the-art-of-calligraphy-by-david-harris

I TALIC SM~I S/-/ CAPnitlS

f f,. ~[,_,2 efT1ti1refiL11caalnstdrorokpe
1
below the baseline

3

77re second stroke

eftire N is drawn

just below the

baseline

__O T11e rail ofthe
X exrends be/ou1
rhe baseline and
ren11i11ates with
a swaslr

2 T11e rail oftire Y

__ _/Jfl_t~)~__~Lt/-- - is looped and
3 exre11ds w the
'n• fM<ofd" P ri,elrt ~( tire lerter

! can be omitted

=4 - - -

T11e tail of Z exte11ds
below tire baseline a11d
ten11i11ates 1virh a swash

T11efoot 011 rlre The stem ofthis 77ris simple upriglrt fonn
stem oft/re R uprig!11form ofB ofE can be 11daptedfor
can be omilled features a wedge serif le1ters B, D, F, H, I, K,
P, R, a11dT
2
s Upright Swash Capitals, s11d1 as
-~-s this B and E, ca11 rep/are ltalir
Capitals (pp. 98-99) i11 ltalir text

Alternative B Alternative E

101

POST- R ENA ISSANCE SCRJPTS

Copperplate

I\ LTHOUGH THE I TALIC script began life as a quickly The stem efrhe COPPERPLATE CAPITAL 8
Although written to the sarhe stroke
fl. penned, cursive version of the Humanist Minuscule, Coppuplore Cop110/ thickness as the minims, Copperplate

by the beginnjng of the 16th century it had become a usually iermmates Capitals tend to be relatively large
with a blob (pp. 106- '/07). The degree of
formal script in its own right with a correspondingly expansion or contraction should
slower ductus (pp. 94-95) . In 1574, an instruction manual closely echo that of the minim.
for Italic script was printed from text that had been

engraved on sheets of copper with a pointed tool known
as a burin. The hand developed for this new engraving
method, combined with the narrower pen and slanted
writing angle that scribes had begun to favour, led to the
emergence of a new handwritten script: Copp erplate.

T HE PR/NCIPAL INNOVATION of the
Copperplate \vas that, for the first
time, all the letters in a word wer e
linked, making it a fast and practkal
hand to write. By the mid-18th
century, it was the established script
of commerce, replacing the various

bastard hands that had previously been
used for much business and vernacular
work in Europe (pp. 66- 79).

Throughout the 17th and 18th
centuries, Copperplate writing also
acquired the status of an art for m
suitable for gentle folk, who used
the impressive script for both private
and business correspondence.
faentually, Copper plate replaced
the Humanist hands including
the Italic itself - altogether.

THE UNIVERSAL PEN.\IA8

This version of an instructional text by Samuel
Vaux is from 77re U11iversa/ Pe11111a11, a celebrated
volume ofengraved work by the calligrapher and
engraver George Bickham. Published in 1743. the
book epitomized th e elegant writing manuals of
the 18th century. The engraved letters, written

with very few lifts of the tool, closely follow
pen-drawn Copperplare lenerforms.

WALPURGIS IGHT

This handwritten text of a poem by the artist
Richard Dadd dates from abo ut 1840. The letters
closely follow the approved "school" hand of
the period: th e minims are small, ascenders are
relatively large and unlooped, and the hand is
written at the very steep angle of nearly 40°.

102

COPPERPLATE

cy~otl..;,0wem1u)j~od-?!a111n: trn' 1lt'v1N«.:1fta1cUu!h{v'1Je j1101Y11dc7.. ;:;;&'-Q

tj;J~.; th-17';jM17thu7vtje;f~(ltl-91aat1-e, 1vl/;(;;f,Jmea;1ia1&1y{a11ce tutdCn1~-;-,

lj t-he(/,rocdLCtr~:jhtUfe~, 1vkdrt~iy IVt~bVeal/m1fa1zce tQthe/--::>

'fj;~t!t~'J.1(;the1u, t'Cl11.11;Jwj lhetl lhen' ;j 11t7Mti;J/' t}f~tb;t~h11h/tch. --,

THE U .1'.IVERSAL PE/'...MA i'.'

This engraving ofan instructional
text by W. Kippax is also from
George Bickham's Universal
Penman. Notice the looped and
unlooped fom15 of ascenders
used; on the third li ne, the word
"which" includes both types.

"COMMAND OF HAND" The strokes cross each Copperpla te in education
other at the most acute The adoption of Copperp late script
In order ro maintain their sta tus as teachers, angle possible occur red remarkably rapidly, a
the 18th-century writing masters often phenomenon owing par tly to the role
The loops, drawn to varying sizes, would in education of the writing master.
produced a series of virtuoso calligraphic have been carefullj•planned in advance In the past, writing skills had been
perfonnances that were each known as taught by univer sity academics, but,
COPPERPLATE WORKSHOP by the late 17th century, incr easing
"striking" or "command of hand", in whic h liter acy and the demands of business
increasingly complex baroque flourishes were In letterpress printing, the raised cr eated the need for a teacher who
surface of the type is inked and taught \¥riting exclusively. Examples
produced without the removal of pen from im pressed on to paper. In copperplate of writing master s' work were
paper. This ornate work is one such example. (intaglio) printing, this process is reproduced by copperplate
reversed. Ink is applied to the engraving, and schoolbook manuals
inscribed surface and wiped from the began to super sede the elegant
face of the plate. Dampened paper is writing manuals - such as The
then pressed o nto the plate, picki ng Un iversal Penman - that had
up th e in k from the recesses. In this previously been widely favoured .
engraving, we can sec the paper Technical skill
being forced onto the pla te, while, By the 19th century, Copperplate was
in the background, printed sheers the standard school hand in Europe
are drying on the racks. and the United States of America,
and stude nts were judged as much
on writing technique as the content
of their wor k. T his emphasis on
technical skill lasted well into the
20th century, when the Copper plate
pen was usurped by the ball -point
pen , typewriter, and word processor.

103

POST- R ENA ISSANCE S CRIPTS

Copperplate -- a 111e bou4 oft/1e

THI ELl·GANT SCRIPT is probably the most cursive of all hands. a i.< euclosed
Most letters can be written in one stroke and there arc few
pen lifts between letters. Minims can be slightly compressed and 111e bowl ofthe
the characteristic loops of the ascenders and descenders can be
drawn either open or enclosed. The best effects are often achieved bis open
by using compressed minims with enclosed loops. The fine lines
of the burin engraving (pp. 102- 103) are difficult to replicate with TI1e asce11der
a steel nib but, with practice, impre sive result can be achieved. oftired is
11ot looped
~ 111efonvard lean oftire (} re
TI1e bowl oftire
~ Copperplate letter is e
about 30° d is enclosed
~oo
~ Tiie top loop of

Tool selection tire f is enclosed

Always use a pointed 111e lower loop oftire

mb for Copperplate f ca11 altematively be
draw11 to the right of
letters. A flexible
the stem
drawing nib or purpose-
TI1e bowl oftire
made Copperplate nib g is enclosed

will ensure the best Tiie looped

vanation of thick and ascender oftire

thin strokes. h ca11 be opm
or enclosed
Hll1e11 strokes 01~rlap, keep tire pm a11gle ur
as close to 90° as the script will allow ,

Adjusting the p ressure 111e loop ofthe
The pressure is adjusted twice o n the
j is eudosed
average mmim stroke. Dcgm with a
gentle pressure to produce a fine line,

increase it to thicken the moke at
the centre of the minim, then relax
1t agam at the bonom of the stroke.

Avoid joini11Jl 111e bo11om loop of
fellers close to
the g is e11dosed
Linking leners
,, ,
Link letters wherever possible,
$
e nsuring that the link is as h igh up

the stem as is practicable. Do not

join letters near their base.

Try to leave a 11eat
trim1Jlle ofspace

between eaclr lei/er

Internal spaces
Once you have decided whether 10
use compressed or expanded minims,
make sure each cou nte r contains the

same amount ofspace. The imer-
lener space should be approximately

half the internal space.

104

The top loop of t COPPERPLATE
the k can be
open or enclosed_ ~ ?t

The ascender of ·/JJ ti_. The rnp loop oftire v

the I can be looped ( i f can be open or enclosed

?) Tire two loops of

tire w are enclosed

111e stem oftire p 2

often rises above 17ie loop ofthe y
minim height is endosed

171e bowl of
the pis

usually open

17ie bowl ofthe

q is enclosed

1 i//~~'~Tirefull r has two The small top The final loop of
tire z is enclosed
Full ~ - -Half r loop ofthe halfr
Letteiforms can be sligl1tly
can be open modified to aaommodate tire
connecting strokes
17ie s is the only Joined letters
Copperplate letter in Copperplate is wrium with
tire alphabet with no 171is.for111 off is tire most as few pen lifts as possible:
11a111ral linking stroke th is word can be written with
Jonna/ and restrained <if only one pen lift - for tire

all possible options crossbar oftire t

105

POST- RENA ISSA NCE S CR1PTS

Copperplate Capitals

J\ MONGST THE MORE useful practical advice offered in the
f"\ Copperplate manuals of the 19th century (pp. 102- 103)

is this tip from writing masters James Lewis and Joseph
Carstairs: "The writing hand should be lightly supported by the
tip of the little finger and the forearm free to move in a circular
movement''. This can very helpfully be applied to the drawing
of Copperplate Capitals, a script in which the precise control
of pressure on the pen is central to the execution of each letter.

As aJle11eral mle, rhe - -- --'"""" Increase rhe pressure
rhick srroke sho11/d 1101 at this poi111

coi11ir111e i1110 rlie rnrve; pressure at
avoid rl1is happer1i11g this point
/1y co11rrollir1g rlie pen
presmre

pressure ar this poi11t 2

I

Incorrect S Correct S

This S sho ws how the letter will To draw the S correctly, begin the

look if the pressure on the pen is not stroke with light pressure, increasing it

meticulously controlled. The stroke when reaching the italic slope angle.

should only increase in weight when Decrease the pressure when moving

following the angle of the italic slope. away from the italic slope angle.

Loops Crossing strokes
Loops should balance over the As a rule, thin srrokes can cross both
upright axis and, when used spirally, thick strokes and o ther thin srrokes.
should diminish proportionately, However, thick strokes should never
rather like a snai l's shell. be crossed with other th ick stro kes.

Capitals Here, tire rail eftire L temri11ati11g a
and minuscules stroke, fi11islr 1vitlr a
Never use Copperplate lras beerr e/011gated a11d lrairli11e or apply press11re
Capitals to write a whole lowered ro compleme11t 011 tire pen to leave a blob
word. Where several
capitals have to be used, tire minuscule letters
such as for initials, plan
the letters VCI)' carefully.
When used to begin
a word (pp. 104-105),
the feamres ofthe
Copperplate Capital
can be adapted to
complement the
minuscules.

106

COPPERPLATE CAPITALS

~
1

~;: ­

v1r ~

2-- 1c237_5b789-

Arabic numerals Arabic numerals l1an11011ize with Copperplate
scripts better than Roman n11merals

107

R O.If.I\ &_LATE R 0 ,11.rl , . SCRJPTS

Imperial Capitals Ihe proporuons ef Diirer's lct1er A ore

Tl IE IMPERIAL CAPITAL (Capitalis Monumentalis) based on a subdinded <quare, 1111h the
was the letter used on the monuments of <er!ft based on compass-dra,..n circles
Ancient Rome to proclaim the might of the 01 RER 's C LASSICAL A
Roman Empire, and is indisputably the most The analysis and red iscovery of

stately of all scripts. The earliest examples of c.5 .,___~ t? ant ique lecters was a m atter of

a mature Imperial letter date from the first ' grcac induscry for R enaimncc
century B.C. , and ome of the fine t models arc sc holars and arriscs. This Im perial
Capital. drawn by Albrecht
in cribed on the ba e of the Trajan Column in r ] Diircr in 1525, demomtratcs the
widespread belief elm che key to
Rome (opposite) . These stone-cut letters were
car ved directly on top of brush-drawn forms ~ ( understanding classical letters lay
(pp. I I0- 111), their proportion dictated
by the natural movement of the hand. f r ~ in geomecric dissection..

C APITAL LETTE RS with serifs had /'he.frequency ef1he D ETAIL FRO.\I rm; Vii\ A PPIA MO:--IU:\IENT
been written by the Greeks from the occurrence efQ m Iat m In this imcnp11on on che Via Appia Monument,
fourth century B.C .. I lo wever, it was
o nly when the Romans de,·cloped a text pror1des a d1stma che imerhnear space is equal to about half the
springy, broad-edged bru h from the dt$19n adranw9e, 1111h the height of a le tte r. W e re the spacing any ti gh ter.
hair of the red sable that it became wd 9racefully descendm9 as it is on th e Arch of Consta ntin e (oppc>sire), the
technically possible to draw serifs and />e/011 the basdmt case of horizomal scan woul d be reduced and
o ther letter parts quickly and with
precision. When used within the /he re9ula11on efspacc th e letcer; wo uld becom e jumbled.
natural compas of the hand, this tool
pro\'ed crucial in determining the her ll'etn letters, wor<ls, Compau tht mrtr !ttttr spocts ef
shape of the Imperial Capital itself. the eleienrh /me 1111h 1hoie ef1ht
A key j unction ond Imes nm efpT1ma9
In a society with a high degree of twe!fih 10 sec hon the spoces hare
literacy but witho ut the benefit of conurn 10 the Romon 1CT1/>e been compressed to accommodate
the printed word , Ro man cribes
and ignwriters pe rformed key 1/ie alloca11on eftcM
fun ctio ns. Although what remains
of their "vork is frag me ntary, we do VIA A PPIA MONUMI. T
know, from one small painted section
of an election poster in Pompeii , that The beautiful proporcions of the lercer; on chis
monument in the Via Appia. Rome, compare
b)· implifying ome trokes - the very favourably with those on che base of the
Imperial Capital was adapted from Trajan Col um n (opposire). Such a large amount
the prestige letters of state for use of texc would have required conside rable
in everyday docume ntatio n. forward planning. The in icial all oca ti on of
words co each line may have been calculated
The Imperial Capital has proved to on a wax tablet or slate. before working rules
be the most e nduring of all cripts. were drawn co letter heighc on the marble.
Q , e r 2,000 ,Years after it was first Once che pom1on of the letters was marked
used, its form remain ,·irtually in chal k bccwcen the rules, the letter; were
unchanged, as the capital letters in painted wich a brush. Only then were the
the type print of this book testify. words actually carved into th e stone.

108

sI M PER/11/ C tP/7,1 /

\.r \\I ]l1 \/\

\El ll'll

THE TRAJAN COLU.'1 The Imm on chc cop /me ore I he /mer .\, like the:'\ Father Catich
11 5 e<ncm~res (-1 • mchl'S) anJ .\I, has a pomtcd incc the Renaissance, Imperial
This mscnpuon on the base ofthe Trajan h19h. reJucm9 to 9.6
Column 111 Rome. cue in A.D. 112-3, I'> 2.74 crn11merrts (3' r, mches) on ape'- "form c!flmperral Capital le tter ha,·e been tudicd,
metre'> (9 feet) wide and 1. 15 merres (3 feet the bottom /me probdblJ <.upual more J1Uiculr to
9 inche'>) high. The inscription, commemoraung rnJicatrn9 the relatne analyzed, imprO\·ed, and recreated by
che battles ofTraJ,lll against Gem1any and Daci,1. con1truc1 chan the JJ
begim with the phrase ··sES ATl!'. POPVLl'S 1mporwnce efche worJ, rommon scr!f£J orj1a1-
Q VER Oi\IANVS'"(''The Senate and People of hcm/c,/ le11er ( p. 113) countless scholars and calligrapher .
R ome"). T he ktte rs were originally colo ured
red so that they would stand o ut from the T H E AR CI I 0 1· CON~ I AN I INE However, it is only through the
background. W ords are sepa rated by a m edial
inrcr-pmnr and the horizontal stroke over T his monume nt da tes fro m A. ll. 315. som e 200 pioneer ing work of a modern scholar,
cercam letters indicates their use as numeral\. years after the T rajan Column (11b1we). In som e
the late Fathe r E.M. Catich, that \\'C
The 1<orJs '°'11 :'\ AT\'S POP\'L\ ' ways, ic marks che dcgcncranon of R ome, since
QVERO.\I A:-.; \ ''> • haie been abbreviareJ to many of the statue~ .md rehcf, on the column can now fullv understand the ductu
ha\'C been scavenged from earlier work. The J
.P. Q. R...unJ r<le9ateJ to the second /me
letters are square-cue 111 shallow relief. of the hand. His analvsis of Ro man
Originally. the groove~ would have housed J
bronze letters - the circul.ir fixmg holes can
letter construction was demo n tratcd
still be seen 1m1<le c.1ch letter.
on 19 le tters of the alphabet in his

de finitive \\'Ork, The Origin ifthe Serif,

published in 1968. These methods

arc interpreted for all 26 letters in

the fol lowing pages (pp. 110 119).

Spon taneous let ters

The g reat strength and beauty of

the Imperial Capital lie in the fact

that the le tter can be written "ith

spontane ity, the tool and hand

determining the form, and one letter

part re lating naturally to the next.

In much modern work, excessive

pre-planning can have the effect of

making the le tters appear laboured.

H oweve r, the methods explained in

~~~ ~·the foll o wing pages will enable the

mode rn scribe to work in the ame

way as his o r her Roman forebears
J

and produce spontaneous letters

for our own time.

109

ROMAN &_ L ATE R OMAN S CRIPTS

Imperial Capitals: Brush Strokes

IN ORDFR TO RECREATE authentic Imperial Capitals, it is essential to use a A 111a/1/stick is 11se.f11/for
broad -edged brush. This should be made from sable or synthetic hairs, keepi11g tlie liand clear of
which arc fine enough to create a sharp clean edge ""hen wet. Imperial tlie 111riti11g s11rface _ __ ___,
Capitals are constructed either from "pulled" or "manipulated" strokes,

or from a combination of both. In both types of stroke, the angle between

the bru h and the work surface is equally as important as the angle o f the

bru h edge on the letter. When drawing letters with a brush, differences in

troke thickne ar e created by many facto rs, including changes in rhythm

and tempo, and the increase or decrea e of pressure on the tool. T hi Brush m ovement
sensitivity is generally most apparent o n "manipulated" strokes (opposite). for " pulled " strokes
With the harid resting
The basic " pulled" stroke A irl()vemmt ofabout
The "pulled" stroke is used in che majoricy of Imperial directly on the work
Capit.11 letter strokes. The basic " pulled" stroke is the five or six ceutimetres surface, the movement
vertical stem stroke. For this, the hand moves only slightly, (11m i11d1es) ca11 be of the brush will be very
with the index finger drawn cowards the palm of the hand,
causing the brush to be pulled downwards. ad1iewd 11iitli tlie lia11d small for a "pulled"
stroke - about two or
resiit~~ 011 a malrlstick - --+-- - - three centimetres (one
inch). With the right
711e index finger hand resting on the left
hand or on a mahlsuck.
should be positioned the movement can be

on t/1efem1/e of mcreased.

tire brush 4. On letters 8, D, E,
and L, che vercical stem
3. Continue pulling the brush stroke is continued into
downwards, slighcly reducing the bottom horizontal
the pressure as you reach the arm. In these instances,
ce ntre ofthe stem - this will che angle of the brush
give the stroke a slight waist. edge on the letter
Increase the pressure again should be about 30°.
and. at the bonom ofthe stem,
begin co lifi the brush while Adj11St tire brus/1 a11,ele t~
moving co the right. 30°for tire additio11 ofa
tliicker stroke to t/1e n,el11
1. Begin the stroke with the brush
at a fairly nae angle to the surface. 2. As you move downwards
Gently edge the brush co the into the seem, gradually pull
righ c and begin che downwa rd the brush cowards the palm
sweep ofthe stroke. of your hand, until it is
almost upright.

O ther " pulled " strokes Basic _ _,___ This is an --l'--111is s111eepi11g Opposi11g
The brush 1s held in a "pulled" stroke is used sweep for
similar way on cur\'ed stroke alternative left 011C, G, 0, leuers D,
strokes as on vertical a11il Q 0 , and Q
strokes. but 111stead of 711e remre stroke serif for A, M ,
drawi ng the brush cowards a11dN
che palm of the hand, the ofthe S is both
hand moves in a semi- 711is 1t1il stroke ofK, R,
ci rcular movement to the ''pulled" a11d a11d Q is exeC11ted with
right or left. To make this tire brush 111med to 30°
movement smooch and Letters M,
easy, the angle of the V, a11d W lrai-e
brush edge on the lener
should be about 15°. a diago11al stroke
that 111ms 11p1mrds
cirCHlar sweeps at the baseli11e
occur on B, P,
a11d R

11 0

IMPERIAi CAPITALS : B RUS /I STROKES

T he " m anipulated" stroke T op left serif on T and Z
To draw "manipulated" strokes.
you need co be able to twirl the 1. Begin the cop left serifon the 2. Twirl the brush to 30° to create 3. Without adjusting the angle ofthe
T and Z by bringing the brush the left serif. slightly mcreasing the brush edge on the letter, move the
brush through 180°. To make chis downwards in a short stroke. pressure as the brush twirls. brush horizontally to create che arm.
possible, hold the brush betwee n
Top right serif on C, E, F, G, Ro1111e tl1e bmslt, pivotil~l,? Fi11islt rl1e arm wirlt rite
thumb and index finger with an S, and T it 111 tltr top rig/tr comer
angle ofabout 90° between the left comer oftlte bmsl1
brush and the work surface.
"Marupulaced" suokes are used to TI1e 1111.~le
oftire bmslr
create the four main types ofsenfS in edge 011 rite
Imperial Capitals: che top left serifS
and arms of letters T and Z (above letter is 30 °
rig/Jr); the top serifS that terminate the
arms ofletters C, E, F, C, S, and T

(riglrr); the bottom serifS and anns
of C, E, L. and Z (below); and che
bottom left serifofthe S (be/o111 right).
Although the cop strokes of C,

, and C are curved, the principle
remains the same as for the straight
cop arms of the E and F. For the
bottom anns of E. L, and Z, the brush
is positioned so that the angle of the
edge on the letter is about 150°. The
strokes ofthe top serifS are known as
"forward" and those ofthe bottom
serif, as "reverse". The bottom serif

of the is unique in chat che brush
begins rather than ends at the seriftip.

Bottom arm and right 1. To create the top right serif 2. Continue moving che brush 3. Continue to rotate che brush on
serif on C, E, L, and Z of C, E, F, C, S, and T, hold the horizontally, mainuinmg the angle of its left corner until the edge is 90° co
brush in an upright position and 30° until the brush approaches che end the arm. Finally, move it downwards
begin the horizontal stroke with of the arm. Ac this poim, begin to slightly and "edge ofI", gemly lifting
the brush edge on the letter at 30°. ro tate the brush on its right corner. the brush from the surface.

Bottom serif
on S

Tire a11gle of

the bmsl1 edge
011 the letter is
about 150°

1. To create the bottom am1 and right 2. On reaching the end ofthe stroke, 1. The bottom serif of the Sis the 2. Twirl the brush co 30° and curve to
serif on C, £, L, and Z, begin with the r.vi rl the brush co the vertical, then only bottom serif on the left side the right and upwards. Work carefully,
angle of the brush edge on che letter move upwards and edge off, finishing ofa letter. Begin at the tip of the for the first part of the stroke will be
at about I50°, and move co the right. on the lefr comer of the brush. serif, moving the brush downwards. obscured by your hand.

Straight and curved ~.,.,,..,,.."""' •
" manipulated" strokes preceded by a serif
011 Ta11d Z
Curved 'Jorward" 1

"Fonvard" stroke used stroke used 011 tire top
011 rite top a11d te111re wrve ofC, G, ai1d S

" " "· ,., ,.., - eamrsoftheEa11dF Curved 11re1>erse" Curved "reverse" stroke
~,,. stroke used 011 1/1e
bo11om mrve ofC begi1111i11g at rhe 11p of rhe
bottom am1 ofE, L, a11d Z ~.
serif- used 011/y 011 S

111

ROMAN &_LATE ROMAN S CRIPTS

Imperial Capitals: Construction

Wlrite li11ts

Tiil:: 26 CHARACTERS constructed in the following pages are based on the 19 letters indicate a cl1a11xe
included in the inscription on the base of the Trajan Column in Rome (pp. 108-109).
The two Greek-derived letters, Yand Z, are based on other Roman sources, and the efbmslr angle, i11

this i11stmuefrom

30° 10 tire

remaining three letters, ), U, and W, are modern characters, which, as such, are open llerli((I/

to in<li,·idual interpretation. In principle, the letters adhere to the ductus described

b)'.Father E.M. Catich in his book The Ori9in efthe Serif. Each letter is individually

demonstrated by stroke sequence and brush angle. The pressure on the brush and

the speed at which the strokes are dra\\'n will ,·ary from the brush ofone calligrapher 17refirs1 siroke - the
to another, and the rhythm that suits you best will be acquired with practice.
key 10 1/re /mer - is
1fo11m i11 pink _ _ _ _ _ ___,._

Five siem Six s11•111 Seven stem Ni11es1c111 Nine s1e111 ':;,::" 'L
111id1/is 111id1lrs 111id1lrs
·~~"oding
011c.•11·111wi1l1lr EBx A N M

9.5 $/c'll/ W Each letter has been constructed from

LF P TZ CD R01mltl1s a!~~~~!~~~~;:~i~s:~i~~~~::~.~~~~

the fourth . The frequently changing
brush angles are represented by a

"""of whi« ""' " '·" •h< '"•"

Letter weight s "I··~"' G uv Letter proportions
le i' generally a~sumcd J ,,,, ...., ., CTfrc>111twolsjoi1~ When writing a series of Imperial Capitals, it is
elm the weight - the y essential to kn ow the relative width ofone Imperial
rclatio111hip between 111r.fille1/ir111'1'en 1/ie _ ] ( Capi rnl to another. The width ofa letter - including
item width and stem serif 1111d Siem of <111 serifs - is measured in stem widths. T he apparent
height - of the Trajan discrepancy in weight between rounded and straight
letter i1 I0: I. A balance lmp;·nal C111111,1I ""' lie letters is optical: rounder letters appear lighter than
sl\~luly f111/er tlia11 1/1is straight ones. To our modern eyes, this can be
of 11: I is generally displeasing and the effect is "corrected" by the
comidcred acceprablc, addition of extra weight to the curved strokes.
Arguably. the original weight differences give the
although the acmal Imperial inscriptions a more natural rhythm than
letter weight is that achie,•ed in more formal modern work.
JbOUI 9.5: I.

Numerals 1"234 5678 9 0
Although Arabic numerals were not
2
imroduced into Europe until the
13th cemury, avoiding their use in

fa,·our of Roman numerals can be an

mcumbrance in modern calligraphy. Stroke order

Ar,1bic numerals can be drawn using for numerals

a similar ducms to the Impenal 3
Capital letters and can be contained

within the capital height. The 0 is
usually a narrow numeral, bur if

12u~ed singly, it can be made wider, J
rcmnbling a letter 0 (p. 116).

112

A T11e small )!np I MPERIAL CAPITALS : C ONSTRUCT/Of\'
ran befilled
Fla1-headed A Imperial Capita] A
efrer 1/ri• /mer Al1hough most Roman .rls were flat-
headed, all of the .rls on the Trajan
is co111ple1ed mscnpnon (pp. I 08- I 09) are pointed.
When building che pointed serif. it is
Serifed A essemial co draw che apex first. You will
norice rhar a small gap is left between
771t' 11:(1 ft)! I.\ In modem ll'l>rk, 1/1t rrossbar che fim and the second strokes.
11/wcl)'.<ll1i1111cr ~(1/1r A rends t<> ht' posi1io11ed
rh1111 1/1c r(~/11 lc)! lc•u'Cr 1ha11 1/1is Hi\lorically. on stone-cue lcrcers. chi~
gap could be cradicaced with a
Ill p11s1-l~mnissmue limes, n11 chisel. For the brush-drawn
i1111er seri(was i11d11derl 011 1/ie letter. the gap can be left
~~111 I~~ ·~r1/11· A - rhis is as it is or it can b~ filled
0111i11ed i11 modem u~>rk ·in \\~th the brush.

The 1hird srrokt' 1ifthe A '""
a/11•m111i11cly be dr111m1 as a
cm11i111wrio11 <fthe first stroke

77w ri.~/11 11xis 1ifthe "''
rs abcwe the hori::o111t1/

-n1e sero11d 1111d 1/1ird Imperial CapitaJ B
On chc 8. the fillcc berween the item
srr.•kes efthe B <<111 ht' and curve of che lower bowl is an
11nportant characcerisric. which only
«•111/1111ed i11 a si11gle occurs on the brush-drawn letter. It will
only occur at the bottom of the seem.
s11t·ep111g stroke - - - - + -t...• never at the cop. The cop bowl is alway~
1111allcr chan che bortom and the joining
1croke always above the stem·s centre.
The borcom bowl can alternatively be
conscructcd with a si ngle sweep.

T11m thc br11;/1.fi'<>111 thl' h1>ri:o11111/
10 30° 11111/ 1111111(' 11/<11\~ 1/w l1e1sl'li11e

.. ,T11•is1 1he lm1shfrom 30°
o 90° w draw the 1op
erif1if1he C

The axi.< cif1/1e left ef , T11m tire lm1.1h cll'ff 1111d 111•1s1 Imperial Capital C
fmm 150° le• 1h1• 1•e111<c1l 1<>
till' cir< i.1 bdo111 the dr11w1/1c /1111111111.<1•r!( ~ The cop and bortom rrokes of the
hori::o111al _ _ _ _ _ _ __,,.. Care pulled Out horizontally and do
~~-·~t not CUr\'C inwards. The rwo serifed
arms arc very similar in comtruction
co those on chc E (p. 114). wh teh
should be used as a model. The onh·

difference is that the arms on rhe c'

arc cun·ed, not straight. R eml'mbcr
to rum the brush over to 150° for
the boccom stroke .

113

ROMAN &..LATE R OMA SCRJPTS

2 Imperial Capital D
As on che lener B (p. 11J), che seem
The axis oftlie arc is and rounded scrokc of che Dare
connected with a fillet. This is always
above tlie lrorizomal - - ---'I at the bottom of the letter - never

T 11m the bn1sli fro m tlie liori.zontal ac the top. The widch ofthe lerter
to 30° and pull ir along tire presents a problem in connecting
baseline as far as possible the baseline stroke to the bowl. In
11re L is co11stnutedfrom anticipating this, the Trajan.scribe
tire stem a11dfoot oftire E sloped the stem slighcly to the right.
In modem usage, the stcni is upright.

Tum tire bmslr to Imperial Capitals E, F, and L
30° and pull ir
alonJ? the baseline In 7/ie Origin oftire Serif, Carich
regards rhe E as the key lerter in
For tireform Ir srroke of rite determining the fonn ofrhe Imperial
letter. This is owing to the fact that
E, lllm tire bmslr over and the length of the top arm and the
trvistfrom 150° to 90° size and fom1 ofthe serif are naru ral
strokes - in Catich's words, "the
most satisfyingly natural stroke the
brush makes". Therefore the Eis
an ideal letter with which t0 start
learning the brush technique. The
F is created in the same way as E but
without the foot, while the Lis made
up of the stem and foot of the E.

71re top serifoftire •J£~~r To creare rlre top serifoftire G, pull
tire stroke lrorizo111ally to tire riglrr
G s'1011/d balance over before twistingfrom 30° to 90°

tire right side oftire

slron s1e111

17re stem oftire G i; Imperial Capital G
abo111 halftire lrriglrt For practical purposes, the G is th e
ofafull-size stem - -- - C (p. 11J) combined with the upper
half of the stem of the I (p. 115).
114
The top serif is a manipulated stroke
similar to the top arm of E (above).

IMPERIAL CA PITALS: CONSTRUCTION

Imperial
Capitals H, I , and j

The H, I, and J arc very

alike in their basic form.
As a modem letterform,

theJ can be partly your

own invention - for
instance, the tail can be
extended and edged off
with a fine hairline stroke.
The I is the basis for all the
serifed, stemmed lette~
in the hand. Th~ H is
constructed from two /s.

~-- 'J'/1e 111il 1ftireJ can sweep

0111 jimlrer to rite left

'11tis ''"" is similar to Imperial Capital K
tire r(~/11 fork ~(the V The ann and leg ofthe K connect to
(p. 118) the stem with a point. It is acceptable
to leave a small gap between am1
'11ir P"imed M is i11 and lcgjuncmre and the stem. This 1s
liam1011y ll'itlr the A preferable to connecting the leg to a
(p. 113) and N (p. 116) point on the lengch of the an11. Alter

the angle of the brush o n the third
stro ke to finish at the horizomal.

T11m tire /imsh tc) rite

/10rizo111a/ before edgi11g '!ff

7711•llpt'X lllllSI be dra11111
first to rre111e the 1111glefor
the do1mstroke

Imperial Capital M
Although mon: commonly
flat-to pped. the pointed
,\,f is used on rhe Trajan
inscription. The first and
second strokes of rhe .\! arc
always rhe thickest. and the
third and fourth always the
thinnest. In classic usage.
the first and last le~ incline
inwards, but never as steeply
as rhe inner V (p. I I If).

II S

ROMA &_LATE R 0 111A1\· CAPITALS

Draw tire apex of lmperial Capital N
The first and last I~ of
tire /euerfirst - --+- the !\'arc slightly thinner
than the diagonal stroke;
Tirt gap be1t1'tt11 tire in modern work, they
are often drawn as thinly
serifa11d tire top of as the crossbar ofthe A
(p. 11J). Note the slight
tire secoi1d stroke carr curve at the bottom of
befilled after tire /e11er the diagonal, caused by

is completed sweeping the brush from
the diagonal to the vertical.
T11m tire bnislr to T he N can be drawn either
firrislr at tire vertical ----'w r
nat-roppcd or serifed.

Tirt 0 a11d Q are sliglrtly Tire axis of1/re Imperial Capitals
11arro111er rlra11 a peifect circle 0 and Q
riglrt arc is above The same ductus is used for
Co11srr11C1 tire Q by addi11g the bowl ofthe Q as for the
tire lrorizo11tal - - - - key lertcr 0. The srress of
a tail to tire letter 0 - - - - - - - - - each letter is below centre
left and above centre right,
creating a diagonal axis that
is compatible with the

natural sweep ofthe wrist.

The tail ofthe Q sweeps
well below the baseline
and, because ofits frequent

occurrence in Latin text.
attractively breaks the
formalfry ofan otherwise
bilinear script.

.-

S/ig/11/y 111m tire bnislt to

horizo111al 011 the rail of tire

Q before edging qff

Tire basicfomr of Tire axis ofthe

tire /mer P is tire arc is above tire
same as tire R lrorizomal
(opposite) ------f~·:<M•I
Imperial Capital P
rrot join tire stem Although the bowl ofthe Pappears ro
be smaller than that on the corresponding
116 letter R, they are, in f.ict, the same size.
The illusion is caused by the absence
of the connecting stroke to the
stem of the P. In modern usage, a
connecting bar is often added, and
in cype it nearly always is. The bowl
finishes just below the centre line.

T1ie bowl ofthe R is che IMPERJAL CAPITALS: CONS TRUCTION
same size as that ofthe P
(opposite) The axis ofthe arc is above
the horizontal
111e tail oftire R. continues
Imperial Capital R
an imagi11ary diagonal line The R , together with the E (p. 114),
across cite let1er th111 begins is a useful letter on which to practise
at the top serif brush-drawn Imperials because it contains
more elements ofother letters than any
5 other character. The j uncture of the
bowl and connecting stroke is a valuable
indicator of the brush-drawn origins of
the script. This has systematically been
removed by scribes in an attempt tO
"improve" the lette r. Th e tail is a very
satisfying stroke to draw, producing

a gradual thickening.of the
tail near the baseline.

Fla11e11 rhe brush ro the
horizo111al before edging ~ff

43( T1111sr the brushfrom 30°
to 90° to complete the serif
~~
Imperial Capital S
Co111menre 111 the The curved strokes ofthe S often
tip ofserif, twist rl1e
brush backwards, present a rather awesome prospect co the
and pull ir along beginner. In fuct, once the £has been
the baseline mastered (p. 1'14), the S should no t prove

difficult. The Trajan S has a forward lean.

which slightly interferes with the Oow of
the script. The tail serif is the only part

of the lette r that may require additional
practice. It is the only arm serif that is
constru cted tip first, and aggravated
by the hand obscuring the first stroke.
For th is reason, it is essential to draw
the tail of the serif as the second stroke,
while the hand "remembers" where

the first stroke finished.

Each arm is rhe

...,r-'J Tlie righr arm ofriteT is
exactly rl1e same as rl1e top

2 arm of the E (p. I 14)

Imperial Capital T
The cross stroke of the Tis an extremely
elegant shape w ith subtle changes of
angle between serifs, and a gradual
swelling ofthe arm leading into and
away from the serifs. The arm starts
with a slight downwards movement
with the edge of the brush twisting
back to 30° before moving along the
arm and finishing at 90°. On an
inscription, the initial j uncture
would be filled in by the chisel.

117

ROMAN &_LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS Imperial Capital U
In Latin. the character
771e bot10111 serf( of1'1e U V was used to represem
rn11 be c>111i11ed, 111i1lt 1/11• boch U and fl sounds.
curve sweepi11,~ up 10 meei In medie\·al scripcs. the
1/re ri.J!lll 11er1icnl mokc fl often cook the forn1
ofa {.;:by abouc the 1-tch
cemury the cwo lecccrs
were differenriaccd and
used separacely. le is a
maner of personal opinion
as co whac cxtcm chc
Imperial Capical scripc
should be ada pced. to
languages ocher chan Larin.

A I 1/w rttd 1?( '"" Sl'(Olld strokt',

s111C'ep 1/11• br11slt ro 1/11' r·(~ltt ,,,,d
r~~1· •?0.wi1lt <l Jf11r stroke

Sl(~lttly t111is1 1/1e bms/1 '" Imperial Capital V
The first stroke of che I' begins in
Jl11islr 111 t/1e llll.J!le c>f 1he the same way as a \'ertical scroke and
seco11d stroke _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___.., finishes wich che apex ofan .\/. The:
change of brush angle.' is rdlccccd in
che slight turn at the bottom of the
stroke. The V can end in a Aat base
when used wich flat-headed A . .\/,
and !\', brn make sure this base is no
wider than the thin stroke.

67

made 11arro11't'r by Imperial
repla<i11,1~ the crossed Capital W
ce111re strokes with a The lercer II' firsc
si11,11/e poi1111•d apex appeared in che I lch
cemury. In principle,
it is compmcd of
two Vs, which can
either cross one
anocher or join in
a single apex in th e
centre ofthe lem.:r.

118

TI1e top v-s/1ape oftire X IMPERIAL CAPITALS: C ONSTRUCTION

should be slightly smaller Imperial Capital X
tlra11 tire bouom one The letter X appears wich relacivc
frequency in Latin inscriptions, used as
111temal serifs <a11 a numeral to represent I0. The slope
be i11d11ded 011 tire is more inclined than that of the A
and ideally, the cop v-shape should be
tll'O 11n11s oftire Y smaller than the boccom one co make
the letter optically correct - balanced
and not cop heavy. There is no senf
on the right inner leg.

Imperial Capital Y
The letter Y was used by the Romans
for words of Greek derivation, and 11
appears only occasionally in Larin
inscriptions. This construction is
based on a Greek inscription of
the letter Upsilon. It is also correct
to include an inner serif, as on the
letter X (above).

Trvist tire bnislr to 30° 1111d move

/1orizo11tally to (feate tire top stroke oftire Z

thicker tlra11 111ost dia,~01111/ 2
strokes ;,, tire srript
Imperial Capital Z
T11m the bnish over and twist The Z is an interesting construction,
from 150° to 90° to draw the which combines the cop arm ofthe
bouom stroke T and the bottom arm ofthe £,
separated by an awkward diagonal
stroke - awkward in the sense that a
stroke moving to the left is naturally
thin (see A, p. 113). However, a thin
stroke would make che letter appear
inordinately light, and so the brush
is held near to the horizontal to
create a thick diagonal.

119

SCRIPT R 1-11·Rt.sc1:. Cn i RT

Script Reference Chart
A B c D Elt'.1pen.1l
C.1p1t.1l~ F GHI K LM N 0

c fA ~Rustic GK 1 KLMN 0
Df k 1 mN 0

ROMAN e c,c DA 1'U11ci.1l 1= hl K._ l MN 0

& LAT E k. l m N 0

R o ~1\i-.

SCRIPT\ B c f'iqu.uc }\

CJpuab
DI GH I

b d e J: Cf haIl.1lfU11odlc l

lmul.1r F- l m l-1 0

a b e t: b h JIN\Ulr\R & Majmcuk ~ L m tJ 0
G lJ 1

NA I ION1\I bc0 3h1

SCRl l'I'> ill'lll.ir d e-
Minu,cule

CAROLIN! gh t k Lm n 0
k. 1 tn n 0
b c d e f&: EAR!' sbt
C.1rol11H" ~
M111mcuk

GOJlll( b d c faEJrh· (,
SCRI PT\
Cotlu~

I t·xwr.1 n0

a b b c f g h J k I mQu.1dr.u.1
r //

1

Tcxtur.1 f n0

a b c b c g h h r ml'rt·,ci>m
/

1J

~ ~ ~~ f et>~ j
Cothic ffl ~ fr)

21 1 'k lC.1pit.1I'
B c Fj\_Lo111b.1rd1r Ii L m Q 0
C.1pu.i1, G 11 I
() (j j/

Go1 111< B.Mard ~l &f n
S<Rll'I\
s e tSt'cret.1ry t\,
~ t,, / m 0

J
U.1,t.ml

4' lP f q: 'lC.1pit.1I'
~ <C '5 VJ J {l !, 2lt ~t <D

13.lt.mle (l; l3 c 8 c f 6~ {; J "/ [ Tf{; n 0

Fr.1ktur " "~ 6 b t f '£L 6 t• J.' K, 1 itt ti 0

11:\11 ·" & Roru11c.l.1 abcb f ~g b 1•£:J1 '] ~lmn 0
H U\1 1\ N l \ l h
Roru11c.l.1 AI; & 1' £f g 6 . . 1!t ( ~ lf? e
StRll'I\ C.1p1tal,
abc def g l. J. k Lm n 0
I Iu111.111 i't 0
Millll\Cllk a b c d {, f l J k Lm n

lt,1lic

1111111.1111\t AB c DE FG H I JJ/. KLMN 0
C.1p11.11, de
d ff i 71 f t m n {Y
l'O\ I- ( opp<'rpl.m: t{)/ (} BJ 0
g;;g 8C~ J!£ c/f/&
RL' \I\'·"( I

S< Rll'I\ &f 91 ~ 8-CJ J
( :oppt•q1l.1t<:

C1pit,1J,

120

SCJHl'T R t.FER/ \Cf- CHART

p QR s Tv xy z NOi E\ O' \C RIPI\
x y. z
p QRs rv PrN19c Roman hanJ u..:J m brmh-Jra11 n anJ <'<ITI cJ
x J ~
p qR s Tu form,; the letrerfornh are the basis ofman,1 maJcrn cap11al>

I trJt -rentUT) ~'"P' u,cJ m manuo;crrpt , \t,qnu ruun, anJ
umcdform;: later u1e</ onlj for chapter hc<1dm9s

Iarm •emon of the <.reek Unnal 1111h ruJ1mcmar,1
""cnJcrsanJJe>ecnJa,: 111<CJ/>,1 thecar!1 (hTl'tr..m Church

p Q R. s T y x y z Ic1tc Romon cop11al1 re'"" d for non Chm11un Je /me
m<Jnthcr1pH; a 111nc (Qnu11mn9 letter"' t>.:n
zu
p qr ( ?C y z I more cunire /Orm t>/ lJncwl mcorp<JTUtwH d't<1..·nJcrs anJ
-c; u
Jc~cnJen: the lctttr/<lfllh <Jrc the bd\h ,,/ mmu\f. ulc /euen
-r; u
JJ q 1<. s f r: u (oml>rne> Unr1<1/ anJ /Jul{ Uncwl clcmcnt1: Jt'iclopcJ

E 1 fZ ( } ( p l>,1 lmh -\'orrh11111/>r1,m (due monh

p q1 5 ( ~ ,., ( unHe.form '!{the lnw!t1r .11ajuMulc ll"tt.•tl /Clr cl<1Cumentw)

r I u,>rk: conrmucJ to />c u1d m lrclanJ rnro rhe .!0th ccnw~1

. RcfornicJ llol/ ll11<tcJI: Nc1bf,.heJ h<1nJ c>/ thc lrunfoh

x y z l.mp1rc: the m,,J,.J{<>r I jth ·rcnm~1 H11mc1n11t 1/muxu/c

t' Cf r s ( r u w ~ .t z (ompre\.\eJ 1·cn1on ft/ the Caro/me .1/rnm£ulc mcJ m

JJ qr g f t u (J 1 J1 l rhc 12th ccmu9: pma,qcd /<11er Gor/uc ""f'"

r11!!1 compre1u·d <.c•thtc l<ttcr_fr,>m the ,·.ir£1 13th

u•mur:,1: charcJdt"Tl/eJ ~1 J111monJ urmmJ/\ ,,/ mm11m

p qr g f r u v wJ • l / 11 m ""P' o/ 1hc <)J1<1drat<1: cha((ICtCrl/ccl I>) .flat f'ccr
c>n mm11m: l.hCJ /Or ptc!\l tJJ<! mumtfcr1p1 ll'r.'lfk
J1
aJi) 1t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3f 1lj r •lc«,mf'Z'!) m9 <tip1t<J/, ,,,, Icuura nunuw ul.."'

p Q ll s l: v x ]' z I b111lt-up. prc11t,1/<' dt>pl.~1 unJ l'enul <cl/>1t11/: mual!J
med m con1m11. t1on o II h <2.!.wclrata or Pu" IHI\ itcnpt,·

f-P q r 5 g ~~ •
at u I <un11 c Goth1t 'c "/ll mcJ on~1.Jor 'crn11c ulc.1r i.1nJ
1' Jt'<.Umcntar,,1 nork
~ 'V ~ ~ ~ ~
(c1p11c1/ ft'llcr> med 1111h l>cnwrJ mmu1<1t/l'1, m<luJm9
t u s; ~ x lJ ) ti><"< m rhc llJt,trdc <111cl hakwr h<1n1l1
~ ~ '!{_ 6
I rl'nch 1ernon of th,· llc11tarJ !;ecret<1~1
v r 'q r ~
v q t' .S f t 11' l} w l' 1~' z (1rrmdn, ldteftd,tdrJ "'"P' nuh '"'"!.' Tt•\lutd /.:uturo: n11h
I
,.p q r s t uv \chuubachcr, 11 rem<1m,-.I m u>c unrrl the m1J .!0th c<nlUf)
wr
lt<1lwn hand: contc.•m1wrm) u 1th Cot/u( ""f>h: rounder
""J more open than <'Iha northern furop<'cJll hanJ>

lP a1~ ~ ~ ~ i:) ti:' ~ ~ ~ h.u>mp.in_,nn,q (·ur11t1/, /t>r RorunJa mmu,,..uft·,
u v wx y z
p qr s [ t Rc11cms<1nce hand mf111cncccl b; the Carulmc l/11Jll\C11le:
t u v w~ y ~ thf lcttcrfornh arc the ~l\l\ for mufh mod1..•rn rnmm9 ~l.,Je
p qr sf (u!'HC form cfthr llumcJm\t llmu,,u/t. ,,,,.J m
p QR 5 T u v w x v-2J
---- m,,Jcrn t}pe.for tt\I In fWTCnthrs1l anJ annt1tolltm
,J t iv ~ w z, JI ;;·
rt v IjJ ?£ ~ W/ Je ~_1J . laompan) m9 ((Jp1tt1!\ for Ilumam't ancl l1e1/n
8 mm111culcs: pcn-dre111n ,fm>cltlCC> o/ lmp<'rtc1! C<1f>11<1/,
()5 £ 8l di
I \lrcmc.fom1 of <llr,1H• "'"f' n11h llk.l\t J..·11...·r, lmkt.·J:

Jmc cJ from lta/1, anJ mfl11l'll(eJ b) «'f'/"''1'/~tc <'ngr•JC mg

l"""'l'""J""8 Cd/llf<i/1 /<>r Copperpl111c m111111wb

Ill

GLOSSARY

Capital letter See majuscule. " Elephant's trunk" A broad,

Glossary Capital lin e The writing line sweeping stroke that hangs from the
to which upper-case letters rise. ascenders in certain bastard scriprs,
such as the English Bastard Secreury.

The capital line is often slightly

Ampersand The character & denoting the lower than the ascender line. Expanded letter A style of

word "and". lettering in which the characters

Anthropomorphic decoration A style of Capsa A container for storin g ( and inter-letter spaces arc wider
scrolls. than is usual.

letter decoration that incorporates imagery of Compressed letter A style of /-/airlines are draivn with the Filigree Elaborate decoration
human forms. lettering in which the characters in the fonn of fine, curved lines.
and inter-letter spaces are corner efthe pen nib and eftcn
Ap ex The pointed tip ofa letter, as in A.
taperfrom a thicker stroke

narrower than is usual. Fille t The name given co the

Arch The portion ofa lower-case letter filled angle that is forn1ed between a stroke and

formed by a curved stroke springing from the Conjoined A ccm1 used to describe letters its serif.

stem, as in Ir and 11. that are joined together.

Floriated Decorated with images offlqwers.

Arm A horizontal stroke touching the letter Copperplate An extremely slanted script with

at only one end, as in E and F. distinctive flourishes chat developed from letter Folio A leaf of a manuscript. Also refers co the

engraving on thin plates page n um ber.

Ascender The upper of copper.

srem ofa lower-case Fret patte rns Ornamental designs that can

letter, as in /1. d. and k. Counter Any space be used to fom1 the border of a page or can be

within a letter, either fully woven into the text. The simplest fret patterns

Ascender lin e A or partially enclosed. arc composed solely ofscraighc lines.

writing line to which the

upper tcms oflctters rise. C rossbar The G il d ing The application ofgold leaf co the

horizontal stroke on a wriring surface.

Axis In Roman Imperial letter, as in t and H. Also

Capitals. this is the known as the "bar". Gothic scripts The generic term for hands

imaginary line that passes written between about 1200 and 1500.

through the thickest points Cross stroke A

ofa lctccr. Also known as horizontal mark essential Gouache Watercolour mixed w ith a type

the "stn:ss" of the letter. Cadels are ornate Gothic Copitol leuers co the letter, made eith er of c halk co achieve an opaque effect.
Baseline The writing that were 0T19inally used 11·t1h basrard texr scrlp1s from left to right or right H airlin e A fine line used co link letters,
to left, such as on the

line on which the main letters E. F, and T. tenninatc strokes, fill large counrers, and

body of the lercer sirs. decorate letters.

C ursive A rapid fom1 of '''riring, using

Bastard script A Golhic script of mixed clements such as linking and loops. Half r A fom1 of the letter r, the spine of

Texcura and cursive elements. which is provided by the previous letter.

De lux e A cenn used to describe the highest

Bilinear The tern1 used co describe a script grade of manuscript writing. Headline The line to which the uppem1ost

that is writte11 between. and adhering to, two point of a letter - excluding its ascenders or

im agi nary writing lines. Descender The lower stems ofletters suc h as descenders - rises. Also known as the "waistline".

p, q, andf

Black Letter See Textura. " Hierarchy of scripts" The name given co

Descender line The line on which a letter's th e code of practice whereby different scriprs

Bookhand The generic term for scriprs used descender should rest.

in books before the age of printing. Bookhands

include Uncial and Caroline Minuscule. D isplay capitals Decorated capitals

used in the introductory word or

Bowl The curved stroke arcached co the letter words ofa cex't but not singly as vcrsals.

seem chat creates an enclosed space (counter), a~

in letters b. d. and g. Also known as "bow". Downstroke A stroke chat is

directed downwards.

Bracketed serif A type ofserif that forms a

fil let with the stroke of a letter. Ductus The directio n and order of

the strokes used to constru ct a letter.

Built-up letters Letters chat are outlined and Ear A small stroke lhat projects from the Ira/re scrip1 is characterized by linked lmers
filled, or constructed a sectio n at a time. top of the letter g. with a d1sonc1frejorll'ord slam

Burin A pointed cool used in copperplate

engraving. E dge off A term used with reference :o appearing in the same manuscript adhere co a

brush-drawn letters co describe the technique srricc order of use: the most regal hand is used

Cade! An ornare Gothic capital letter of removing the edge of the brush from the for the titles and important details, the next most

consm1cccd from a series of interlacing pen strokes writing surface, with the left corner lifted last. formal script for the first sentence, and so on.

written with the minimum number of pen Iifrs.

Edge on Th e technique of gradua ll y placing Historiated The tenn used co describe initial

Capital heig ht The heigh t of a majusculc the full edge of the brush onto the surface, wi th letters chat are decorated with the h uman figures

(capirnl) letter. the righ t corner touc hing th e surface first. described in the text.

122

GLOSSARY

illu m ination Originally, the tem1 refe rred M ovabl e type Individu al letters made from Stipple To engrave, paint, or write in dots.
only co gilded decoration, but it is now used metal that can be inked and printed in any order.
co desc ribe any fom1 of cexc decoration . " Straight" pen A pen with the nib cut
Palaeo graphy The study of the history of obliquely co the shaft, faci litating che drawi ng of
Insular Originating from the Latin word for handwriting and doc umencs. an upright ste m. When positioned horizontally,
"isla nd". chis tenn is applied by palaeographers it will produce a greater contrast in thick and
co indicate a shared culture between Ireland and P ap yru s The earl iest fom1 of paper, made th in strokes, an effect known as "shading".
northern Britain, free from Continental influence.
Stroke Any straight
Interlace A form of decoration in which lines or curved line that
weave in and out ofeach oth er. has been penned or
painted.
Inter-letter space The space between
charac ters. Tail A diagonal line
that connects to th e
Interlinear gloss Words written in the letter at one end, as
interlinear space of the main text co provide a in Qand )'·
commentary o n the text or a translation of its
contents. T erminal A stroke
that does not end with
Int erlinear sp ace The space berwecn the a serif.
baseline of one line of cext and che headline
of the line below it. Text script A script

Italic A Humanist style of writing in which that is particularly
che oval-shaped, linked le tters slant co the right.
suitable for pages of
Lead ing m inim The name given to the first
minim of a letter. as in 111 and 11. text. owi ng co its

A manuscript is a book or documenr wrillen by hand claricy and lack of
decorati on. Also known as

from the stem of th e papyrus plant. "body text" or "text hand".

Letterform T he shape of a letter. Parchment A writing su rface made from Textura From the Latin word for " woven",
Liga ture The linking of letters by one or mammalian ski n, usually sheepski n or goatskin. this is the name given to a style of Gothic sc ript
more strokes. characterized by dense, compressed characters
Quill A writing implement made from the tai l and minimal interli near space.
IVhere rhe bowls eflerrers are combined, the or wing feather ofa bird, such as turkey or goose.
Thom sign The Anglo-Saxon sign resembling
le11crs are referred 10 as "conjoined" R eed pen A writing tool made from a a y that was used to represent th e "th" sou nd.
Link The stroke chat conneccs the top and hollow-stemmed marsh plant.
U ncial A late R oman script wi th rudimentary
bottom of th e minuscule g. Rom an T he Latin alphabet. T he term is also ascenders. T he name means "inch high".
used to describe any plain, up right letter.
U pper case Sec m ajuscule.
Rubri cated Originating from th e Latin word
ruber for " red", this describes letters in a heading Vellum A cype of writing surface made fro m
or wi thin a passage of text that are colo ured red. ca lfs kin.

Rune Any letter in the ancie11t Gennanic Versa! A built- up ornamental capital letter
alphabet. The characters contain no curved used to open verses and paragraphs.
strokes and very few horizontal strokes.

Lo op The enclosed space in an ascender o r Sable A very fine pointed brush, made from
descender, as in/-!· the tail hairs of the sa ble, a dark-furred arcti c
mam m al.
Lo w er case See minuscule.
Serif A short, decorative stroke used co finish off
M ajuscule A bilinear sc ript in which th e the stroke of a letter. Many different types exist,
leccers are of eq ual height. A capital letter. including the bracketed serif and the wedge serif.

M anuscript A handwritten book or Skate T he technique ofgently pulling chc wee Decoratfre abbreviated st rokes known as ''serifs''
doc um ent pre-dating the in venti on o f printing. ink from one stroke to create another stroke,
Can be abbreviated co "MS". often a hairline. can be drawn in a variety '!fd!lferenr sr.ylcs

Mfoim A downstroke that is as caU as the "Slanted " p en A pen with the nib cut at Waistline See headline.
body height of the script. right angles to the shaft. Held ac an angle, the
position of che nib is "slanted" to the stem. W eight T he rela ti onship ofa letter's nib width
Minim height T he height of a minuscule to its heigh t.
letter, excl uding th e ascender and descender. S pur A small projection off a main stroke.
Also known as ·'x height" or "body heigh t". Word space T he amount ofspace berween
S tem T he main vertical stro ke of a letter. It wo rds.
Minuscule Any non-capital letter. Minuscule ca n be drawn at an angle for a slanted script,
scripts"co ntain letters of uneven height because and can be the main diagonal stroke of th e Zoomorphic decoration A scyle ofdecoration
of the ascenders and descenders. letter, as in J\I and Z. incorporati ng imagery ofan imal forms.

123

8 1 8 l / OG R A P N Y Bibliography

124 The Decorated Le//er, JJG. Alexander/Thames and Hudson, London, 1978

Tire Wi11c/1es1er Bible, Clare Donovan / British Library, Winchester Cathedral,
1993

Manuscripts at Oxford - R. W. Hum Memorial Exlribitio11, Edited by A.C. de
la Mare and B.C. Barker-Benfield/ Bodleian Library, Oxford, 1980

Eyewitness Guide to Writing, Karen Brookfield/ Dorling Kindersley, British
Libra1y, London, 1993

The Golde11 Age <if E11glish Ma1111scrip1 Painli11g 1200-1500, Ri chard Marks

and N igel Morgan/Book Club Associates, London, 1981

A11glo-Saxo11 Maw1scripts, Michelle P. Brown/ British Library, London,' 1991

A Book of Scn'pts, Alfred Fairbank/ Penguin Books, London, 1949

Writing, David Oiringer/ Thames and Hudson, London, 1962

Das Sclrreib-B1idilei1111011 Rudolf Koch, Johannes Stauda Verlag Kassel, 1984

17iesa11ro de Seri/Iorio 1535, Ugo <la Carpi, introduction by Esther Potter/
Nartali and Maurice, London, 1968

Writing and !J/11111i11ali11g and Le11eri11g, Edward Johnston, originally published
1906, reprinted by A. & C. Black, London. 1983

Englisl1 Ha11dwriti11g 1400-1500, Jean F. Preston and L<letitia Yeandle/ Statc
University, N ew York, 1992

A Guide to Western Historical Scrip1.1Jrom Antiquity to 1600, Michelle P.
Brown/ Brirish Library, 1990

Tire Book <if Kells, Selected and introduced by Peter Brown/ Thames and

H udson, 1980

The Lindiefame Gospels, Janet Backhouse/ Phaidon, Oxford, 1981

Tire Universal Pe11111a11, Engraved by George Bickham, 1743/ Dover
Publications Inc.. New York , 1954

711e Arr ofCalli)?raplry, Western Europe a11d America, Joyce Irene Whalley/

Bloomsbury Books, London, 1980

The Story of Writi11g, Donald Jackson / Studio Vista, 1981

Medieval Calligraphy, Its History and Tec/111iq11e, Marc Drogin / George Prior
Associated Publishers Ltd., London, 1980

Calligraphy: T11e Art of Wrilleu Forms, Donald M. Anderson/ Dover

Publications Inc., New York, 1992

The Origi11 of1l1e Serif, Edward M. Catich/ Catich Callery, St. Ambrose

University, Iowa, 1968

Masters oftire Italic Le11er, Kathryn A. Atkins/ Pengui n Press, Lo ndon, 1988

The Italic Calligraphy Ha11dbook, Carolyn Knudsen/Stemmer H ouse Publishers
Inc., Maryland, 1985

Calligraphy, Inspiration, Innovation and Com11111nic.a1io11, David Harris/ Anaya,
London, 1991

Books of Ho11rs a11d their Ow11ers, John Hartham / Thames and Hudson, 1977

Lettering Old and New, Translated by Dr. W.E. Walz/ Batsford, London,
c.1930

Oma111e111al Alphabets a11d Initials, Alison Harding/ T hames and Hudson, 1983

Celtic K11()t111ork, lain Bain/ Constable, London, 1986

INDEX

Index Brown, D enis, 11 , 31 8-13 H
brushes, 14 diamond, letter anatomy, 6
A Diirer, Albrecht, 75, 108 Haanes, C hristopher, 95
c Durham Gospels, 30 hackle, letter anatomy, 6
Adam and Eve, 67 Hagen, Johannes von, 74
Alcuin ofYork, 9, 38 Cadeaux see Cadels E hairline, letter anatomy, 6
Anglo-Saxon minuscules, Cadels, 59, 94 hairline tail, letter anatomy, 6
Eadfrith, Bishop, 30 Half Uncial:
history and development, 9 history and development, 81 ear, letter anatomy, 6
Arabic numerals, 107, 112 practical, 82-3 Early Gothic: and the Caroline Minuscule,
arch, letter anatomy, 6 Cambrensis, Giraldus, 31 38-39,40
Arch of Constantine, 109 Cancellaresca Corsiva see Italic history and development, 9,
Artificial Uncial: capital letter, letter anatomy, 6 12,46- 7 history and development, 8,
capital line, letter anatomy, 6 9, 12
history and development, 24-5 Capita/is Mo111m1entalis see practical, 48-9
practical, 26-7 Imperial Capitals Echternach Gospels, 30 Halliday, Peter, 17
Arts and Crafts movement, 42, Capita/is Quadrata see Square English Bastard Secretary see handmade papers, 14, 47
95 Capitals Harris, David, 103
ascender: Caroline Minuscule, 16, 35, 84, Bastard Secretary headline, letter anatomy, 6
letter anatomy, 6 English Caroline Minuscule, H enry of 13lois, Bishop, 46
height, 7 90 H enry VIII, King ofEngland, 51
ascender line, letter anatomy, 6 Early Gothic and, 46, 47 42 hierarchy of scripts, 16
Aubert, David, 71 history and development, 9, Etruscan alphabet, 8 Historia Ecclesiastica, 35
Augustine, St., 24 Exeter Book, 35 horizontal foot, letter anatomy, 6
12,38-9 Humanist Capitals, 91
B practical, 7, 40- 1 F
Carstairs, Joseph, 106 practical, 98-9
baseline, letter anatomy, 6 Caticb, E.M. , 109, 112 fibre- tipped pens, 14 Humanist Minuscule, 50, 94
Bastard Capitals, practical, 78-9 Chancery, 66 Flame!, Jean, 81
bastard scripts, 10, 11 C hancery Cursive see Italic flourish, letter anatomy, 6 history and development, 11,
Bastard Secretary: C harlemagne, Emperor, 9, 38 foot, letter anatomy, 6 13, 90-1
Chichester Cathedral, 51 Foundational Hand:
history and development, 13, Citeaux, 47 practical, 92-3
66-7 Cockerell, Sidney, 43 history and development,
Codex Amiatinus, 24, 25 42-3 I
practical, 68-9 Codex Vaticanus 3256, 20-1
Batarde, 7, 11 Coefrid, Abbot, 24 practical, 44-5 Imperial Capitals, 7, 16, 90
Columba, St., 34 fountain pens, 14 brush strokes, 110-11
history and development, 13, "Command of hand", 103 Fraktur, 67 construction, 112- 19
70-1 Copperplate, 10 history and development, 8,
history and development, 11 , history and development, 13, 13, 108-9
practical, 72-3 74-5
Bede, Venerable, 34 13, 102-3 In Proverbia Sala111011is, 34
Beneventan Minuscule, history practical, 104-5 practical, 76-7 inner- letter space, letter anatomy,
Copperplate Capitals, Franciscus, Ricardus, 81
and development, 9, 12, 84 practical, 106-7 Froissart, J ean, 71 6
Bentivoglio, Giovanni II , 90 Corbie, 9 Froissart C hronicle, 70-1 Insular Display Capitals, history
Bernard, St., 47 counter, letter anatomy, 6
Berry, Due de, 81 cross stroke, letter anatomy, 6 G and development, 13
Bickham, George, 102-3 crossbar, letter anatomy, 6 Insular Majuscule:
Black Letter see Textura Cultural Decomposition, 31 Gellone Sacramentary, 63
C ursive Half Uncial, history German calligraphic revival, history and development, 12,
Quadrata, T extura Prescisus and development, 12 29-31
Bobbio, 9 curved stroke, letter anatomy, 6 history and development, 13
body height, letter anatomy, 6 German Letter see Fraktur practical, 32- 3
Bonaventura, St., 66 D Gill, Eric, 43 Insular Minuscule:
Book of Durrow, 30 Gothic Capitals, 10
Book of Hours, 70, 84, 90 Dadd, Richard, 102 history and development, 9,
Book of Kells, 29-3 1 descender, letter anatomy, 6 history and development, 12,34-5
bow, letter anatomy, 6 descender line, letter anatomy, 6 58- 9
bowl, letter anatomy, 6 detachable nibs, 14, 15 practical, 36-7
bracketed serif, letter anatomy, development of Western script, practical, 60-1 insular scripts, 9
Gothic scripts, history and interlaced patterning, 81
6 inter- letter space, letter
British calligraphic revival, development, 9, 10
Grandval Bible, 38-9 anatomy, 6
history and development, 12 Greek scripts, 8 interlinear space, letter anatomy,
Greek Uncial, history and
6
development, 12 Iona, 34
Griffo, Francesco, 91, 95 Irish scripts, 9
Italic:

history and development, 13,
94-5

125

..

·=.mtr fmnumuttr~\ltlltn.l ttpopub ·

\ =· tt'bltfttt funt Ut llmft albtntlt~tl .·
,~~- .; 3:tqft!J tnttipnnnpro mnnrµnuur

nfutut.a~unfus intutnunt rrc Abua

INDEX

practical, 96-7 manuscript sources, 7 Q Textura Quadrata, 10, 94
Italic Capitals, practical, 98-9 Manutius, Aldus, 95 Early Gothic and, 46, 47
Italic Swash Capitals, Matthiius Evangelium, 75 Quadrata see Textura Quadrata history and development, 12,
Maximilian, Emperor, 75 quill pens, 7, 14-15 50-1
practical, 100-1 Meditations on the Life of practical, 52-3
R
J Christ, 66 tongue, letter anatomy, 6
Mercian prayer- book, 34 Ramsey Psalter, 42-3 tools, 7, 14-15
Jarrow, 25, 29 Merovingian script, 9 Ratdolt, Erhard, 85 Trajan Column , 8, 108-9, 112
Jenson, Nicholas, 38, 90 Metz Pontifical, 50 reed pen , 14 Treatise on Hawking, 94
Jerome, St., 24, 31 minim height, letter anatomy, 6 Rochester Priory, 46 Trewhiddle, 35
Johnson, Edward, 11, 42-5, 95 M i n uscu les : Roman Imperial Capital, 7 turned foot, letter anatomy, 6

K letter anatomy, 6 history and development, 8 u
development, 8 R.oman script~, history and
Kane Medieval Manuscript, 66 origin, 24 Uncials:
Kippax, W., 103 Moralia in job, 47 development, 8 history and development, 8,
Koch, Rudolf, 11, 74- 5 Moro, Francesco, 94 9, 12, 24-5
Morris, William, 43, 95 Romanising Uncial of the practical, 26-7
L Canterbury Sryle, 25
N The Universal Penman, 102-3
Larisch, Rudolf von, 11 Rotunda: upper-case letter, letter
Late Caroline see Early Neudorffer, Johann the Elder, history and development, 11,
12, 84-5 an:itomy, 6
Gothic 74, 75 practical, 86-7
Late Uncial, 25 v
left-handed calligraphy, 7 New Roman Cursive, history Rotunda Capitals, practical,
Lethaby, W.R., 42 and development, 12 88-9 Vaast, St., 59
letter height, letter anatomy, 7 Vatican Basilicanus, 38
letterpress printing, 103 nibs, 14-15 Runic Capitals, history and Vaux, Samuel, 102
Lettre Bourguignonne see Niccoli, Niccolo, 94 development, 13 vellum, 7, 14
La Vengeance de la Mort Ihesa,
Bararde 0 Rustic Capitals, 8
Lewis, James, 106 history and development, 13, 71
ligature, letter anatomy, 6 Old English see Textura 16-17 Verona Antiphoner, 84-5
Lindisfarne, 29- 31, 34 practical, 18-19 Versals, history and
Lindisfarne Gospels, 29-31 Quadrata
link, letter anatomy, 6 Old R.oman Cursive, history s development, 58-9
Littera Antiqua see Humanist Vespasian Psalter, 25
and development, 12 St. Ambrose, De Misteriis I, 46 Via Appia Monument, 108
Minuscule Orgemont, Guillaume d', 51 St. Paul's Epistle, 91 Virgil, 16, 21
Liflera di Breva see Italic Ormesby Psalter, 55 St. Vaast Bible, 59 Visigothic Minuscule, history
Littera Uncialis see Uncial San Sebastiano, R.ome, 20
Lombardic Capitals, 88 p Saturnalia, 95 and development, 9, 12
Schwabacher, 50, 67
history and development, papers, 14 w
13,62-3 handmade, 47 history and development,
76-7 waistline, letter anatomy, 6
practical, 64-5 Papyrus, 17 Walpurgis Night, 102
parchment, 7, 14, 20 Sherbourne, Bishop, 51 Waters, Sheila, 39
Lowe, Nicholas, 66 Patrick, St., 29 "slanted" pens, 15 Wearmouth, 25, 29
lower counter, letter anatomy, 6 pattern books, 59 sources, 7 wedge serif, letter anatomy, 6
lower-case letter, letter pen angle, letter anatomy, 6, 7 spring-loaded pens, 14 \Veston, Thomas, 81
pen w idth, letter anatomy, 6 Square Capitals: whetstones, 15
ana tomy, 6 Petrarch, Francesco, 90, 91 W inchester Bible, 46, 62
Luttrell Psalter, 55 Philip the Good, Duke of history and development, 8, W indmill Psalter, 10, 55
Luxeuil, 9 13, 20-1
LuxeuiJ Minuscule, history Burgundy, 71 x
Phoenician scripts, 8 practical, 22-3
and development, 12 Phoenix, 11 stem, letter anatomy, 6 x-height, letter anatomy, 6
Pliny, 10 "straight" pens, 15 x-line, letter anatomy, 6
M Pointed Minuscule, 34 stroke sequence, 7
Poligny family, 70 swash, letter anatomy, 6
Macrobius, Ambrosius Prescisus see Textura Prescisus
Theodosius, 95 printing, 103 T
Proto-Gothic see Early Gothic
majuscule, letter anatomy, 6 Pugin, A.W.N., 62 Tara brooch, 30
manipulated strokes, 111 Textura Prescisus, 10, 50

history and development, 55

127

A CKXOl l'LEDG.11£1\'TS

Acknowledgments College, Dublin p30: ti: Tara Brooch. arional Pages 74-75: Fraktur & Schwabacher
Museum of Ireland, Dublin; b, tr (detail): Lind11famc p74: d (dr1i1il): M Lat 2° f384 '" 13erhn.
PICTURE CREDITS Go1pds f29 COTT Nero DIV f29. BL pJ I: t: MS Staacsbiblio1hck 7U Berlin - Prcu6ischer Kuhurbesirz
E,·ery effort has been made io tracc thc coprrighr COTT Nero DIV f5v, 13L; b: C11l111ml Dmm1posi1io11, - Handschriftcnabteilung pp74-75: 11: MS 64/ 35v &
holder.; and Wt' apologize in ad,·ance for any Denis Brown, 1993 36r. 13ayc rische St.1atsbibliothek, Miinchcn p75: t, r
un1111e1111onal omiS\iom. \V,· \\Ould be pleased 10 (derail): Rudolf Koch, Go1pd ofSr. Matthew, 1921,
mien 1he appropriall' ackno" led1t111e111 in any Pages 34-35: Insular Minuscule OfTenbach / Klin~por-Muscum der S1adt Offenbach
1Ubscquc111 edition of il111 pubhc.mon. p34: tr: Lindisfarne Prio11•. photo: Andy W1llia1m: rr am Main
(1let.1il): Bede1 Commcntan· on the Book of Prowrb1.
Key: t: cop ii: bonom r: n·ntrc r: ri~ht I: left MS 819 folio 29/ 130: l><r. iH'I (1/e1ail). b (derail): Roy.ii Pages 80-81: Cadels
2 Axx fl 7 Prayer-book. c 11gli1h Mercian. Bl p35: p80: D54/ 107 fr380 Page de Gard..-, B p81: I: MS
Abbreviations: I (tlrrai/), tr/, lid (tlc111i/): I listori<1 Ealesi11stim Cmis Ashmolean 789 fol. 4v/ 130; Ir: Initial Leiter. Spcedball
A11gforu111COTTT1 ll C I I f5v, 13L; bw 7711· Spirit Textbook 1952. R o11 F. George: br: A11 example of
AA: Anriem Art and Arcl1i1,•rture Collenion o(.\ le11 11.71- end. ll'idsitlr. 11 .1-13 fol 84b, fine initi.111 from a book by Thomas Wc1ron in 1682,
i~cproduced by l'ennMion of the Dea11 .111cl Speedball Textbook 1952, R oss F. George
DL: 13,. Pcnnission of the 13riti\h Librarv, London Chapter of Exeter
BN: c' Cliche Bibliorh<·qu<' .111onale d~ France. Pam Pages 8-1-85: Rotunda
Pages 38- 39: Caroline Minuscule p84: b: MS.I .4929- 1866 f.27r Verona A11t1phoncr.
BO: Thc Bodkian Librm-. Oxford p38: b: Arch. S. Pietro I) 182 fol. 159,., Ba\C1<'1ca11m mid-15th century. VA p85: 1: L.2384- 1910 [203r
1)182f159v/ Foto B1hl1otec.1 Vaticana/ IK p39: 1/: Epistle 13ook. lt.1l1.1n 13ook of Hour.;, VA: b: Sheer
IK: 11..ona. Rome • Sa lly-Anne Rca\011: Ir: C'lc111tl Co11cep1io11.<fr1>111 : lb1ll'I', of primed Rotund.1. Author's own copy
VA: B> Coun.:sy ofilw Board ofTnisrees ofrhe iii verse. Sheila Wa1c1'\: 11: Moatiev Grandv.11Bible
ADD/ MS I054(i f25 13-26, UL Pages 90-91: Humanist Minuscule
V1ctona and Alben Mml'um. I ondon p90: /J: l~eid MS 64 VA p91: 1: MS L1721 - 1921
Pages 42-43: Foundational Hand f96v-97r. VA: r: MS 186 fol 21r. The Rcciorand
Ja cket: Calligraphy by Ca rol Kcn1p back jacket: ii: p42: l>r. I (derail): I larl 2')04 201v. 13L p43: ti: Fellows of Exl'ter College. Oxford: /I: Petrarch's
Add 4213 f73. BL: Ir: Work1hcer. Author's own Worksheet. Au1hor\ o\\ n copy: tr: Phot0!,'1'.1ph of Annotanon. Auihor's own cop}'
COJl)': tr: Harl 2904 136. 131: ff (</1•t,1il): R eid MS 64 f. Edward John1ron, I lolhurne Mmeum a11d C:r.ith
33. VA: /1: Historia &r/1•,i,1'1ir<1 Gruis .'11(elon1111, COl '1 Study Cemre. 13.uh: ii: Ed"ard Johnston\ Wincl1c\ter Pages 94-95: h alic
Tlb Cll fk BL Formal Writing Shl'ct C.778. Holbu rn c Mml'tllll .111d p94: b: MS LI 485- 1946 Francesco Moro: Alphabet
Crafts Study Ce111re, II.uh 1'.agc, VA p95: 1/: Skrift Katalog, C hri<topher Haanes,
Pages 2- 3 0110; 1r (de111il): MS L1769- 1952 f.113r. VA; b: Lat
p2: Rml MS. 64 f. 33. VA p3: Mctz Ponrifical. early Pages 46-47: Early Gothic Class E38. William Morris manuscript. BO
I.Jth century. MS. 298.f I38v/ h11wi llia111 Mu1eum. p46: r: Winche,1,·r Bihlc. AA: l1r: C07 6131'1. UI
Univcr1i1y ofCambridge p47: /II: .\lt>r.1/it1 illj1>/1. I 1b XVll- XXXV. MS 17J. Pages 102-103: Copperplare
fo 4 I. Biblio1h~que Mu111c1p.1lc dl' Di.Jon: tr: The p 102: <. b: /111• l '1111i·~,1/ />eu111a11, Do\'Cr Pubhcariot1>
Pages 4-5 l'apn Maker, Dowr l'ubhc:.nio111 Inc.. "" Yori.. l11c.. New York p103: 1, rr: 111e l '11i1'f1's11I Pt'lt1111111.
pp4-5: Add 42130 20h· (d,•1J1l). UL Do,•er P11blic.mo11' l11c.. cw York: d: Copperpbte
Pages 50-51: Textura Quadrata workshop. 1·010111,1\ I11dex: b: Coppcrpbte typeface
Pages 6-7: Introduction p50: b: Mctz l'o111ific1l. Earl y 14th ccmury. MS 298 dcsig11. David I l,irri1
1138v/ Fitzwilli.1111 M11'eu111, Univcrsiry ofCJ111lmdgc
p6: 1/: l3em1s of Lit>ban.1. Sp.1111. c.1 no. Scriptorium pSI: t, I {detail): Ch1cl1c,1cr C.1thcdral, I knry VIII Pages 108-109: Imperial Capitals
(ll11hop Shaboum<· .1,l..111g 1lcnry VIII to rn11fin11 thc p108: 1: I cncnn~ from 0111l1ej11s1Shap11~~ ~( Lcum.
111 the l o\\'er of the Mon.1,tcr'Y ofT,1\'ara. The diancr for Ch1chl-;1cr Cathcdr.11). Foroma1 Index: Albrl'chr Diircr. Dm·cr Publicatio111 l11c.. cw York:
b: MS Rawl lnurg.c. 40 fol 40\'/ UO b. < lde1i1i/J: App1a11 War: Inscription. De Luca.
Picrpo111 Morgan Libr.1ry. e;,. York. M.429. f. 183 Rome/IK pl09: t: lnscnp1ion on the B.11c of
Pages 54- 55: Tcxtura P rescisus Colonna Tr.11an,1. Monti. R omc/ IK: b: Tlw Arch
Pages 8-11: The Development ofWestern Script p54: Judgemcm ofSolo111011. The Piapon t Mor~.111 ofConqan1111c, De Luca, Romc/ IK
Lib1·.1ry. •cw York, M.102. f. Iv-2 p55: d (tl1·t11il):
p8: r: Terracona Marker. 111'cnhcd wi1h 0 can \Cripe. Add 42 130 201\', Ill.: r: MS l)ourc 366 fol 154r/ ll0 Pages 124-127: Bibliography & Index
haly. rhc Trmtees of tht• llrnhh Museum. London: p124: I !dew/): MS 2981. Magdalen<.' Colk·gc.
I• (dr"111): Inscription on 1he lhsc of the Colonna Pages 58-59: Gothic Capitals & Versals Cambndge pl26: MS Lu 2° f384 v, 13,•rlm.
Traa.111.1. Monti. Rome IK p9: 1: Charlcmagnl' wnh p58: MS 2981. Sm ofC.1pnak M.1gdalcnc Collcge. Stamb1bhothek 111 Berlin - Preu6ischcr
Cambridge p59: ti: M'> 55 G ,·ol3 F52V. U1ble of~t. Kulturbesm - I b11d1chriftenabteilung
Alcum. l\lbry fa·am l'anur<' I 1br.1ry: b: Msc. Patr. 5 Va.111. Bibliothct1uc Mun1np.1lc cl'Arm: r (tl1·MilJ: M~
f. Iv. ~1.1.mb1bliothek l3.1111b,·rg p I 0: 1 (derail): M 102. 2981. Seti ofC:.1p1tak M.1gd.1le1w Collt·g<'. Special photography:
f. Iv-2. The Picrpom Morgrn L1br.1ry. 1 ew York: b: C.1111bridgc: Iii: MS.8.)- 1972 fl r. Fi11willia111 Michael Dunn ing: p6: tr
f'ro111i,pi<·c,· oftra n<brion of l'l111y\ atural Hi1mry. Musc11n1. U111vc1'\i1y of Ca n1bridgc Peter Hay111.111: p I 7: l>r
147]. Bibl iotcca 1'vkdicca I :llll'l'l17i.ma. Florcncc p 11 :
Pages 62--{)3: Lombardic Capitals Author's acknowledgments:
1: J\.h.l.H 9474. B : b: />l1<>rnix. Drni1 Brown, 1993 p62: b (detail): Wmcl1c,1cr U1blc. Ezekiel. 121h Cl'llllll")'. To my wifl' .111cy who untiringly typed and
AA p63: Larin 12<148 f I''· UN correcied my manuscnpt pages. To M1s1 Pemberton
Pages 16-17: Rustic Capirals and rhl' staff of1hc Bodleian Library for thl'lr kmd
Pages 66-67: Basrard Secretary help beyond 1hc call ofdury. and to L11 Bro" n and
ppl6-17: tr. I ldrtmlJ. b fl/r111rl1: VA r 3867 f.3,., p66: rr: Kant' Mcd1<•vJ I MS 21 folio 6r, Crem•1llc Louise Candl"h of Dorling Ki11dersley "ho stopped
K.111e Collection of Med1ev.1l Manuscript1, me straying wo far fro1n the chosen path. And finally
V,·iwhm Romant11 Ecloi.:;1 11 & 4. Uihliotec,1 M.111u,c1ipr' Di vi1ion. Dcp.1 rtmc111 of Rarc llook, .111d to fami ly and friend, who h;1ve also suffered a little
Apo,iohc.1 V,nican,1/ IK: c M,. Uodl. 218. fol.62r. SpcciJI Collcctio111. l'rn i.t·ton U11ivcrsity Lihr.aric': with me owr 1he Ja,1 years.
BO pl7: i>r: i'<•ter H.1ll id,t)'. Q1101.11ion from Virgil: bl: E Mus 35 f98/ l30 p67: Englill1 Genc111, MS
Eclogu<' VII, 43 x 31.5 cm. 1983. hl.ack ink on Bodley 596 f2r BO Dorling Kinderslcy would like to thank:
Janos Maril)· and S.1lly-A11ne Reawn for 1he1r
cream p.1pcr. tr:msla1ion by tht• 'crihe Pages 70-71: Batardc arrwork1: Richard Uml for the index: Jane Cmer.
p70: 11: MS Doun· 267 L16r/ 130 p71: t, r (1/1•1i1i/J: Stephen Crouchcr.•md Mark Joh111011 J),1,·1es for
Pages 20-21: Square Capicals Je.111 Froissan·1 Chro11idc, 14th ccmury. 131 : bl: cbign al'1't.111ce: Loi I lenderson and Hckn Castle for
p20: u: The Parchnwlt ~ lakcr. Dm·er Publicauon' R oy 16 Gill ffi. Il l editorial aS1i11.111cc: Jo. Simon. Liz, and I ouise for
Inc. ;-.;e\\ York: c: ln;cnpuon .n Jn Sebastiano IK their hand1: .md to Morag Hislop for .111 her hdp.
pp20-2 I: /1 (dm1i/): Pon11tin.1 Con1111is>ione de

Archcologia Sacra/ IK p2 I: t: 1'0111iticia Co111111i1\IOlll'
de Archcologia Sacra/ IK

Pages 24-25: Uncial & Artificial Uncial
p24: r: MS E Mmco 100 t7\'/130: /1: Ceolfrid Bibk
AA p25: 1, I>!detail): COTT VE~I' A I 30\'- 3 I. 131

Pages 28- 31: Insular Majusculc
p28: rhe Book of Kelli MS 58 fol. 4th'. The Board
ofTmury College. Dublin p29: br (dm1i/): Tlw Uook
of Kell, MS 58 fol. 179v, rh,· Bo.1 rd of Triniry

128