax your muscles. Take a deep breath
before doing the short activity at the end of
this module.

Learning Activity

Answer the following questions.
1.Discuss the early views on intelligence.
2. Explain the Triarchic theory of intelligence.
3. Identify and discuss the eight types of intelligence according to Gardner .

References

Elliot, Stephen, et al. (2000). Educational Psychology. New York. McGraw-
Hill Comp. Inc.

Santrock, John W.( 2001) Educational Psychology . New York. McGraw- Hill
Hill Comp. Inc.

Woolfolk, Anita (1998) Educational Psychology . Massachusetts. Allyn &
Bacon

MODULE 9
Andragogy: Concepts, Approaches, and

Principles of Adult Learning

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this module , you are expected to be able to:
1. Define andragogy and pedagogy.
2. Differentiate the basic assumptions of andragogy and pedagogy.
3. Cite some characteristics of adult learners and discuss their implications

to teaching.
4. Explain the seven elements of the andragogical process.
5. Summarize some adult learning principles.

Introduction

Andragogy is the science and the art of teaching adults. This module
presents differences between andragogy and pedagogy, the characteristics of
adult learners, the elements of the andragogical process and a summary of
principles of adult learning.

Training and technology transfer programs and activities are often
directed to adult populations. It is important to know the assumptions about how

adults learn and their characteristics to enable us to plan approaches and
strategies suited to them.

FROM PEDAGOGY TO ANDRAGOGY
EXPOSITORY TEACHING

Andragogy is the art and science of teaching adults. It came from the
Greek word stem andr meaning adult and agogos meaning leading. Pedagogy is
the science and art of teaching children. It came from the Greek stem paid
meaning child and agogos meaning leading.

In 1950, Malcolm S. Knowles published a book called Adult Education
and listed a number of principles that applied to teaching adults. In his most
recent book, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to
Andragogy, he compared the two models.

Table 1.Basic Assumptions Which Differentiates Andragogy from Pedagogy

1. Self- concept ADULT LEARNING CHILD LEARNING
2. Role of the learner’s ( Andragogy) ( Pedagogy)

experience Autonomous; makes own Dependent; guided by
3. Readiness to learn decisions; teacher adults; teacher more
facilities directive
4.Time Perspective Children have limited
Adults have varied life experience, teacher is
5. Motivation to learn experiences which are primary resource learning
rich resource of learning Curriculum is set by the
teacher ( what top learn
Adults know what they and when and how
want to learn. Facilitator learning will take place)
helps learners diagnose Children learn for the
learning needs future; subject- centered

Adults want to apply External motivators like
learning to life/ work: grades, praise, etc.,work
“here and now”,problem best
–centered

Internal motivators like
recognition, self-esteem
are more potent
motivators

Table 2. Characteristics of Adults and their Teaching Implications

Characteristics Instructor’s Response
Possess reservoirs of experience Encourage discussion and trainee
contribution
Self- directed; autonomous Share objectives and goals with
trainees;
Task-oriented Let them evaluate their own
performance
Anxious, cautious in new situation Emphasize relevance of content to job;
Easily discouraged; fearful or failure Establish the need to know
Provide reinforcement, encouragement
Lacks confidence in ability to learn Foster sense of achievement;
discourage excessive competition
Resistant to change/ innovation Provide over learning, plenty of
practice
Expect good instruction Stress “ need” to know for any new
Self- esteem based on experience and material
past achievement Come to class well prepared
Lack recent study experience Respect trainee’s age and experience

Be patient

ELEMENTS OF THE ANDRAGOGICAL PROCESS DESIGN

1. Climate setting
Climate conducive to learning should be provided. The physical

environment should be comfortable. The psychological climate should be
characterized by mutual respect, collaborativeness, mutual trust,
supportiveness, openness, pleasure, and humaneness.

2. Involving learners in mutual planning
Learners should be involved in planning their learning experiences.

People tend to be committed in the activity if they have a part in decision-
making.

3. Involving participants in diagnosing their own needs

Teachers should help learners clarify their own aspirations, diagnose
the gaps between their aspirations and their recent level of performance.
4. Involving learners in formulating learning objectives

The learner should be involved in formulating learning objectives in
which the needs of students, the institution, the teachers, and of the subject
matter are taken into account. They should know their goals and the steps
necessary to reach these goals.

5. Involving learners in designing learning planning
Teachers should assist learners identify resource and devise

strategies for using these resources to accomplish their objectives.

6. Helping learners carry out their learning plans
Teachers should assist students in their individual needs. Option

available to the learners should be explored. Opportunities for
experimentation should be provided. Learning should proceed at the learner’s
own pace.

7. Involving learners in evaluating their learning
Adults learn more effectively if they receive feedback about their

progress. They should also have a sense of their own accomplishment since
this is an important motivation for learning.

In andragogical model, the role of the facilitator ( i.e. teacher) is
primarily that of a designer and manager of the processes and procedures
that will facilitate acquisition of content, and secondly as a content resource.

SUMMARY OF ADULT LEARNING PRINCIPLES

In his most recent publication. Knowles (1996) summarizes some
adult learning principles:

1. Adults need to know why they should learn something.
2. Adults have a deep need to be self- directed.
3. Adults have a greater volume and different quantity of experience

than youth.
4. Adults become ready to learn when they experience in their life

situation a need to know or be able to do in order to perform more
effectively and satisfyingly.
5. Adults enter into a learning situation with a atsk or problem orientation
to learning.
6. Adults are motivated to learn by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators.

Tony Powell and George Aker in their “ Teaching and Learning in Adult
Basic Education” gave the following principles of adult learning:

1. Adults learn better when they are actively involves in the learning process.
2. Adult can learn materials that apply to their daily lives more quickly than

they can learn irrelevant
3. Adults will accept new ideas quickly if these ideas support previous

beliefs.
4. Adults needs and background must be understood and integrated into his

learning experiences as much as possible.
5. Undereducated adults should have a successful learning experience

before they are introduces to new materials.
6. Adults should be rewarded for success and should never feel as if they

are punished for making a mistake.
7. adults should always know why they are learning and towards what goal

they are moving.

Learning Activities

A. Activity Dyad

Select a partner whom you are most comfortable with and
discuss your worries and concerns as an adult learner .

B. Answer the following questions:
:

1. What is pedagogy?
2. Who is the main advocate of pedagogy?
3. In what ways do adult learners differ from children? In what ways

are they alike?
4. Cite some characteristics of adult learners and discuss their

implications to teaching.
5. Explain the seven elements of the andragogical process design.

References:

Corsey, Peter, ed. 1986. Agricultural Trainer Development: Instructor’s Manual.
Published by International Training Division. Office of the International
Cooperation and Development, USDA in Cooperation with AID.

Knowles, Malcolm. 1984. Andargogy in Action. Applying Modern Principles of
Adult Learning. California, Jossey Bass, Inc.

______.1996. “ Adult Learning” In the ASTD Training and Development
Handbook. A Guide to Human Resource, 4th ed. Robert Craig, ed., New
York: McGraw Hill.

McCaffery, James A. 1986. Instructional Effectiveness: A reconsideration of
Cross- Cultural Orientation and Training. International Journal of Inter-
cultural Relations, Vol. 10. pp.159-179.

Fundamentals of Classroom Instructions. 1983. GP Courseware