Desarrollo Psicológico

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Capítulo 18 La muerte y el proceso de morir 623

Rituales y costumbres

Las costumbres y los rituales de la muerte en Estados Unidos han cambiado mu-
cho a lo largo de la historia. Por ejemplo, antes un viudo o una viuda usaban
ropa de color negro y durante un año se abstenían de asistir a actividades socia-
les. Esta conducta simbolizaba su dolor psicológico supuesto y esperado. A otras
personas se les asignaba la misión de ofrecerle consuelo y apoyo; la cultura admi-
tía un largo periodo de adaptación (Aries, 1981). En la actualidad, sucede lo con-
trario en muchas de las culturas occidentales. En condiciones normales, se prevé
que el doliente reanude su vida normal en cuestión de unos cuantos días.

Los funerales y los servicios fúnebres dan la sensación de orden, decoro y con-
tinuidad. Reafirman los valores y las creencias del individuo y de su comunidad,
demostrando al mismo tiempo el apoyo de los parientes y de los amigos. En al-
gunas ceremonias fúnebres se reseña y se celebra la vida del difunto en un foro
público y con la participación de los presentes. Sin embargo, en ocasiones las cere-
monias públicas chocan con los valores y las experiencias de los dolientes, deján-
doles un sentido aún mayor de aislamiento. Algunas veces los rituales y las insti-
tuciones no corresponden a la vida personal de los participantes. Con todo, nos
resulta difícil pensar que la muerte de uno de nuestros seres queridos no se acom-
pañe de algún ritual en absoluto: los rituales marcan el final en forma “oficial”.

Cuando muere un niño

Muchos aspectos del duelo y del luto se intensifican cuando fallece un niño. Si
muere de modo repentino o imprevisto, las reacciones de los padres y de los her-
manos son a menudo prolongadas e intensas. Pueden sobrevenir la confusión, la
culpa y los intentos de atribuirle a alguien la culpa (Miles, 1984). Los hermanos
y las hermanas de un niño moribundo se sentirán muy confundidos y desorien-
tados. La muerte se ve a veces como una especie de castigo —contra el niño, el
progenitor o contra sus hermanos y hermanas— o quizá para resignarse la fami-
lia simplemente recurra a frases convencionales como “Dios obra en forma miste-
riosa para nosotros”. A menudo los padres abrumados por el dolor no pueden

Los funerales ayudan a los dolientes,
pues les ofrecen, entre otras cosas, un
sentido de continuidad.

624 Parte IV Adultez booksmedicos.org

ayudar a sus hijos o adaptar siquiera las respuestas a su nivel de desarrollo.
Muchos hermanos no revelan sus temores secretos ni los sentimientos de culpa
o malos entendidos; sin embargo, las ideas y los sentimientos que surgen en ta-
les crisis familiares pueden durar toda la vida (Coleman y Coleman, 1984).

Cuando un niño muere en forma lenta por una enfermedad terminal, hay otros
problemas que resolver. ¿Debemos decirle la verdad? ¿Cómo podemos ayudarlo
a afrontar el trance? ¿Cómo enfrentan los progenitores su sensación de fracaso,
de culpa y de impotencia? A menudo los cuidadores médicos participan intensa-
mente en la esperanza de una recuperación. También ellos experimentan algunos
de los sentimientos de fracaso y de duelo anticipado de los padres. Las personas
interesadas suelen negar sentimientos tan dolorosos. En general, el duelo y la re-
cuperación son muy difíciles cuando muere un niño (Wass y Corr, 1984).

A veces se produce una crisis de valores tras el fallecimiento de un niño. Es
verdad que el niño no merecía morir. Los sobrevivientes luchan por revalori-
zar sus creencias y valores más arraigados —los religiosos en especial—, al
mismo tiempo que muestran muchos síntomas de sufrimiento y depresión
(Kushner, 1981). Los que encuentran alguna forma de resolver esto mencio-
nan a menudo haber descubierto un significado más profundo en su vida; a
los que no lo encuentran tal vez les aguarde una larga vida de desesperación.
En el caso de accidentes fatales por imprudencia, hallarán el significado y la
resolución afiliándose a grupos de defensa como Madres en contra de la Con-
ducción en Estado de Ebriedad (Mothers Against Drunk Driving, MADD), que
tratan de prevenir las muertes innecesarias de los niños.

REPASE Y APLIQUE 1. Describa el proceso del duelo en términos generales, señalando lo que es pro-
bable que experimenten los sobrevivientes.

2. ¿De qué manera los rituales y las costumbres constituyen a veces una fuente
de mayor sufrimiento?

3. ¿Cómo influyen los factores culturales e históricos en el proceso de duelo?
4. ¿Qué problemas especiales se observan en la muerte de un niño?

Conclusión del ciclo vital

La muerte de un niño, de un anciano, de un adulto débil o de cualquier otra
persona marca el final de su ciclo de vida. Terminamos este capítulo (y el libro)
con algunas reflexiones sobre lo que esto significa. El ciclo vital de cada indi-
viduo se desarrolla dentro de un contexto cultural e histórico. El nacimiento,
los primeros pasos, las primeras palabras, la instrucción escolar, la mayoría de
edad, encontrar pareja, el trabajo, la formación de una familia, el encuentro con
la sabiduría y el afrontamiento de la propia mortalidad son procesos universa-
les; pero se dan en el rico mosaico de patrones biológicos y culturales de cada
individuo. En otras palabras, herencia y ambiente en interacción. Las ciencias
sociales tienen mucho que decir sobre los patrones e influencias comunes, así
como sobre el momento en que ocurren; pero la comunidad inmediata tiene
mucho que decir sobre su significado.

Algunas prácticas culturales hacen explícitos los nexos entre muerte, naci-
miento y ciclo de vida. Por ejemplo, en la cultura china tradicional cuando un
abuelo muere, al nieto en edad conveniente se le presiona para que se case o
tenga un hijo. En la cultura judía, y en otras, se acostumbra poner al primogé-
nito el nombre del pariente muerto de la familia inmediata; así, con el nuevo

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Capítulo 18 La muerte y el proceso de morir 625

nacimiento, se celebran la renovación y la continuidad. En conclusión, los que
parecen ser polos opuestos —nacimiento y muerte— se enlazan como parte de un
hilo familiar continuo.

Cualquiera que sea el trasfondo cultural, la muerte y sus perspectivas a me-
nudo imprimen un significado nuevo a la vida del individuo y de la comunidad.
Reconsideramos nuestras prioridades y nuestros valores cuando tratamos de in-
terpretar la vida y la muerte de una persona. La muerte del líder de la comuni-
dad o de una figura pública depura los valores individuales y comunitarios. Con
todo, las muertes más comunes a menudo contribuyen de igual manera a definir
el significado del valor, la lealtad, la bondad y la virtud en una forma personal
y duradera.

Por lo demás, y como señalamos al inicio del capítulo, independientemente
de sus circunstancias, la muerte forma parte de la naturaleza. Es innegable y de-
finitiva. Afecta a los miembros de todas las especies de la naturaleza. Siempre
se debatirá lo que está más allá de la muerte para cada uno de nosotros y proba-
blemente la ciencia nunca nos lo revele; pero lo que está más allá para el Homo
sapiens es una nueva vida para el que vendrá después.

RESUMEN

Pensamientos y temores relacionados con la muerte todo en el caso del SIDA, ya que muchos pacientes
sufren una muerte lenta que dificulta la aceptación
■ La moderna sociedad tecnológica orientada a la ju- y el perdón.
ventud suele negar la muerte y al mismo tiempo ■ El suicidio es frecuente entre personas de edad ma-
preocuparse por ella. dura y ancianos. Hay formas más pasivas de suicidio
como la muerte sumisa (dejarse morir) y la erosión
■ En los periodos históricos anteriores, la muerte era suicida (matarse indirectamente fumando y bebiendo
un acontecimiento familiar que normalmente tenía en exceso o abusando de las drogas).
lugar en el hogar. En cambio, en el siglo xx se ha con- ■ El suicidio entre los ancianos casi siempre resulta de
vertido en una maravilla tecnológica y hoy casi todo pérdidas vitales como la del cónyuge. Los grupos
mundo muere en los hospitales. de autoayuda son un medio eficaz para mejorar la
salud mental de viudos y viudas.
■ Para afrontar la realidad de la muerte, hay que to-
mar precauciones realistas sin limitaciones innecesa- La búsqueda de una muerte humana
rias.
■ Se ha sugerido que los pacientes terminales deben
■ En el pasado había mucha resistencia a discutir el pro- tener información sobre su estado y autonomía para
ceso de morir, pero las cosas empiezan a cambiar. decidir; por ejemplo, la dosis de analgésicos que re-
cibirán.
■ Los significados personal y cultural de la muerte in-
fluyen de manera importante en el hecho de que las ■ Las personas que consideran que en realidad ya no
personas muestren miedo o preocupación con los pen- controlan su vida pueden optar por renunciar a vivir.
samientos de su muerte.
■ En Estados Unidos, los hospicios están diseñados
Cómo enfrentar la propia muerte para ayudar a los enfermos terminales a vivir sus úl-
timos días lo más plena e independientemente posi-
■ Las personas que no afrontan la perspectiva de una ble, brindándoles apoyo a ellos y a sus parientes.
muerte inmediata pueden dedicar más tiempo a ha-
cerse a la idea, sobre todo si hacen un examen de su ■ La primera meta de los hospicios es manejar el do-
vida. lor de todo tipo: físico, mental, social y espiritual.
También tratan de respetar en lo posible los deseos
■ Para encontrarle significado y propósito a la vida, de los pacientes.
es necesario hacer una reestructuración activa de las
ideas y creencias filosóficas, religiosas y pragmáticas. ■ En la actualidad muchos reclaman el derecho a mo-
rir, en lugar de que se mantengan vivos sus sistemas
■ Kübler-Ross identificó cinco etapas en el proceso de corporales con medios artificiales. Se da el nombre
ajustar la idea de la muerte: negación, enojo, nego- de eutanasia activa al hecho de tomar medidas que
ciación, depresión y aceptación. No todos pasan por tienden a causar la muerte y ésta incluye el suicidio
ellas y pocos lo hacen en un orden determinado.

■ En las reacciones al proceso de morir influye de ma-
nera profunda la naturaleza de la enfermedad, sobre

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626 Parte IV Adultez

asistido. La eutanasia pasiva consiste en no aplicar mostrarán un duelo anticipado. Con esto no se elimina
o en desconectar el equipo que mantiene al paciente el duelo, pero se atenúan los efectos de la muerte.
con vida, de manera que la muerte ocurra de ma- ■ El apoyo social, especialmente el de los coetáneos,
nera natural. ayuda mucho en el proceso de duelo.
■ Un ejemplo del esfuerzo por garantizar al individuo ■ Las personas que pierden seres queridos en un pe-
su autonomía en las últimas etapas de la vida es la riodo más o menos breve sufren una sobrecarga de
carta de derecho a una muerte digna, documento duelo. Esto es común en las comunidades de homo-
que contiene el deseo del signatario de que no se sexuales y de las minorías que pierden muchos de
apliquen “medidas heroicas” para conservarlo vivo sus miembros a causa del SIDA.
en caso de una enfermedad irreversible. ■ Las respuestas del duelo tienen raíces históricas y
culturales.
Duelo y luto ■ Algunos teóricos rechazan la idea popular del duelo
y sostienen que quienes más sufren seguirán su-
■ Los miembros de la familia y los amigos cercanos friendo al cabo de uno o dos años.
deben hacer ajustes a corto y a largo plazos cuando ■ El duelo crónico, o imposibilidad de recuperarse de
muere un ser querido. Los ajustes a corto plazo inclu- una pérdida, ha sido identificado como un proceso
yen entre otras cosas las reacciones psicológicas inicia- patológico.
les, a menudo llamadas proceso de duelo, y también ■ Los funerales y los servicios fúnebres pueden dar un
los asuntos prácticos. Los ajustes a largo plazo abar- sentido de orden y de continuidad. Reafirman los va-
can cambios de rutinas, de roles y actividades. lores y las creencias de la comunidad y además ma-
nifiestan apoyo.
■ Generalmente se acepta la necesidad de realizar al- ■ Muchos aspectos del duelo y del luto se intensi-
gunas tareas psicológicas tras la pérdida de un ser fican más cuando fallece un niño, sobre todo si
querido; por ejemplo, aceptar la realidad de la pér- muere de manera repentina o inesperada.
dida y reencauzar la energía emocional invertida an-
tes en la relación con el difunto. Conclusión del ciclo vital

■ Las reacciones iniciales son la conmoción, la confu- ■ El ciclo vital del individuo está integrado dentro de
sión, la negación, la incredulidad y, en ocasiones, la un contexto cultural e histórico. A lo largo de este ci-
ira y la culpa. Después, aparece el duelo activo que clo interactúan patrones biológicos y culturales.
consiste en llorar y añorar al difunto. Con el tiempo,
los sobrevivientes empiezan a adaptarse a la nueva ■ La muerte y sus perspectivas a menudo imprimen
situación. un nuevo significado al individuo y a la comunidad.

■ Si la muerte está precedida por una enfermedad larga
o por la pérdida de funciones, los sobrevivientes

CONCEPTOS BÁSICOS

muerte sumisa eutanasia activa trabajo de duelo
erosión suicida suicidio asistido duelo anticipado
derecho a morir eutanasia pasiva duelo crónico

UTILICE LO QUE APRENDIÓ

Las actitudes ante la muerte y el proceso de morir de- Reflexione sobre la muerte reciente de algún cono-
penden de la edad, la etapa de la vida y la experiencia cido. ¿Cómo reaccionaron los miembros de la familia y
que hayamos tenido con la muerte. Del mismo modo que los amigos según la edad y la experiencia del doliente?
a un niño de ocho años le es difícil entender las luchas ¿Les ayudaron los rituales más a unos que a otros? ¿Pu-
de identidad de un adolescente de 16 años, los adultos dieron encontrar formas de trascender las generaciones
jóvenes y dinámicos con seguridad evitarán pensar en y ayudarse mutuamente?
la muerte hasta que la confronten. Aun entonces, sus
reacciones serán muy distintas a las de los dolientes en
la vejez.

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Capítulo 18 La muerte y el proceso de morir 627

LECTURAS COMPLEMENTARIAS

Aris, P. (1990). The hour of our death. Nueva York: vas con pacientes terminales, Kübler-Ross describe
Knopf, 1981. Reseña histórica sobre las prácticas y las reacciones más comunes ante la inminencia de la
costumbres relacionadas con la muerte. muerte.

Beisser, A. (1990). A graceful passage: Notes on the free- Kushner, H. (1981). When bad things happen to good
dom to live or die. Nueva York: Doubleday. Explica- people. Nueva York: Schocken. Explicación penetrante
ción franca y compasiva de las enfermedades termi- y comprensiva de cómo encarar las ideas de justi-
nales progresivas y de los problemas asociados con cia y las creencias religiosas en situaciones como la
el derecho a morir. muerte.

Cook, A. S. y Oltjenbruno, K. A. (1989). Dying and Mor, V. (1987). Hospice care systems: Structure, process,
grieving: Lifespan and family perspectives. Nueva York: costs and outcome. Nueva York: Springer. Panorama
Holt, Rinehart y Winston. Texto muy completo sobre general y análisis de los sistemas de cuidado en hos-
la muerte, el proceso de morir y el de luto. picios con que se cuenta en la actualidad.

Fitzgerald, H. (1994). The mourning handbook: A com- Nuland, S. B. (1993). How we die: Reflections on life’s final
plete guide for the bereaved. Nueva York: Simon and chapter. Nueva York: Random House. Extraordinario
Schuster. Una de las guías más útiles que examina lo libro galardonado con un premio, que combina in-
práctico y lo traumático con consejos e ideas delica- formación médica accesible con valiosas intuiciones
das y equilibradas. sobre las duras realidades de la vida y de la muerte.
Este autor y cirujano ofrece descripciones claras so-
Kalish, R. (1985). Death, grief, and caring relationships. bre los mecanismos del cáncer, las cardiopatías, la
Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Libro sobre la muerte apoplejía, el SIDA y la enfermedad de Alzheimer
y el proceso de morir que hace hincapié en la impor- con exactitud clínica y a la vez con elocuencia poética,
tancia de permitir al paciente terminal, a su familia ofreciéndonos así una exposición fresca y compasiva
y a sus amigos expresar sus sentimientos y afrontar de esta última etapa de la vida.
la idea de la muerte.

Kübler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. Nueva
York: Macmillan. Basándose en entrevistas exhausti-

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Glosario

abortos espontáneos Expulsión del or- segunda mitad del primer año de vida autonomía Fuerte pulsión a hacer las
ganismo prenatal antes que sea viable. e indica, en parte, una nueva capacidad cosas por uno mismo, a dominar el am-
cognoscitiva de responder a las diferen- biente físico y social, a ser competente y
absolutismo moral Cualquier teoría cias del ambiente. exitoso.
de la moralidad que descarte las diferen-
cias culturales en las creencias morales. apego Vínculo que se crea entre un autorrealización Realizar plenamente
niño y otro individuo. El primer apego nuestro potencial único.
ácido desoxirribonucleico (ADN) Mo- se caracteriza por una gran interdepen-
lécula grande y compleja que se com- dencia, por sentimientos mutuos de autosomas Todos los cromosomas me-
pone de carbono, hidrógeno, oxígeno, mucha intensidad y por vínculos emocio- nos los que determinan el sexo.
nitrógeno y fósforo. Contiene el código nales muy sólidos.
genético que regula el funcionamiento y bacterias Microorganismos que causan
el desarrollo del organismo. apego inseguro Resultado de cuidados infecciones, pero que no pueden atrave-
inconstantes o poco afectuosos. sar la barrera de la placenta.
ácido ribonucleico (ARN) Sustancia
que se forma a partir del ADN y que se apego seguro Fuerte vínculo emocional blástula Esfera hueca y líquida de célu-
asemeja a éste. Sirve de mensajero en la entre el niño y quien lo atiende que se las que se forma varios días después de
célula y como catalizador de la informa- debe a un cuidado sensible y afectuoso. la concepción.
ción referente al nuevo tejido.
apoplejía Bloqueo de la sangre que cariotipo Fotografía de los cromoso-
acomodación Término con que Piaget llega al cerebro y puede causar daño mas de una célula dispuestos por pares
designa el acto de modificar los proce- cerebral. según su tamaño.
sos del pensamiento cuando un objeto o
suceso nuevos no encajan en los esque- aprendizaje Proceso básico del desa- catarata Opacamiento del cristalino
mas actuales. rrollo en que el individuo cambia por la que obstruye la visión.
experiencia o la práctica.
adaptación En la teoría de Piaget, es el células gliales Células que aíslan las
proceso mediante el cual los esquemas aproximación holista Las personas neuronas y mejoran la eficacia con que
del infante se elaboran, se modifican y son criaturas “totales” y de ninguna ma- se transmiten los impulsos nerviosos.
se desarrollan. nera están “compartimentadas”.
centros de nacimiento Sitios en que
agresión hostil Conducta cuyo fin es asimilación En la teoría de Piaget, pro- se realiza el proceso íntegro de parto,
lastimar a otra persona. ceso de integrar la nueva información a desde el trabajo de parto y el parto hasta
los esquemas existentes. la recuperación.
agresión instrumental Conducta cuyo
fin no es lastimar, sino un medio para ob- atenazar Método por medio del cual se cesárea Procedimiento quirúrgico con
tener algo de otra persona. sostienen objetos, desarrollado hacia los que se extraen el niño y la placenta del
12 meses de edad; consiste en que el pul- útero mediante una incisión en la pared
alelos Par de genes, presentes en los gar se opone al índice. abdominal.
cromosomas correspondientes, que influ-
yen en el mismo rasgo. aterosclerosis Endurecimiento de las CI de desviación Método que asigna
arterias, problema común del envejeci- una puntuación de CI mediante la com-
amniocentesis Prueba para detectar miento ocasionado por la creciente inca- paración de la puntuación bruta de un
anormalidades cromosómicas que se pacidad del cuerpo para aprovechar el individuo con las de otros sujetos del
efectúa en el segundo trimestre del em- exceso de grasas de la dieta. Las grasas mismo grupo de edad.
barazo; consiste en extraer y analizar el son almacenadas en las paredes de las
líquido amniótico con una jeringa. arterias y restringen el flujo sanguíneo ciclo ocupacional Secuencia variable
cuando se endurecen. de periodos o etapas en la vida del traba-
ancianismo Actitud social predomi- jador que va de la exploración y decisión
nante que sobrestima la juventud y dis- audiencia imaginaria Suposición del vocacional a la formación y capacitación
crimina a los ancianos. adolescente de que otros se fijan mucho profesionales, el estatus de principiante,
en él y lo critican. los ascensos y los periodos de mayor ex-
andamiaje Estructuración progresiva periencia.
de la interacción entre progenitor e hijo autoconcepto Percepción de la identi-
por parte de los padres. dad personal. cigoto Primera célula de un ser hu-
mano que se produce con la fertiliza-
anoxia Ausencia de oxígeno que autoestima Hecho de verse uno ción; óvulo fertilizado.
puede causar daño cerebral. mismo como una persona con caracterís-
ticas positivas —como alguien que ten- climaterio Conjunto general de sínto-
ansiedad Sentimiento de inquietud, drá un buen desempeño en las cosas que mas físicos y psicológicos que se acompa-
aprensión o temor que se debe a una juzga importantes. ñan de cambios reproductivos en la edad
causa vaga o desconocida. madura. Afecta por igual a ambos sexos.
automaticidad Realizar conductas
ansiedad ante extraños y ante la sepa- motoras bien practicadas sin tener que clonación Método por medio del cual
ración Miedo del niño a los extraños pensar en ellas. los científicos hacen una réplica de un
o que lo separen de quien lo cuida. Am- animal a partir de una célula somática.
bos tipos de ansiedad aparecen en la

628

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Glosario 629

cociente de inteligencia (CI) Edad consejería genética Tipo de asesoría desensibilización sistemática En la
mental de un individuo dividida entre la que ayuda a los futuros padres a evaluar terapia conductual, método que aminora
edad cronológica y multiplicada por 100 los factores de riesgo de tener un hijo de manera gradual la ansiedad de un
para eliminar el punto decimal. con trastornos genéticos. individuo ante un objeto o situación es-
pecíficos.
cognición social Pensamiento, conoci- conservación Entender que ni la forma
miento y comprensión del mundo social. ni el aspecto cambiante de un objeto alte- discriminación Tratar a otros en forma
ran su magnitud o volumen. prejuiciada.
colapso laboral Fatiga psicológica que a
menudo afecta a las personas maduras en consideración positiva incondicio- diseño de secuencias de cohor-
las profesiones de servicios y de ayuda. nal Idea de Rogers según la cual debe- tes Combinación de diseños longitudi-
ríamos aceptar con afecto a los demás nales y transversales.
compañeros imaginarios Compañeros como seres humanos valiosos, sin reser-
inventados por el niño, quien finge que vas ni condiciones. diseño longitudinal Estudio en que a
son reales. los mismos sujetos se les observa sin inte-
constancia del género Conocimiento rrupción durante un periodo.
comparación social Evaluación que ha- del niño mayor de que el género es esta-
cemos de nosotros mismos y de nuestra ble y que permanece inalterado pese a diseños transversales Método para el
situación en relación con otros. cambios de aspecto superficiales. estudio del desarrollo en que se observa
una muestra de individuos de una edad
condición de pretérmino Niño que contenido Significado de un mensaje y se compara con una o más muestras
nace antes de un periodo de gestación escrito u oral. de individuos de otras edades.
de 35 semanas.
contexto Ambiente o situación particu- dominante En genética, gen de un par
condicionamiento clásico Tipo de lares en que se realiza el desarrollo; el que hace que se exprese un rasgo deter-
aprendizaje en que un estímulo neutral “trasfondo” del desarrollo. minado.
(digamos una campana) llega a producir
una respuesta (la salivación por ejemplo) contingencia Relación entre la con- duelo anticipado Prepararse emocio-
al parearse varias veces con un estímulo ducta y sus consecuencias. nalmente para la muerte de un ser que-
incondicionado como el alimento. rido, como en el caso de una prolongada
cordón umbilical “Cuerda” de tejido enfermedad terminal.
condicionamiento operante Tipo que conecta la placenta al embrión; con-
de condicionamiento que se realiza tiene dos arterias y una vena fetales. duelo crónico Proceso patológico en
cuando se refuerza o se castiga a un orga- que el sobreviviente nunca logra superar
nismo por emitir de manera voluntaria corregulación Adquisición del sentido el dolor.
una respuesta determinada. de responsabilidad compartida entre los
progenitores y sus hijos. edad biológica Posición de la persona
condiciones de valor Condiciones que en relación con su esperanza de vida.
nos imponen para considerarnos seres correlación Proposición matemática de
humanos valiosos y que a menudo la relación o correspondencia entre dos edad cronológica Años de vida.
es imposible cumplir. variables.
edad de viabilidad Edad (hacia las
conducta autorregulada Comporta- crisis de identidad Periodo de toma 24 semanas) en que el feto tiene 50 por
miento personal regulado por el niño. de decisiones sobre cuestiones impor- ciento de probabilidades de sobrevivir
tantes como “¿Quién soy y a dónde me fuera del vientre materno.
conducta motivada extrínsecamen- dirijo?”.
te Comportamiento que se realiza para edad psicológica Capacidad actual del
obtener recompensa o evitar situaciones cromosoma Cadenas de genes, visibles individuo para enfrentar y adaptarse a
aversivas. bajo el microscopio. las exigencias sociales y ambientales.

conducta motivada intrínsecamen- cromosomas sexuales El vigesimoter- edad social Estado actual del indivi-
te Comportamiento que se realiza por cer par de cromosomas que determina duo en comparación con las normas
su valor intrínseco, sin perseguir una el sexo. culturales.
meta en especial.
decisión y compromiso Darse cuenta de efectos del alcohol en el feto Anoma-
conducta prosocial Comportamiento estar enamorado y hacer el compromiso lías similares, pero más moderadas, que
que consiste en acciones mediante las de mantenerlo. se deben a la ingestión de alcohol du-
cuales se ayuda, comparte o coopera, rante el embarazo.
cuyo fin es beneficiar a otros. definiciones operacionales Procedi-
mientos que emplea el investigador al ego (yo) Componente de la personali-
conductismo radical Suposición de realizar experimentos. dad consciente y orientado a la realidad.
que sólo la conducta observable y men-
surable puede estudiarse en forma cien- demencia Confusión, olvido y cam- egocentrismo Concepción del mundo
tífica. bios de personalidad que pueden aso- orientada al yo, que consiste en percibir
ciarse con el envejecimiento, los cuales todo en relación con uno mismo.
congénito Innato o hereditario. están ligados a varias causas primarias y
secundarias. embrión De un verbo griego que signi-
conocimiento declarativo Conoci- fica “engrosarse”.
miento factual; saber “qué”. derecho a morir Opinión de que la
muerte es un derecho que debe ejercerse enfermedad de Alzheimer Afección
conocimiento procedimental Conoci- a discreción del individuo. que causa demencia por el deterioro pro-
miento de la acción; saber “cómo”. gresivo de las células cerebrales, en espe-
desarrollo Cambios que con el tiempo cial las de la corteza cerebral.
consecución de la identidad Estado se producen en la estructura, el pensa-
de quienes han pasado por una crisis de miento y la conducta de una persona episiotomía Incisión que se practica
identidad y han hecho compromisos. como resultado de influencias biológicas para agrandar la abertura vaginal.
y ambientales.

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630 Glosario

erosión suicida Forma indirecta de evolución Proceso por el cual las espe- genes Unidades básicas de la herencia.
suicidio que se da por tabaquismo y cies cambian de una generación a otra,
consumo excesivo de alcohol y otras sus- adquiriendo características positivas y genética de la conducta Estudio de las
tancias. perdiendo las que se han vuelto obsole- relaciones entre conducta y característi-
tas o inútiles. cas físico-genéticas.
Escala de Apgar Sistema estándar de
calificación que permite a los hospitales exosistema Tercer nivel que indica genotipo Estructura genética de un in-
evaluar de manera rápida y objetiva el los ambientes u organizaciones sociales dividuo o grupo.
estado del recién nacido. fuera de la experiencia inmediata del
niño que influyen en él. glaucoma Aumento potencialmente
espermatozoide Célula reproductora nocivo de la presión en el interior del
masculina, llamada también gameto. expulsión de secundinas Tercera y globo ocular.
última etapa del parto; por lo general
esquemas Término con que Piaget ocurre 20 minutos después del parto y gramática pivotal Sistema con que se
designa las estructuras mentales que pro- durante esta fase se expulsan del útero forman oraciones de dos palabras y que
cesan la información, las percepciones y la placenta y el cordón umbilical. (El emplean los niños de entre un año y me-
las experiencias; los esquemas del indivi- término también es llamado “alumbra- dio y dos años; comprende palabras de
duo cambian con el crecimiento. miento” en la jerga ginecológica.) acción, preposiciones y posesivos (pala-
bras pivotes) en combinación con palabras
esquemas de género Normas cognos- fábula personal Sensación del adoles- abiertas que suelen ser sustantivos.
citivas (incluidos los estereotipos) relati- cente de que es especial e invulnerable,
vas a las conductas y actitudes que son que no está sujeto a las leyes de la natu- grupo de compañeros Grupo de dos o
apropiadas para cada uno de los sexos. raleza que controlan el destino de los más personas con un estatus similar, que
mortales comunes. interactúan y comparten normas y metas.
estado de exclusión Estado de quie-
nes han hecho compromisos sin pasar factores extrínsecos del trabajo Satis- guardianes de la estirpe Rol asumido
por una crisis de identidad. facción por medio de sueldo, estatus por las personas de edad madura que in-
y otras recompensas. cluye preservar los rituales de la familia,
estado de difusión Estado de quienes celebrar los logros y las fiestas, conservar
no han pasado por una crisis de identi- factores intrínsecos del trabajo Satis- vivas las historias familiares y contactar a
dad ni han hecho compromisos. facciones que se obtienen cuando se rea- los parientes que viven muy lejos.
liza el trabajo por su propio valor.
estado de moratoria Estado de quienes habilidades motoras finas Competen-
se encuentran en una crisis de identidad. factores patológicos del envejecimiento cia en el uso de las manos.
Efectos acumulados de enfermedades y
estatus fraterno Orden del nacimiento. accidentes que pueden acelerar el enve- habilidades motoras gruesas Destre-
jecimiento. zas en que intervienen los músculos más
estereotipos de los roles de género grandes o todo el cuerpo y que también
Ideas rígidas y fijas de lo que es apro- familias reconstituidas o mezcladas muestran perfeccionamiento.
piado para las conductas masculina o Llamada también familia de divorcia-
femenina. dos; aquella en que los progenitores han habituación Proceso de acostumbrarse
vuelto a casarse para formar otra familia. a ciertas clases de estímulos y dejar de
estirón del crecimiento Aumento re- responder a ellos.
pentino en la tasa de crecimiento que familias reconstituidas o mezcla-
marca el inicio de la pubertad. das Familias en las que la madre o el habla holofrásica En las primeras
padre con hijos han vuelto a casarse. etapas de adquisición del lenguaje, el
estructura vital Patrón global en que niño pequeño usa palabras aisladas para
se basa la vida de una persona. fenotipo En genética, rasgos que se ex- comunicar pensamientos completos u
presan en el individuo. oraciones.
etapas Periodos diferenciados, a me-
nudo con transiciones abruptas de uno feto Palabra de origen francés que sig- habla telegráfica Frases de niños de
al siguiente. nifica “embarazado” o “fecundo”. entre un año y medio y de dos años que
omiten las palabras menos significativas
etapas psicosexuales Etapas freudia- fobia Temor infundado a un objeto o y contienen palabras que transmiten la
nas del desarrollo de la personalidad una situación. mayor parte del significado.
que se concentran en las zonas erógenas.
fontanelas Placas blandas y óseas del heterocigoto Indica el caso en que son
etnocentrismo Tendencia a suponer cráneo conectadas sólo por cartílago. diferentes los dos alelos de un rasgo do-
que nuestras creencias, percepciones, minante-recesivo simple.
costumbres y valores son correctos o nor- forma Símbolo con que se representa
males y que los de otros son inferiores o el contenido. hipertensión Presión arterial anormal-
anormales. mente alta, acompañada en ocasiones de
formación de la identidad Obtención cefaleas y de mareos.
etología Ciencia que estudia los patro- del sentido de lo que somos y de cómo
nes de la conducta animal, en especial la encajamos en la sociedad. hipótesis de la discrepancia Teoría
que se rige por el instinto. cognoscitiva según la cual, hacia los
gametos Células reproductoras (esper- siete meses, el niño adquiere los esque-
eutanasia activa Hecho de tomar me- matozoides y óvulos). mas de objetos familiares. Cuando se
didas para provocar la muerte de otra le presenta una imagen y un objeto que
persona, como en los casos de enferme- gemelos dicigóticos (fraternos) Los que difieren de los ya conocidos, siente incer-
dad terminal. En Estados Unidos se con- proceden de la fertilización de dos óvulos tidumbre y ansiedad.
sidera un asesinato. distintos por dos espermatozoides.
homocigoto Indica el caso en que son
eutanasia pasiva No utilizar o desco- gemelos monocigóticos (idénti- iguales dos alelos de un rasgo domi-
nectar el equipo que sustenta la vida para cos) Los que proceden de la división nante-recesivo simple.
que la muerte ocurra de modo natural. de un solo óvulo fertilizado.

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Glosario 631

hormonas Secreciones bioquímicas de interdependencia Dependencia recí- viduo para reducir las tensiones que le
la glándula endocrina llevadas por la proca. provocan ansiedad.
sangre u otros líquidos corporales a un
órgano o tejido y que estimulan o acele- interiorización Hacer que formen meiosis Proceso de división celular en
ran su funcionamiento. parte de uno las reglas y las normas de las células reproductoras que produce
la conducta y adoptarlas como conjunto una cantidad infinita de arreglos cromo-
id (ello) Componente primitivo y hedo- de valores. sómicos diferentes.
nista de la personalidad.
intimidad Sensación de contacto estre- menarquia Momento en que ocurre el
identidad Conjunto de conceptos bas- cho que se experimenta en las relaciones primer periodo menstrual.
tante congruentes que tiene una persona amorosas.
sobre sus atributos físicos, psicológicos menopausia Cese permanente de
y sociales. jerga expresiva Balbuceo producido la menstruación; ocurre en la madurez
cuando un infante emplea inflexiones y y puede acompañarse de síntomas físi-
identidad de género Conocimiento de patrones que imitan el habla del adulto. cos y de intensas reacciones emocionales
que uno es hombre o mujer y capacidad en algunas mujeres más que en otras.
para emitir ese mismo juicio acerca de laboriosidad frente a inferioridad
otras personas. Conflicto psicosocial que, según Erikson, mesosistema Segundo nivel que está
ocurre durante la niñez media, en la cual constituido por las interrelaciones entre
inferencia social Conjeturas y suposi- los niños trabajan con mucho empeño dos o más microsistemas.
ciones sobre lo que otra persona piensa, y se les recompensa por su esfuerzo o
siente o desea. fracasan y adquieren un sentimiento de metacognición Proceso que consiste
inferioridad. en supervisar el pensamiento, la memo-
influencias no normadas Factores am- ria, el conocimiento, las metas y las accio-
bientales individuales que no ocurren en lateralización Proceso por medio del nes personales.
momentos predecibles de la vida de una cual se ubican algunas habilidades y
persona. competencias en uno de los hemisferios método de habituación Para estudiar
del cerebro. las capacidades perceptuales del infante,
influencias normadas por la los investigadores lo acostumbran a cier-
edad Cambios biológicos y sociales lenguaje productivo Comunicación tos estímulos y luego los cambian.
que por lo regular ocurren en edades pre- oral o escrita del preescolar.
decibles —una combinación de herencia método de la preferencia A los in-
y de factores ambientales de la especie. lenguaje receptivo Repertorio de pala- fantes se les permite escoger entre los
bras y órdenes que entiende el niño, aun estímulos que verán o escucharán. El
influencias normadas por la historia cuando no sepa utilizarlas. investigador registra a cuáles presta ma-
(llamadas también factores ambientales yor atención. Si un niño siempre dedica
de la especie) Acontecimientos históri- ley del efecto Principio de la teoría del más tiempo a uno de los dos estímulos,
cos, como guerras, depresión económica aprendizaje según el cual las consecuen- la preferencia indica que es capaz de per-
y epidemias, que afectan de manera cias de una conducta determinan la pro- cibir una diferencia y de responder a ella
simultánea a grandes cantidades de in- babilidad de que se repita. de manera deliberada.
dividuos.
licencia familiar Permiso que esta- microsistema Primer nivel que de-
injerto genético Transplante de mate- blece la ley estadounidense para atender signa las actividades, roles e interaccio-
rial genético de una especie a otra, con asuntos y problemas de familia, sobre nes de un individuo y de su ambiente
lo cual se obtiene un híbrido con caracte- todo los relacionados con el cuidado de in-mediato: el hogar, el centro de aten-
rísticas de ambos donadores. los hijos. ción diurna o la escuela.

instinto Conducta que se observa en liquido amniótico Líquido que sirve mielinización Formación de la vaina
todos los miembros normales de una es- de amortiguador al embrión o al feto y de mielina que cubre las vías rápidas
pecie, en las mismas condiciones y en la que los protege. del sistema nervioso central. La vaina
misma forma. aumenta la rapidez de transmisión y la
longitud promedio de la emisión Ex- precisión del sistema nervioso.
institucionalización Permanencia a tensión de las oraciones que genera el
largo plazo en una institución, por lo re- niño. miopía Defecto visual que consiste en
gular en forma permanente. ver sólo los objetos próximos al ojo.
macrosistema A diferencia de otros
inteligencia cristalizada Área general niveles, éste —el nivel más externo— no mitosis Proceso de división celular nor-
de la inteligencia que incluye emitir jui- alude a un ambiente en particular. Consta mal que produce dos células idénticas a
cios, analizar problemas y extraer conclu- de los valores, las leyes y las costumbres la célula madre.
siones de información y conocimientos de la sociedad en la que vivimos.
basados en la experiencia. Este tipo de modelo de crisis Teoría que funda-
inteligencia, que se basa en la educación madurez para la jubilación Prepara- menta que los cambios de la madurez
y en cultura en general, aumenta a lo ción de una persona para el retiro. son abruptos y a menudo causan estrés.
largo del ciclo vital.
maltrato del niño Daños intencionales modelo de sistemas ecológicos Para-
inteligencia fluida Área general de de carácter psicológico o físico que se in- digma de desarrollo en que el niño rees-
inteligencia que abarca las capacidades fligen al niño. tructura de manera activa los aspectos
que se emplean cuando se aprenden co- de los cuatro niveles ambientales donde
sas nuevas, incluye la memorización, el mecanismo de adquisición del lengua- vive, al mismo tiempo que recibe el
razonamiento inductivo y la percepción je Expresión con que Chomsky indica influjo de los niveles y de sus interrela-
rápida de las relaciones espaciales. Se una serie de estructuras mentales que ciones.
piensa que esta clase de inteligencia al- ayudan al hombre a aprender el len-
canza su nivel máximo ya bien entrada guaje. modelo de transición Teoría que sus-
la adolescencia. tenta que los cambios de la madurez son
mecanismos de defensa “Trucos” graduales.
cognoscitivos de los que se vale el indi-

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632 Glosario

modificación de conducta Método que durante la madur`ez y en los años pos- excitación y la conducta sexual en una
utiliza técnicas del condicionamiento teriores. relación.
(como el reforzamiento, la recompensa
y el moldeamiento) para modificar un otros significativos Personas a cuyas pensamiento dialéctico Pensamiento
comportamiento. opiniones un individuo da mucha impor- que trata de integrar ideas u observacio-
tancia. nes contrarias o antagónicas.
moldeamiento Reforzamiento sistemá-
tico de las aproximaciones sucesivas a ovulación Liberación del óvulo hacia pequeño para la fecha de nacimiento
un acto deseado. una de las dos trompas de Falopio; se Recién nacido a término que pesa menos
realiza por lo regular a los 14 días poste- de 2.40 kilogramos.
monitor fetal Monitor externo que re- riores a la menstruación.
gistra la intensidad de las contracciones percepción Proceso complejo por el
uterinas y los latidos cardiacos del niño óvulos Células reproductoras de la cual la mente interpreta la información
por medio de dos cinturones que se colo- mujer. sensorial y le da significado.
can alrededor del abdomen de la madre.
El monitor externo es un tubo de plástico padres autoritarios Progenitores que perinatología Rama de la medicina
con electrodos que se introduce en la va- adoptan estructuras con reglas rígidas que estudia el parto como un lapso que
gina y se sujeta a la cabeza del niño. y las imponen a sus hijos; en esta situa- abarca la concepción, el periodo prenatal,
ción, el niño no interviene en el proceso el parto y los primeros meses de vida.
monólogos colectivos Conversaciones de toma de decisiones de la familia.
de los niños que incluyen tomar turnos periodo crítico Único momento en que
para hablar, pero no necesariamente so- padres autoritativos (o con autoridad) determinado factor ambiental puede pro-
bre el mismo tema. Progenitores que aplican un control ducir su efecto.
firme a sus hijos, pero que alientan la
motivación de logro Motivo apren- comunicación y la negociación en el esta- periodo embrionario Segundo pe-
dido que impulsa a destacar y a conse- blecimiento de las reglas de la familia. riodo prenatal que abarca del final de la
guir el éxito. segunda semana al término del segundo
padres indiferentes Progenitores mes posterior a la concepción. En esta
muerte sumisa Suicidio que consiste a quienes no les interesan su rol de pa- etapa se constituyen las estructuras y ór-
en dejarse morir. dres ni sus hijos; ejercen poco control ganos principales del nuevo ser.
sobre ellos y les muestran poco afecto.
muestreo de vello coriónico Extrac- periodo fetal Etapa final del desarrollo
ción de células de las membranas que ro- padres permisivos Progenitores que prenatal que comprende desde el inicio
dean al feto; este método se realiza con ejercen poco control sobre sus hijos, del segundo mes posterior a la concep-
una jeringa o con un catéter. Esta prueba pero que son muy afectuosos con ellos; ción hasta el nacimiento. Durante este
puede llevarse a cabo más rápidamente en esta situación, a los hijos les es difícil periodo todos los órganos maduran y se
que con la amniocentesis, ya que se ob- frenar sus impulsos o posponer la grati- vuelven funcionales.
tienen más células. ficación.
periodo germinal Después de la con-
neonatos Bebés durante el primer mes paradigma de la sorpresa Método de cepción, periodo de división muy rápida
de vida. investigación con que se prueban la me- de la célula y de la diferenciación celular
moria del infante y sus expectativas. No inicial que dura unas dos semanas.
neuronas Células que constituyen el puede registrar lo que recuerda o espera,
sistema nervioso. Se forman en el pe- pero reacciona con sorpresa cuando no periodo sensoriomotor Primer pe-
riodo prenatal y continúan creciendo y se cumplen sus expectativas. riodo de Piaget del desarrollo cognosci-
ramificándose durante toda la vida. tivo (del nacimiento a los dos años aproxi-
paradigma de la novedad Plan de madamente). Los infantes usan esquemas
nido vacío Periodo del ciclo de la vida investigación que se sirve de la preferen- de acción —observar, coger, etc.— para
familiar que ocurre después de que el úl- cia del infante por estímulos novedosos conocer su mundo.
timo hijo se marcha del hogar. sobre los conocidos para investigar su
capacidad de distinguir las diferencias periodos Etapas.
niños resistentes Los que superan los de sonidos, patrones o colores.
ambientes difíciles y llevan una vida so- periodos sensibles u óptimos Aque-
cialmente adecuada. paradigmas contextuales Plantea- llos en que ciertos tipos de aprendizaje
miento de que muchos factores ambien- y desarrollo se realizan en la forma más
normas sociales Reglas y convenciones tales, sociales, psicológicos e históricos adecuada y eficaz, pero no de modo ex-
que regulan las interacciones sociales. interactúan y determinan el desarrollo. clusivo.

obesidad Pesar por lo menos 20 por pareja con doble ingreso Matrimonio permanencia del objeto Según Piaget,
ciento más del peso ideal correspon- o pareja que comparte un hogar en el inicio de la comprensión, hacia los ocho
diente a la estatura. que ambos cónyuges contribuyen al meses de edad, de que los objetos siguen
ingreso familiar como miembros de la existiendo cuando no están a la vista.
observación de laboratorio Método fuerza laboral asalariada.
en que el investigador crea situaciones permisividad (o usos potenciales de los
controladas, cuyo fin es producir la con- parto “natural” o preparado Parto objetos —affordances) Diferentes opor-
ducta de interés. que adopta diversas modalidades, pero tunidades de interacción que ofrece una
se basa siempre en los procedimientos percepción; por ejemplo, los pasillos se
observación naturalista o de campo Mé- ideados principalmente por el obstetra construyen para andar por ellos.
todo en que el investigador acude a las francés Fernand Lamaze.
situaciones comunes, observa y registra personalidad Creencias, actitudes y
la conducta procurando mantenerse lo parto tradicional Trabajo de parto formas características de interactuar con
más objetivo posible. y parto en el hospital. la gente.

osteoporosis Pérdida de la masa ósea pasión Segundo componente del amor personalidad andrógina Individuos
y aumento de la fragilidad de los huesos que se refiere a la atracción física, la que poseen un elevado grado tanto

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Glosario 633

de características masculinas como feme- experimentado antes cuando aparece de excelentes juicios y consejos sobre pro-
ninas. nuevo. blemas trascendentales, entre los que se
cuentan el significado de la vida y la con-
piedad filial Veneración que se tributa recuerdo Capacidad de recuperar la dición humana; la sabiduría representa la
a los ancianos en las culturas orientales. información y los hechos que no están cúspide de la inteligencia humana.
Se manifiesta en las tradiciones cultu- presentes, con señales o sin ellas.
rales, lo mismo que en los encuentros saco amniótico Membrana llena de lí-
cotidianos. referenciación social Señales emocio- quido que alberga al embrión o al feto.
nales sutiles, por lo general provenientes
placenta Masa de tejido en forma de de los progenitores que influyen en la selección natural Teoría de Darwin so-
disco que se forma a lo largo de la pared conducta del niño. bre cómo se realiza la evolución.
del útero, por la que el embrión recibe
nutrientes y elimina los desechos. reflejos de supervivencia Reflejos que senescencia El proceso normal de enve-
son necesarios para adaptarse y sobrevi- jecimiento que no se relaciona con
pragmática Aspectos sociales y prácti- vir, especialmente en las primeras sema- la aparición de enfermedades en el indi-
cos del uso del lenguaje. nas de vida, antes que los centros supe- viduo.
riores del cerebro asuman el control.
prejuicio Actitud negativa que se sensación Registro simple del estímulo
forma sin una razón suficiente y que en reflejos primitivos Reflejos que no tie- por un órgano sensorial.
general se dirige contra las personas por nen un evidente valor de supervivencia,
su pertenencia a cierto grupo pero que quizá fueron importantes en síndrome de alcoholismo fetal Ano-
alguna etapa de la historia evolutiva de malías congénitas que comprenden
presentación de nalgas Posición del la humanidad. tamaño pequeño, bajo peso al nacer, cier-
niño en el útero en la cual las nalgas son tos rasgos faciales y retraso mental, debi-
lo que aparecen primero; generalmente, reforzamiento parcial Procedimiento dos al consumo de alcohol por par-te de
en tales casos se requiere ayuda para en que sólo se refuerzan algunas respues- la madre durante el embarazo.
que el niño no se lastime ni sufra anoxia. tas; genera hábitos más sólidos que el
reforzamiento continuo. síndrome de inmunodeficiencia adqui-
problemas de aprendizaje Dificulta- rida (SIDA) Enfermedad mortal cau-
des extremas para aprender asignaturas relativismo moral Expresión con que sada por el virus de inmunodeficiencia
como la lectura, la escritura o las mate- Piaget designa la segunda etapa del de- humana. Cualquier persona puede con-
máticas, pese a poseer una inteligencia sarrollo moral, en la cual el niño se da traerla por contacto sexual o por exposi-
normal y no tener defectos sensoriales cuenta de que las reglas son acuerdos ción a la sangre o agujas infectadas.
ni motores. susceptibles de modificarse en caso ne-
cesario. síndrome de los niños que no progre-
procesos de control Procesos cognosciti- san Estado en que los infantes son
vos superiores que mejoran la memoria. reloj biológico Forma de sincroniza- pequeños para su edad y a menudo se
ción interna con que se mide el desarro- enferman por desnutrición o un cuidado
pruebas referidas a un criterio Instru- llo del adulto; medio por el que sabemos inadecuado.
mentos que evalúan el desempeño de un si estamos progresando muy rápida o
individuo en relación con el dominio de lentamente en relación con los sucesos sistemas de significado Sistemas de
determinadas habilidades u objetivos. sociales más importantes que ocurren creencias que moldean nuestras expe-
durante la adultez. riencias, organizan nuestros pensamien-
pruebas referidas a una norma Instru- tos y sentimientos y determinan nuestra
mentos que comparan el desempeño de replicación Repeticiones sistemáticas conducta.
un individuo con el de otros miembros de experimentos para determinar si los
del mismo grupo de edad. resultados son válidos y generalizables. sobrerregulación Generalización de
los principios complejos del lenguaje,
psicología humanista Teoría de que representación simbólica Uso de una casi siempre en preescolares que empie-
el ser humano toma decisiones y busca palabra, imagen, gesto u otro signo para zan a ampliar en forma rápida su voca-
cumplir metas positivas de índoles per- representar hechos, experiencias y con- bulario.
sonal y social. ceptos pasados y presentes.
sobrextensiones Tendencia del niño a
pubertad Obtención de la madurez se- responsabilidad social Obligaciones generalizar algunas palabras específicas,
xual en varones y en mujeres. con la familia, los amigos y la sociedad como cuando emplea “gato” para desig-
en general. nar a todos los felinos.
realismo moral Expresión con que Pia-
get designa la primera etapa del desarro- retraso mental Funcionamiento inte- socialización Proceso mediante el cual
llo moral, en la cual el niño cree que las lectual y habilidades de autoayuda muy aprendemos las reglas de nuestra socie-
reglas son cosas reales e indestructibles. por debajo del promedio, cuya aparición dad, sus leyes, sus normas y valores.
se da antes de los 18 años de edad.
recesivo En genética, uno de un par de sociobiología Rama de la etología se-
genes que determina un rasgo en el in- ritos de transición Hechos o rituales gún la cual la conducta social está deter-
dividuo, sólo si el otro miembro del par simbólicos que marcan las transiciones minada en gran medida por la herencia
también es recesivo. de la vida, como el que se da entre la ni- biológica del organismo.
ñez y la condición de adulto.
reciprocidad, o sincronía de la interac- subdialectos Diferencias subculturales
ción Patrón de intercambio entre el roles de género Papeles que adopta- del lenguaje; los hablantes de los diferen-
cuidador y el infante, en que cada uno mos respecto del hecho de ser varón o tes subdialectos suelen entenderse unos
responde e influye en los movimientos y mujer. a otros.
ritmos del otro.
sabiduría Sistema de conocimientos subordinación funcional Integración
reconocimiento Capacidad de iden- expertos que se concentra en los aspec- de varias acciones o esquemas simples a
tificar de manera correcta lo que se ha tos pragmáticos de la vida y que incluye un patrón de conducta más complejo.

booksmedicos.org

634 Glosario

suicidio asistido Ofrecer al paciente teoría psicosocial Según Erikson, hay Trastorno de déficit de la atención con
terminal los medios para poner fin a su fases del desarrollo durante las cuales hiperactividad Incapacidad para con-
vida. la capacidad del individuo para experi- centrarse en algo lo suficiente como para
mentar determina los grandes ajustes al aprenderlo, acompañada a menudo de
superego (superyó) Componente cons- ambiente social y con el yo (o sí mismo) un deficiente control de los impulsos.
ciente que abarca al ego ideal. mismo.
trimestre Los tres segmentos tempora-
temor Estado de activación, tensión o teorías estocásticas del envejecimiento les de igual duración que comprenden el
aprensión causado por una circunstancia Teorías según las cuales el cuerpo enve- periodo de gestación.
específica e identificable. jece por las agresiones aleatorias de los
medios interno y externo. trompas de Falopio Par de conductos
temperamento Estilos conductuales que dan a la parte superior del útero
innatos. teóricos del aprendizaje Designación y que transportan los óvulos del ovario
que se aplica generalmente a los conduc- al útero.
tendencia cefalocaudal Secuencia del tistas radicales que se concentran en este
crecimiento que ocurre primero en la ca- proceso. ultrasonido Método que se sirve de
beza y que avanza hacia los pies. ondas sonoras para obtener una imagen
terapia génica (o terapia correctiva de del feto en el útero.
tendencia de lo general a lo específico genes) Reparación o sustitución de ge-
Tendencia a reaccionar ante los estímu- nes individuales para corregir defectos. uso Forma en que un hablante emplea
los primero con movimientos generali- el lenguaje para darle un significado en
zados del cuerpo entero, los cuales des- teratógenos Agentes tóxicos de cual- vez de otro.
pués se vuelven locales y específicos. quier tipo que causan anomalías o defec-
tos congénitos. validez ecológica Nivel en que el in-
tendencia proximodistal Secuencia vestigador aplica lo que sucede en el
del crecimiento que se realiza de la parte trabajo de duelo Afrontamiento de las mundo real.
medial del cuerpo hacia afuera. reacciones emocionales ante la pérdida
de un ser querido. variable dependiente Variable que cam-
teoría del desarrollo cognoscitivo En- bia en un experimento cuando se mani-
foque que se concentra en el desarrollo trabajo de parto y parto Segunda pula la variable independiente.
del pensamiento, del razonamiento y de etapa del parto que comienza con con-
la solución de problemas. tracciones más fuertes y regulares y que variable independiente Variable que
termina con el nacimiento del niño. Una se manipula en un experimento para
teoría del procesamiento de informa- vez dilatada la cervix en su totalidad, las observar sus efectos en la variable depen-
ción Teoría del desarrollo humano contracciones empiezan a impulsar el diente.
que se sirve de la computadora como producto por el canal de parto.
analogía de la forma en que la mente virus Organismos ultramicroscópicos
humana recibe, analiza y almacena la trabajo inicial de parto Primera etapa que se reproducen sólo en células vivas
información. del trabajo de parto en que la abertura y que pueden cruzar la barrera de la
cervical del útero comienza a dilatarse placenta.
teoría psicoanalítica Teoría que se para permitir el paso del niño.
basa en las ideas de Freud, quien pro- zona del desarrollo proximal Concepto
puso una concepción determinista de la transición de estatus Cambio de roles de Vygotsky de que, con ayuda de los
naturaleza humana. Pensaba que la per- o posición que ocurre cuando una per- adultos o de compañeros mayores, los
sonalidad está motivada por pulsiones sona entra en la adolescencia, tiene hijos, niños se desarrollan al participar en
biológicas innatas. se jubila o enviuda. actividades que rebasen un poco su com-
petencia.

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