101 There are various types of specialized nailers, such as for framing, roofing, and flooring. The framing nail guns are powerful pieces of equipment that fire larger nails. Framers are therefore even more at risk from the mishandling and misuse of nailers. Workers who understand the trigger mechanism can greatly reduce the potential for injury. The trigger has two basic control mechanisms: • Finger trigger • Contact safety tip These trigger mechanisms can be single discharge or multiple discharge when the controls are activated. The safest type of nail gun trigger is the one that only fires a nail when the controls are activated in a certain order. Nails cannot be fired in a bump fire mode but only through a single shot trigger, restricted trigger, or by a trigger fire mode. Nail gun accidents can happen in a variety of manners with different types of triggers. Contact triggers can have a double fire discharge of a second unintended release. If a person has the activation trigger depressed and knows the safety contact, then the nailer will discharge and most likely cause an accident. Nails can also penetrate lumber material and discharge into a person on the other side of the lumber. The nail can ricochet from hitting a wood knot, metal, or other hard surface and strike a nearby worker with the nail. If a worker is in the habit of gripping the nail gun by the trigger when traveling with the unit, it may lead to an accidental discharge of the nail gun. Workers can get injured if a part of the nailer is not working properly or missing altogether. Each worker must check their tools before each shift and prior to each use. This will ensure that all tools and equipment are in proper working order with all safety features working properly. When workers are working in an awkward position, it may be difficult for them to control the application or angle of the nailer. In some cases, the workers might use their body as a brace and put themselves in the line of fire. Tips for Safe Nail Gun Use Use the full sequential trigger nail gun for the safest trigger mechanism. This type of trigger reduces the risk of unintentional nail discharge or double fires. New workers should be restricted to using the full sequential trigger nail guns only until they are fully oriented with other trigger types. All workers that use nail guns must be trained on how to use the tool and its safety features. Hands on training is always the best form of training, so the worker can see how to use the equipment firsthand. OSHA recommends the following training topics:
102 • How nail guns work and how triggers differ. • Main causes of injuries – especially differences among types of triggers. • Instructions provided in manufacturer tool manuals and where the manual is kept. • Hands-on training with the actual nailers to be used on the job. This gives each employee an opportunity to handle the nailer and to get feedback on topics such as: • How to load the nail gun • How to operate the air compressor • How to fire the nail gun • How to hold lumber during placement work • How to recognize and approach ricochet-prone work surfaces • How to handle awkward position work (e.g., toe-nailing and work on ladders) • How best to handle special risks associated with contact and single actuation triggers such as nail gun recoil and double fires. For example, coach new employees on how to minimize double fires by allowing the nail gun to recoil rather than continuing to push against the gun after it fires. • What to do when a nail gun malfunctions. Training should also cover: • Company nail gun work procedures • Personal protective equipment • Injury reporting • First aid and medical treatment Establish nail gun work procedures for workers that: • Include mandatory reviews of the tool operations and maintenance manual • Have O and M manuals onsite for review • Check tools and power source for proper operations and require broken or malfunctioning equipment to be taken out of service immediately • Check lumber surfaces to ensure that there are not knots, nails, hangers, or anything that can impede the nail from going through the material. • Keep hands at least 12 inches away from the point of impact of the nailer. • Disconnect the compressed air when servicing, traveling or clearing a nail jam from the equipment • Analyze the dangers of nail gun work and mitigate as many hazards as possible prior to working in the area. • Provide Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) such as hard hats, high impact eye protection, and hearing protection. • Encourage reporting and discussion of injuries and near misses to help workers learn how to identify hazards. Once the hazards have been identified, the prompt correction of the problem is needed.
103 • Provide first aid and medical treatment for workers at the job location. Getting workers medical care as quickly as possible to limit the impact of the accident. Nail Gun Case Study A carpenter apprentice was killed when he was struck in the head by a nail that was fired from a powder actuated tool. The tool operator, while attempting to anchor a plywood form in preparation for pouring a concrete wall, fired the gun causing the nail to pass through the hollow wall. The nail travelled some twenty-seven feet before striking the victim. The tool operator had never received training in the proper use of the tool, and none of the employees in the area were wearing personal protective equipment. Roofing and Multi-Story Construction Workers must always be aware that a tool or a piece of building material or equipment could accidentally fall from roofs or above-ground building levels. Ensure that workers: • Use safety nets or other protective means when objects can fall on workers below • Use limited access zone guidelines to keep outsiders and non-essential workers from being struck • Install toe boards on scaffolds and walkways when appropriate Always use PPE to protect the face and head when there is a chance of being struck by a falling or flying object at a construction site. During the workday, you can be struck by an unsecured falling roofer’s hammer or by a piece of lumber that accidentally falls through a hole in the floor above your work area. Examples of PPE to be used during building activities include hardhats, face shields, and goggles Working Around Cranes and Hoists It is extremely hazardous to work underneath heavy equipment, especially when it is being operated. Heavy debris can fall from a swinging bucket. A crane can accidentally break something loose and send it flying. If hoists break during use, their loads can tumble down and strike workers. Work must not be performed beneath an elevated, unsecured load at any time. When materials are mechanically lifted, they have the potential to swing and strike workers. As the load is lifted, the materials may swing, twist or turn. This movement can catch workers by surprise and they could be hit by the swinging load. Windy conditions are especially hazardous because the load will swing more. Depending on where the worker is standing and the force behind the load, the worker may fall to another level after being struck and sustain even greater injuries. In addition to swinging, loads can
104 slip from their riggings and strike workers. Loads must be rigged properly to prevent slippage. Always follow these safe practices while working around cranes and hoists: • Never allow employees to work underneath suspended loads • Barricade areas and post warning signs to keep non-essential employees and outsiders away from overhead equipment • Inspect cranes and hoists before each use to ensure components are in good working condition • Never exceed the lifting capacity of cranes and hoists • Watch for tail-swing (the distance from the centerline of rotation to the extreme rear swing arc of the counterweight) • Be aware of the swing radius of cranes and backhoes and do not enter that zone. When operating cranes and hoists during construction work, always: • Secure tools and building materials to keep them from falling or being pushed over • Barricade areas underneath operation and post warning signs • When using hoists for scaffold work, use toe boards, screens, or guardrails to keep materials and tools from falling • Use debris nets or other appropriate safeguards to intercept falling objects The Danger from Constructing Masonry Walls Because of the tremendous weight of a masonry wall or slab, if one collapses on a worker it can cause permanent injury or death. Proper safeguards should be used and all jacks and equipment used to support and position such walls and slabs must be reliably maintained and kept failsafe. Avoiding Struck-By Hazards Related to Masonry Construction Only essential workers should be allowed near this type of operation. To enforce this, set up a limited access zone around operations. Additionally, be sure to: • Have concrete structures checked by qualified persons before placing loads • Adequately shore or brace structures until they are permanently supported • Secure unrolled wire mesh so it cannot recoil • Never load a lifting device beyond its intended capacity Abrasive Wheels and Tools Abrasive wheels and tools may throw off flying fragments, creating a struck-by incident. Many incidents are due do the blade wheel fracturing and flying towards the worker. In a
105 2017 case, OSHA reported an employee of a freight trucking company was working on an abrasive grinding wheel. The wheel broke apart and struck the employee in the right eye. This event lead to an OSHA inspection of the workplace where the organization was cited for a violation in the machine guarding standard for portable power tools. This citation was $11,408 to the employer on top of having an injured worker. Most of the injuries from angle grinders are in the head and face area. The high speed of a disc when broken will cause disfiguring, permanent disabilities or even a fatality. Such injuries occur for many reasons, such as, but not limited to: • The wheel kicking back from the surface it is cutting. This usually will cause the blade to fly back on the operator. • Blade cracks but the guard has been removed causing the blade to fly back and injure the operator. • When the blade is not rated for the grinder, it will shatter causing a shrapnel that will create many foreign body embedment’s or lacerations. • Overhead use of the grinder is associated with fatal intracranial injuries. Equip abrasive wheels with guards that: • Cover the spindle end, nut, and flange projections • Maintain proper alignment with the wheel • Do not exceed the strength of the fastening • Guard so that a minimal amount of the wheel is exposed Before mounting an abrasive wheel, inspect it closely for damage and perform a sound or ring test to ensure that the wheel is free from cracks or defects. To perform a ring test, tap the wheel gently with a light, non-metallic instrument. If the wheel sounds dull or dead, do not use it—it is likely cracked and could fly apart. Keep in mind that this test is most accurate if the abrasive wheel is suspended and not held. By holding the wheel too firmly, you could possibly alter the sound, giving off a false indicator of defects. To prevent an abrasive wheel from cracking: • Fit the wheel on the spindle freely • Tighten the spindle nut enough to hold the wheel in place without distorting the flange • Let the tool come up to speed prior to grinding or cutting • Don’t stand in front of the wheel as it comes up to full speed • Use eye and/or face protection while operating wheel The following information applies to abrasive wheel work rests: • Keep work rests not more than 1/8th inch from wheel surface. This minimizes the chance of jamming the work between the wheel and the rest, which may cause the wheel to break.
106 • Don’t adjust the wheel while it is rotating. Additional safe operating tips for angle grinders is as follows: • Use the correct disc size for the wheel’s rpm • Remove cracked or chipped discs from service • Stop using if vibration is very apparent • Keep the guard in place • Don’t us an angle grinder above your head. Stand next to the plane of the cutting wheel • Always wear gloves, goggles, face-shields and hard hats when operating the equipment Lesson Summary There are many ways to protect workers from being struck by objects and equipment. Two important general rules to follow are to never put anyone between moving or fixed objects, and to always wear bright, highly visible clothing when working near equipment and vehicles. Many struck-by accidents are associated with vehicles, falling or flying objects, and masonry walls. For example, workers are at risk from falling objects when they are required to work in the vicinity of cranes, scaffolds, and overhead electrical lines. There is also danger from flying objects when using power tools or during activities like pushing, pulling, or prying that can cause objects to become airborne. A road closure program that employs traffic control devices and/or signage must be used whenever work will be done on or near an active roadway. Flying or falling objects can also roll off rooftops or be accidentally kicked off walkways or scaffold platforms if not properly constrained. Depending on the situation, injuries from being struck by flying or falling objects range from minor ones like bruises to severe ones like blindness or death. Because improper operation of heavy vehicles and equipment poses a life-threatening danger to construction workers, always follow safe practices to minimize injuries and save lives. Lesson 6: Caught-in-between Hazards Lesson Focus At the end of this lesson, students will be able to: • Explain what a caught-in-between hazard is • Identify common construction-site caught-in-between hazards • Prevent caught-in-between hazards
107 What is the ‘Caught-in-between’ Hazard? In this lesson we will discuss situations in which workers can be caught-in-between equipment, moving loads, or even safety guards. This hazard exists in many of the situations where struck-by hazards also exist. For instance, a worker can be caught-inbetween a falling slab and a concrete foundation or a worker can be caught (or pinned) in between a vehicle and a structure. Also, workers can be caught-in-between the sides of a collapsed trench that is not properly braced, or warehoused construction materials that were not correctly stacked to prevent sliding. The key factor in making a determination between a Caught-in-between event and a Struck-by event is whether the impact of the object alone caused the injury. When the impact alone creates the injury; the event should be recorded as Struck-by. When the injury is created more as a result of crushing injuries between objects, the event should be recorded as Caught-in-between. In 2016, there were 72 construction deaths that were reportedly caused by a caught-inbetween event. The recognized hazards related to caught-in-between accidents usually arise from: • Cranes and Heavy Equipment • Tools and Equipment • Material Handling • Trenching and Excavations Common Construction Site Caught-in-Between Hazards When workers are not paying attention to their body position in relation to a caught-inbetween hazard, they may place themselves between an immovable object and a moveable one. Sometimes, the worksite has limited access and pathways between staging materials. In such a situation, the workers may find themselves squeezing between a loaded forklift and pallets of materials. If the forklift operator loses his focus for even a second, the workers walking between the two loads can be crushed. A clear walking path must be established with the workers being trained to keep that path free from heavy equipment. Cranes and Heavy Equipment Cranes and heavy equipment can cause a variety of injuries to the workers in a dangerous location. Workers must never place their bodies between the tracks and the super structure of a crane. Though it is the closest area to communicate with the driver, it is an extremely dangerous location. The crane operator and the personnel must have alternative means of communication to avoid this practice.
108 Workers that place themselves between a fixed object such as a wall and have heavy equipment operating behind them or next to them are also in the line of fire. If a backhoe operator is starting an excavation next to the wall where the person is standing, then the possibility of an accident becomes greater. When a crane is actively moving a load from one area to the next, it produces a swing radius for the rotating part of the equipment with the load. The individual that is within the swing radius of the crane can be struck-by the load or, if the load drops, they can be caught-in-between the material and the ground. It is important that workers always keep a safe distance from the equipment to avoid having their feet or legs crushed by being rolled over. Some workers get caught up in the job and forget the boundaries that must be maintained between equipment, vehicles, and themselves. It is common for individuals to cross the path of a skip loader or backhoe and get their feet crushed by the equipment. In the construction standard 1926.1424, OSHA requires work area controls for a swing radius hazard where there are accessible areas in which the equipment’s rotating superstructure (whether permanently or temporarily mounted) poses a reasonable risk of striking and injuring an employee, or pinching or crushing the employee against any part of the equipment. The work area must be marked off to indicate the area that is off limits to anyone on the construction site not authorized or trained to recognize the hazards within that swing arm radius. Additionally, the general public must be restricted from entering the construction site, especially around cranes and derricks with an active load. Tools and Equipment Most tools and equipment that are not used per the manufacturer’s recommendations can lead to a hazardous condition. Portable power tools and bench tools often have guards taken off by workers for reasons that are behaviorally driven. Workers may feel that they are able to see the work better, so they remove the guard on the equipment, creating a new hazard. When a guard is missing, it becomes easier for loose clothing, gloves, or jewelry to get caught up in the rotating parts of the equipment. Once that occurs the speed of most equipment will snag the loose item and pull it into the machinery. In the event of that happening, it becomes more difficult to pull out the part of the body that the loose item is attached to. That could lead the worker into a crushing injury. It is best practice to never place hands or the body parts near the moving parts of a tool. The construction manager should have a daily inspection of the integrity of the equipment that is on the construction site. Each person that uses the equipment must also keep a log of when it was checked and if there are issues such a broken parts or
109 missing safety functions. This will ensure a regular check of the equipment and help in avoiding any future caught-in-between accidents. Material handling Workers must use extreme caution when moving material from one location to another. It is common to see workers “stabilizing” a load by placing their hands on the material as it is traveling by crane or rough terrain forklifts. This practice can lead to being crushed by the load if there is a shift due to road conditions, driver error, or poor rigging. Workers that have to guide a load in anyway must not use their own hands on the load, but rather should employ an approved tag line or guide line. The proper stacking and storing of material is important too, because the worker that is walking next to the load will be more susceptible to getting trapped under the load if there is a shift in its balance. A clear walking path for pedestrians is needed to ensure that if any material tips and falls, it will not land on a worker. Storage of materials must be in a manner that will aid in the stability of the product. They must be stacked or interlocked in a way as to not create a falling object hazard. The height of the material also matters as to the stability of the cargo. If the product is too high, then it will be easier for it to tip one side or the next. This can lead to someone getting trapped underneath the load. Workers must be ever mindful to not position themselves in a way that will pin them against an immovable structure. Hazard recognition tools and training will ensure employees can anticipate and avoid such situations. A system of near miss reporting can bring to light any conditions that may be hazardous and cause a debilitating injury. Masonry and Stone Work The hazards associated with handling concrete slabs include being caught-in-between slabs if they fall or shift onto a worker. Some caught-in-between hazards have also been documented while transporting granite and marble slabs. During loading, transport, and unloading of these slabs, the loads have been known to shift and tip over. Workers can either be caught-in-between slabs or they can be struck by shifting or falling slabs. Jacking equipment must be capable of supporting at least two and one-half times the load being lifted during jacking operations, and the equipment must not be overloaded. Lifting inserts that are embedded or otherwise attached to tilt-up wall panels must be capable of supporting at least two times the maximum intended load applied or transmitted to them. Lifting inserts for other pre-cast members, excluding tilt-up members, must be capable of supporting four times the load. Lifting hardware members must be capable of supporting five times the maximum intended load applied to the lifting hardware.
110 Erected shoring equipment must be inspected immediately before, during, and after concrete placement. All base plates, shore heads, extension devices, and adjustment screws must be in firm contact, and secured when necessary, with the form and foundation. Shoring equipment that is found to be damaged or weakened after erection must be reinforced immediately. Vehicles We have already discussed the need to equip vehicles with backup alarms or provide flaggers when drivers do not have a clear view to the rear. It is bad enough if a worker is struck by a vehicle, but if he or she is also pinned or caught-in-between another stationary surface, there is a high likelihood that life or limb will be lost. Blind spots on construction vehicles must always be checked for. When a vehicle is large and has an enclosed cap, it can make blind areas around the equipment which are hard to see. This can be hazardous for ground workers and pedestrians, specifically on roadway work zones. Trenches If a trench collapses on a worker, he or she may be caught in the rubble. In addition to the collapse hazard, at times a backhoe may be used to lower material like a precast pipe section into a trench with a worker present. In this case he or she may be adequately protected by remaining in a trench box while the backhoe is operated. If a trench worker was to stand directly between the hoisting path and the trench box wall, he/she would be vulnerable to both the struck-by and caught-in-between hazards. However, if a long trench box (or several adjoining ones) was provided and the worker was far enough away from the backhoe and hoisting path to eliminate a struck-by or caught-in-between hazard, then he or she could safely remain in the trench box. Preventing Caught-in-between Hazards Engineering controls like shoring, fall protection systems, and properly stacking building materials can help prevent caught-in-between hazards. Some strongly recommended safety practices include: • Never allow workers to enter an unprotected trench (or excavation) that is 5 feet or deeper unless an adequate protective system is in place; in many cases, trenches less than 5 feet deep may also require such a system. • Ensure the trench (or excavation) is adequately protected by sloping, shoring, benching, or trench shield systems. • Follow fall protection guidelines per 1926.502, Subpart M. • Always properly stack building materials so they are clear of work areas and so they do not suddenly shift or slide onto a worker.
111 Trenches Trenches 5 feet or deeper must be protected using any of the following protective systems, designed or verified by a competent person and/or engineer: • Sloping • Shoring • Benching • Trench Shield Systems In many cases, even trenches that are less than 5 feet deep must be secured. Protective systems are used to ensure that trenches do not collapse onto workers. Guardrails and Suspended Load Clearances Guardrail requirements can actually create a hazard at the leading edge of installed floor or roof sections by creating the potential for employees to be caught-in-between guardrails and suspended loads. Ensure there is an allowance for a clear workspace or path through which to guide any suspended load into position for placement and welding of members. Operational plans must always allow for adequate work areas in which to move suspended loads. Stacking Building Materials Building materials must be stacked in such a way as to prevent their toppling over. Always allow enough space around stacks of materials or wide walkways to allow workers to quickly move out of the way in case materials slide or are accidentally pushed over.
112 Activity Lesson Summary Operational plans must always allow for adequate work areas in which to move suspended loads. While guardrails are a critical engineering control used to protect workers from falling, they can pose a caught-in-between hazard under certain circumstances. Guardrail requirements can actually create a hazard at the leading edge of installed floors or roof sections by creating a possibility of employees being caught in between guardrails and suspended loads. Because workers can also be caught in between the sides of a collapsed trench that is not properly braced, or warehoused construction materials which were not correctly stacked to prevent sliding, engineering and workplace controls like shoring, fall protection systems, and properly stacking building materials are essential to keep workers safe.
113 Module 3: Personal Protective Equipment Module Description This module will provide employers and employees alike with knowledge concerning the proper selection, care, and use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). They also will be informed of the requirements for compliance with OSHA requirements. Module Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to: • Describe the role of PPE in controlling exposure to hazards in the workplace • Identify parts of the body most vulnerable to injury and name hazards associated with each • Describe the appropriate PPE to be worn for worker safety Lesson 1: Introduction to Personal Protective Equipment Lesson Focus At the end of this lesson, students will be able to: • Explain what personal protective equipment is and why it is used • Explain OSHA’s personal protective equipment standards • List the employer’s responsibilities • List the employee’s Responsibilities What Is Personal Protective Equipment? Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as "PPE", is equipment worn to minimize exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace injuries and illnesses. These injuries and illnesses may result from contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other workplace hazards. Personal protective equipment may include items such as gloves, safety glasses and shoes, earplugs or muffs, hard hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests, and full body suits. All personal protective equipment should be safely designed and constructed, and should be maintained in a clean and reliable fashion. It should fit comfortably, encouraging worker use. If the personal protective equipment does not fit properly, it can make the difference between being safely covered or dangerously exposed. When engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are not feasible or do not provide sufficient protection, employers must provide personal protective equipment to
114 their workers and ensure its proper use. Employers are also required to train each worker required to use personal protective equipment to know: • When it is necessary • What kind is necessary • How to properly put it on, adjust, wear and take it off • The limitations of the equipment • Proper care, maintenance, useful life, and disposal of the equipment If PPE is to be used, a PPE program should be implemented. This program should address the hazards present; the selection, maintenance, and use of PPE; the training of employees; and monitoring of the program to ensure its ongoing effectiveness. Personal Protective Equipment Standards The Occupational Safety and Health Administration requires that, when necessary, employers establish and administer an effective Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) program for employees in order to reduce the effects of workplace hazard exposure and, as a result, the workplace accident rate. OSHA Requires: “Protective equipment, including personal protective equipment for eyes, face, head, and extremities, protective clothing, respiratory devices, and protective shields and barriers, shall be provided, used, and maintained in a sanitary and reliable condition wherever it is necessary by reason of hazards of processes or environment, chemical hazards, radiological hazards, or mechanical irritants encountered in a manner capable of causing injury or impairment in the function of any part of the body through absorption, inhalation or physical contact.” [1926.95(a)] Payment for PPE When PPE is required to protect employees, it must be provided by the employer at no cost to the employees, except for specific items, including: • Safety-toe footwear, including steel-toe shoes or steel-toe boots, not limited to the worksite • Prescription safety eyewear • Everyday clothing and weather-related gear and • Logging boots Employer Responsibilities Hazard Assessment The employer must assess the workplace to determine if hazards are present, or likely to be present, that may necessitate the use of personal protective equipment. While an employer's first responsibility upon identification of a workplace hazard is to eliminate it
115 through the use of engineering controls and administrative controls, PPE often is the final solution for remaining hazards. Physical Hazards Physical hazards include: • Repetitive or awkward motion • High and low temperatures • Light radiation • Welding • Brazing • Heat treating • High intensity lighting • Falling objects • Sharp objects • Sources of rolling or pinching objects • Electric hazards • Hazardous floor conditions Health Hazards Health hazards include: • Types of chemicals an employee could be exposed to • Harmful dusts, fumes, and mists • Radiation • Noise Selection of PPE The selection of personal protective equipment depends on the hazard the worker needs to be protected against, the level of hazard present, and the availability of suitable equipment. Individual components of clothing and equipment should be assembled to both protect the worker from the specific hazard, as well as minimize any hazards (such as tripping) that might arise from the PPE itself. PPE should, wherever possible, be provided for the exclusive use of a single employee. Periodic reevaluation of the selection is necessary in order to deal with changes in workplace conditions or wearer activities. The type of PPE selected is very important; different brands of PPE should be tried by workers to get the best possible protection. For example, using the wrong types of gloves to work with solvents can lead to ineffective protection.
116 Training The employer must provide training to each employee using PPE. This training should include at least the following: • When and why PPE is necessary • What PPE is required for certain jobs • How to properly put on, take off, adjust, and wear PPE • The limitations of the PPE • The proper care, maintenance, useful life, and disposal of PPE • How damaged, worn out, or defective PPE can be replaced Maintenance All PPE should be inspected for tears, leaks, punctures, breaks, contamination, or signs of wear before use. Damaged or defective equipment should not be used. PPE should be stored carefully and kept clean to prevent damage. Contaminated PPE that cannot be decontaminated should be disposed of properly. Recordkeeping The employer must maintain records of the workplace hazard assessment and employee training. Employee Responsibilities Employees are responsible for the following: • Attending all required training sessions regarding PPE • Wearing PPE as required and trained • Cleaning, maintaining, and caring for PPE as required and trained • Reporting potential hazards they identify to their supervisors • Informing their supervisors or safety managers of the need to repair or replace PPE • Following all warnings and precautions. • Listening to and following directions from supervisors or safety managers Case Study This accident occurred in a cellophane-tape manufacturing factory during work to wash a drum that contained an adhesive. The victim, who was on the night shift, was working with a group leader to monitor the machine that applies a coat of adhesive and to conduct sampling inspections. While they were taking turns working in thirty-minute
117 shifts, the victim did not return to work after a break. When the group leader searched for the victim, he found him unconscious, having fallen head-first into an empty drum that previously contained adhesive. Although the victim was immediately taken to the hospital for emergency treatment, he never regained consciousness. It was discovered that a group leader on the day shift had washed the drum with toluene, before the task was transferred to the night shift workers at the time of the shift-change meeting. What do you think went wrong? • Ventilation was not used at a site where toluene was used. • The victim bent forward to wash the inside of the drum that still contained toluene vapor. • The victim did not use a respirator during the washing work. Lesson Summary • Personal protective equipment, commonly known as PPE, is worn to minimize exposure to hazards, such as those resulting from chemical, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other sources. • Common examples of PPE in construction include gloves, safety glasses, safety shoes, earplugs, earmuffs, hard hats, respirators, coveralls, vests, and body suits. • All PPE should fit comfortably. If it does not fit properly, it may expose workers to hazards. • Employers are responsible for the following: o Establishing a PPE program o Paying for necessary PPE for workers o Assessing the worksite for hazards o Selecting the most appropriate PPE o Training workers and supervisors on how to properly select and use PPE on the worksite o Maintaining PPE in good working condition o Keeping records of workplace hazard assessments and the necessary control methods, including PPE • Employees are responsible for the following: o Attending all required training sessions regarding PPE o Wearing PPE as required and trained o Cleaning, maintaining, and caring for PPE as required and trained o Reporting potential hazards they identify to their supervisors o Informing their supervisors or safety managers of the need to repair or replace PPE o Following all warnings and precautions. o Listening to and following directions from supervisors or safety managers
118 Lesson 2: Eye, Face, and Respiratory Protection Lesson Focus At the end of this lesson, students will be able to: • Describe proper eye and face protection as required by OSHA • Describe proper respiratory protection as required by OSHA Eye and Face Protection Every day an estimated 1,000 eye injuries occur in American workplaces. The financial cost of these injuries is enormous—more than $300 million per year is lost in production time, medical expenses, and workers compensation. However, no dollar figure can adequately reflect the personal toll these accidents take on injured workers and their families. Providing adequate, proper eye and face protection is crucial to a safe worksite. What contributes to eye injuries at work? • Not wearing eye protection: The BLS reports that nearly three out of every five workers injured were not wearing eye protection at the time of their accidents. • Wearing the wrong kind of eye protection for the job: About 40% of the injured workers were wearing some form of eye protection when the accident occurred, but often, it was not the correct eye protection for the job being done. What causes eye injuries at work? • Flying Particles: The BLS found that almost 70% of the accidents studied resulted from flying or falling objects or sparks striking the eye. Injured workers estimated that nearly three-fifths of the objects were smaller than pin heads. Most of the particles were said to be traveling faster than hand-thrown objects when accidents occurred. • Contact with Chemicals: Chemicals caused one-fifth of the injuries. • Other accidents: Miscellaneous accidents were caused by objects swinging from a fixed or attached position—like tree limbs, ropes, chains, or tools pulled into an eye while a worker was using them. Where do accidents occur most often? Potential eye hazards can be found in nearly every industry, but BLS reported that more than 40% of injuries occurred among craft workers, like mechanics, repairers, carpenters, and plumbers.
119 Over a third of the 40% injured operated machinery, such as assemblers, sanders, and grinding machine operators. Laborers suffered about one-fifth of the eye injuries. Almost half the injured workers were employed in manufacturing; slightly more than 20% were in construction. How can eye injuries be prevented? • Always wear effective eye protection: To be effective, eyewear must be appropriate for the hazard and also must be properly fitted. All eyeprotective equipment provided by an employer must meet ANSI Z-87.1 standards. (American National Standards Institute) • Better training and education: The BLS reported that most workers were hurt while doing their regular jobs. Workers injured while not wearing protective eyewear most often said they believed it was not required by the situation. Even though the vast majority of employers furnished eye protection at no cost to employees, about 40% of the workers received no information on when and what kind of eyewear should be used. • Maintenance: Eye protection devices must be properly maintained. Scratched and dirty devices reduce vision, cause glare, and may contribute to accidents. Eyewash Stations Any time workers may be exposed to corrosive materials, employers must provide facilities for drenching or flushing the eyes and body. These facilities should be within the work are itself so that they can be accessed immediately in case of an emergency. To that end, eyewash stations should be located no more than 10 seconds away from the hazard area, meaning that workers should be able to reach one within 10 seconds of an accident. They should be located on the same level as the source of the hazard and the path of travel should be free of obstructions. The emergency equipment location should be well lit and identified with a highly visible sign. If employees accidentally get something into their eyes, they must go directly to the eyewash station and flush their eyes with water for at least 15 minutes. They should hold the eyelids open and "look" directly into the water streams. They should NOT rub their eyes. Rubbing the eyes may scratch or embed particles. Employees should seek medical attention immediately. Eye and Face Protectors Common forms of eye and face protection include: • Safety glasses [spectacles] are protective eyewear with safety frames and impact-resistant lenses, as well as built-in side shields or in
120 some cases removable side shields. Safety glasses provide impact protection and do not typically provide protection against liquid splashes, mists, or vapors. If they do provide protection against those hazards, they will be marked as a splash protector. Always check safety glasses for marks reading “ANSI/ISEA Z87” which indicate they provide appropriate impact protection. • Goggles are fitted eye protection that completely encloses the eyes and facial area immediately surrounding the eyes. Goggles of soft, pliable body design provide adequate eye protection from many hazards including impact, dust, mists, vapors, and splashes. These goggles are available with clear or tinted lenses and perforated, port vented, or non-vented frames. Goggles with direct ventilation typically are used for impact hazards and dusts, not for protection against chemical splashes or vapors. Goggles with indirect ventilation can be used for protection from dusts and splash hazards. Those with no ventilation can provide protection from impact, dusts, splashes, mists and vapors. Single lens goggles provide similar protection to spectacles and may be worn in combination with spectacles or corrective lenses to ensure protection along with proper vision. Check the goggle lens and body for specific “ANSI/ISEA Z87” marks indicating they provide appropriate impact protection. • Face shields may be used in operations when the entire face needs protection and should be worn to protect the eyes and face against flying particles and metal sparks. Specifically designed shields also provide protection from chemical and biological splashes. Wearing a face shield does not necessarily protect from impact hazards. Face shields may be lifted away from the face, so the wearer should put on safety glasses under the face shield to protect the eyes when the face shield is in the raised position. • Welding shields with eye shields are designed to protect users from the visible and invisible (ultraviolet and infrared) rays a welding arc emits. Tinted shields should be provided to protect workers' eyes and face from infrared or radiant light burns, flying sparks, metal spatter, and slag chips encountered during welding, brazing, soldering, resistance welding, bare or shielded electric arc welding and oxyacetylene welding and cutting operations. Workers should protect their eyes from welding light by wearing a welder's helmet fitted with a filter shade that is suitable for the type of welding work they are doing. Tinted lenses are available in varying shades or degrees of tinting, and it's the employer's responsibility to provide the appropriate lenses for the hazard to be encountered.
121 Training Employers must provide adequate training for all supervisors and workers who require eye and face protection to protect from any hazards or other conditions identified in the PPE Hazard Assessment. Training should include: • Proper selection, fit, and use of eye and face protection • Inspection and maintenance of eye and face protection • How and where to obtain protective eyewear and replacements if necessary • The manufacturer’s instructions, warnings, cautions, and equipment limitations Safe Work Practices To ensure safe work practices are followed, employees must: • Read and follow all warnings and precautions that may be found on equipment and hazardous materials • Avoid throwing tools or participating in horseplay • Keep sharp or pointed objects away from his or her eyes • Follow the supervisor's or safety manager's suggestions and recommendations for working safely Respiratory Protection Inhalation is one of the most common ways the dangerous particles often found on a construction site can enter the human body. To avoid the hazards associated with inhaling such particles, workers and employers should use four basic methods: • Substitution involves replacing the hazardous material or process with a non-hazardous or less hazardous one. • Engineering controls include enclosing the process so that contaminants do not get into the workspace, improving the ventilation, and changing the equipment or processes. • Administrative controls include restricting access to contaminated areas, limiting the total time workers are exposed, and establishing housekeeping procedures to control exposure. • Personal protective equipment includes respirators. PPE should always be the last resort for protecting workers. In some cases, however, respirators are the only effective means of protection available.
122 OSHA requires employers to use engineering control measures and/or substitution of less toxic materials to control inhalation hazards where feasible. When effective engineering controls are not feasible, or while they are being instituted, appropriate respirators should be used. In any workplace where respirators are necessary to protect the health of employees, or whenever respirators are required by the employer, the employer should establish and implement a written respiratory protection program with worksite-specific procedures. What is a Respirator and When is it Needed? A respirator is a protective device that covers the worker's nose and mouth or the entire face and head to keep airborne contaminants out of the worker's respiratory system and to provide a safe air supply. There are two major categories of respirators: • Air Purifying Respirators use a filter to purify the air as the worker breathes it in. Examples include: o Disposable Particulate Masks o Half Mask Respirators o Full Face Mask Respirators o Gas Masks o Powered Air Purifying Respirators • Supplied Air Respirators use a supply line of fresh air or oxygen from a tank. Examples include: o Airline Respirators o Emergency Escape Breathing Apparatus o Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) Selecting the Correct Respirator The first step in selecting the correct respirator is to determine the level of hazard that is posed by the environment in which work will be done. There are five questions that are used to determine that level: • What type of contaminant is present? • What is the form of the contaminant? • How toxic is the contaminant? • What is the concentration of the contaminant? • What will be the length and duration of the exposure? Employees should always work with their supervisor or safety professional to determine the correct answers to these questions, which help select the appropriate NIOSHcertified respirator for the conditions present. Without the technical knowledge to make correct decisions, it's best to consult with an industrial hygienist or safety professional who is trained to provide professional guidance on proper respirator selection and use.
123 Before an employer provides any employee with a respirator to protect the health of the employee to use in a workplace, the employer must create a formal written respiratory protection program and have every employee who will wear a respirator medically evaluated by a licensed healthcare professional. The program must contain the requirements for program administration, worksite-specific procedures, respirator selection, employee training, fit testing, medical evaluation, and respirator use, cleaning, maintenance, and repair. An employer may provide respirators at the request of employees or permit employees to use their own respirators, if the employer determines that such respirator use will not in itself create a hazard. If the employer determines that any voluntary respirator use is allowed, the employer shall provide the respirator users with the information contained in Appendix D, "Information for Employees Using Respirators When Not Required Under the Standard" Medical Evaluation Workers assigned to tasks that require respirator use must be physically able to perform the work while using the respirator. A medical evaluation must be performed by a physician or other licensed health care practitioner (PLHCP) by using a medical questionnaire [Appendix C of the OSHA standard] or by a medical examination that provides the same information as the questionnaire. This evaluation must be done before the employee is fit tested and uses the respirator in the workplace. Fit Testing Not all respirators fit everyone. Different types of respirators and even different brands of the same type of respirator have different fits. Employers must provide a sufficient number of respirator models and sizes to ensure that every employee can select an acceptable respirator that fits properly. Additionally, tight-fitting respirators cannot provide proper protection without a tight seal between the facepiece and the wearer’s face. Therefore, fit testing is required for tightfitting facepiece respirators before a worker uses one for protection. A respirator fit test checks whether a respirator properly seals and fits the face of someone who wears. The fit can be tested in two ways: qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative fit testing involves using a harmless odoriferous or irritating substance in the breathing zone while the respirator being worn. If no odor or irritation is detected by the wearer, this indicates a proper fit. Quantitative fit testing uses a machine to measure respirator fit. The fit testing instrument numerically measures the amount of leakage into the respirator while the wearer performs exercises that could cause facepiece leakage. If no leakage is detected, this indicates a proper fit.
124 Inspection before Use Every time an employee uses a respirator, he or she must first inspect it. The facepiece, headband, valves, connecting tube, fittings, and any cartridges, canisters or filters must be in good condition to provide proper protection. To properly inspect a respirator before using it, one should look for: • Chips or cracks in the faceplate • Cracks or holes in the breathing tube or airlines • Worn or frayed straps • Worn or damaged fittings • Bent or corroded buckles • Dirty or improperly seated valves Give special attention to rubber or plastic parts that can deteriorate or lose pliability. If you find anything wrong with your respirator, do not use it! Have it repaired or replaced immediately. Training Training is essential for correct respirator use. Employees must know how to properly select, use, and maintain respirators. Training must include an explanation of the following: Why respirator use is necessary; Nature of the respiratory hazard and consequences of not fitting, using, and maintaining the respirator properly; Reason(s) for selecting a particular type of respirator; Capabilities and limitations of the selected respirator; How to inspect, put on and remove, and check the seals of the respirator; Respirator maintenance and storage requirements; Donning (putting on) a Respirator When donning a respirator, workers should read the manufacturer's instructions carefully. They must be able to demonstrate proper donning of the respirator to their supervisor or to a safety professional. When using a tight-fitting respirator, the wearer must perform a user seal check to ensure that an adequate seal is created each time the respirator is put on. This involves conducting positive and negative pressure checks based on the manufacturer's recommendation. • To conduct a positive pressure check, close off the exhalation valve and exhale gently into the facepiece. The face fit is considered satisfactory if a slight positive pressure can be built up inside the facepiece without any evidence of outward leakage of air at the seal. • To conduct a negative pressure check, close off the inlet opening of the canister or cartridge(s) by covering with the palm of the hand(s) or
125 by replacing the filter seal(s), inhale gently so that the facepiece collapses slightly, and hold the breath for ten seconds. If the facepiece remains in its slightly collapsed condition and no inward leakage of air is detected, the tightness of the respirator is considered satisfactory. IMPORTANT: User seal checks are not substitutes for qualitative or quantitative fit tests! Case Study This accident occurred during work to lift a drain pump through a manhole in a sewerage construction worksite. The work was to replace the pipes for rainwater. As another drain pump became necessary, it was decided to use the drain pump from another manhole in which work was almost completed. Accordingly, two workers opened the cover of the manhole and entered, using a ladder. After a short while, a colleague who was going to the material shed spotted the two workers lying at the bottom when he looked into the manhole. He raised an alarm with other workers, one of whom ran to the spot, entered the manhole, and called out to them but received no answer. Immediately afterwards, this worker also collapsed. Although the three were taken to a hospital by a rescue team, the first two workers died and the would-be rescuer was hospitalized with brain damage caused by hypoxia (a lack of oxygen). The two fatalities were attributed to anoxia (meaning, without oxygen) inside the manholes. What do you think were some of the causes? • Although survey results had been provided by the client, neither the general contractor nor the subcontractor assessed the worksite as presenting the hazard of anoxia. • The employer and supervisor failed to measure the oxygen content of the hole and to carry out ventilation measures before allowing any employee to enter. • The project should have been declared a Permit Required, Confined Space, and all elements of OSHA's standard for PRCS should have been implemented. • Neither special education nor rescue training concerning work at sites with the danger of anoxia was provided to workers.
126 Lesson Summary • To be effective, eyewear must be appropriate for the encountered hazard and also be fitted properly. All eye-protective equipment provided by an employer must meet ANSI standards. • Not wearing eye protection and wearing the wrong kind of eye protection for the job are common factors in eye injuries on the job. Causes of eye injuries include flying particles, contact with chemicals, and objects swinging from a fixed or attached position. • Eye injuries be prevented with: o Effective eye protection o Better training and education o Maintenance o Face and eye protection includes: o Goggles o Face shields o Welding shields • Because many substances that are health hazards can become airborne, knowing how to protect workers is very important. A respirator is a protective device that covers the worker's nose and mouth or the entire face and head to keep airborne contaminants out of the worker's respiratory system and to provide a safe air supply. There are two major categories of respirators: air purifying respirators and supplied air respirators. o Every time an employee uses a respirator, he or she must first inspect it. o When necessary, workers must be able to demonstrate proper donning and doffing of respirators. If you find anything wrong with a respirator, do not use it; instead, have it repaired or replaced immediately. Lesson 3: Head, Hand, Face, and Foot Protection Lesson Focus At the end of this lesson, students will be able to: • Explain why head protection is important • Identify potential hazards • Explain why occupational noise is dangerous and identify its sources • Explain why hand protection is important • Explain why foot protection is important
127 Why Head Protection is Important Injuries to the head can be very serious. Even a relatively minor cut on the head can bleed a great deal. Impact forces on the head can lead to concussions and brain damage. Additionally, other areas of potentially severe injury, such as the eyes and ears, are located on the head. This means that damage to the head has the potential to create a variety of different injuries simultaneously. Constructions sites in particular are full of opportunities for head injuries. Impact to the head from a falling object or passing vehicle, for example, could cause neck sprains, concussions, or skull fractures. Electric shock could cause burns or other injuries. Confined spaces and exposed supports offer opportunities for workers to bang their heads. How Hard Hats Protect an Employee's Head Employees working in areas where there is a possible danger of head injury from impact, falling or flying objects, or electrical shocks and burns, must be protected by hard hats. Employers must provide hard hats that meet the appropriate ANSI standards. They must protect an employee's head with a rigid shell that resists and deflects blows to the head and a suspension system inside the hat that acts as a shock absorber. Some hats serve as insulators against electrical shocks. Hard hats may also shield the scalp, face, neck, and shoulders against splashes, spills, and drips. Some hard hats are constructed so that face shields, goggles, hoods, or hearing protection can be added. A daily inspection of the hard hat shell, suspension system and other accessories for holes, cracks, tears or other damage that might compromise the protective value of the hat is essential. Consult the helmet manufacturer for information on inspecting and using a hard hat.
128 https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention/ppe/headwear.html Note: OSHA does not specify when an employer must provide hard hats. It's up to each employer to make that determination based on the hazards of the workplace and through the required completion of a proper hazard assessment. Why Noise Protection is Important Noise is a common problem in many workplaces. Research has shown that high levels of noise will damage your hearing. Losing your hearing is typically a gradual process and is less noticeable than other types of workplace injuries. It is, however, a permanent handicap for those who are affected. Remember the four "P"s of hearing loss: it is painless, permanent, progressive, and usually preventable. Determining the need to provide hearing protection for employees can be challenging. Employee exposure to excessive noise depends upon a number of factors, including: • The loudness of the noise as measured in decibels (dB) • The duration of each employee’s exposure to the noise • Whether employees move between work areas with different noise levels • Whether noise is generated from one or multiple sources OSHA’s hearing conservation program requires employers to monitor noise exposure levels in a way that accurately identifies employees exposed to noise at or above 85 decibels (dB) averaged over 8 working hours, or an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA). When an employer determines the "Action Level" of 85 dBs has been reached, they must create a formal written hearing conservation program. Hearing Protection Devices Many types of hearing protection devices are available. Popular types of hearing protection devices, along with their proper care instructions, are the following: • Foam Earplugs: When not using your foam earplugs, store them in a clean, cool, dry place. If your foam earplugs become soiled, torn, or stiff, discard them and ask your supervisor or safety manager for a new pair. • PVC Earplugs: When not using your PVC earplugs, store them in a clean, cool, dry place. If your PVC earplugs become soiled, you can clean them according to the manufacturer's guidelines. If your PVC earplugs become torn or brittle, discard them and ask your supervisor or safety manager for a new pair.
129 • Earmuffs: When not using your earmuffs, store them in a clean, cool, dry place. Always inspect your earmuffs for cracks around the foam cups. If your earmuffs are damaged, have them repaired immediately or ask your supervisor or safety manager for a new pair. Why Hand Protection is Important A number of disabling accidents on the job involve the hands. Without your fingers or hands, your ability to work would be greatly reduced. Human hands are unique. No other creature in the world has hands that can grasp, hold, move, and manipulate objects quite like ours. They are one of your greatest assets and, as such, must be protected and cared for. Potential Hazards to the Hand • Traumatic Injuries: An employee can suffer a traumatic injury to his or her hands in many ways: o Tools and machines with sharp edges can cut hands. o Staples, screwdrivers, nails, chisels and stiff wire can puncture hands. o Getting your hands caught in machinery can sprain, crush or remove your hands and fingers. • Contact Injuries: Coming into contact with caustic or toxic chemicals, biological substances, electrical sources or extremely cold or hot objects can irritate or burn one's hands. • Repetitive Motion Injuries: Whenever you repeat the same hand movement over a long period of time, you run the risk of repetitive motion problems. Repetitive motion problems can appear as a numb or tingling sensation, chronic or acute pain, loss of gripping power in your hands, or in many other ways. Gloves There are many types of gloves available today to protect against a wide variety of hazards. The nature of the hazard and the operation involved will affect the selection of gloves. However, the variety of potential occupational hand injuries can make selecting the right pair of gloves challenging. The following factors may influence the selection of protective gloves for a workplace: • Type of chemicals handled • Nature of contact (total immersion, splash, etc.) • Duration of contact • Area requiring protection (hand only, forearm, arm) • Grip requirements (dry, wet, oily) • Thermal protection • Size and comfort
130 When selecting chemical-resistant gloves, be sure to consult the manufacturer’s recommendations, especially if the gloved hand(s) will be immersed in the chemical. Instructions for the Safe Removal of Contaminated Gloves When removing contaminated gloves, remember to: • Pull one glove near your wrist towards your fingertips until the glove folds over • Carefully grab the fold and pull towards your fingertips. As you pull you are turning the glove inside-out • Pull the fold until the glove is almost off • To avoid contamination of your environment, continue to hold the removed glove, then completely remove your hand from the glove • Slide your finger from your glove-free hand under the remaining glove, then continue to slide your finger towards your fingertips until almost half of your finger is under the glove • Turn you finger 180 degrees and pull the glove outwards and towards your fingertips; as you do this, the first glove will be encased in the second glove and the inside of the second glove will also be turned outwards • Grab the gloves firmly, by the uncontaminated surface (the side that was originally touching your hand), release your grasp of the first glove you removed, and pull your second hand free from its glove • Dispose of the gloves properly Protective gloves should be inspected before each use to ensure that they are not torn, punctured, or made ineffective in any way. A visual inspection will help detect cuts or tears. In some cases, a more thorough inspection by filling the gloves with water and tightly rolling the cuff towards the fingers will help reveal any pinhole leaks may be needed. Gloves that are discolored or stiff may also indicate deficiencies caused by excessive use or degradation from chemical exposure. Any gloves with impaired protective ability should be discarded and replaced. Why Foot Protection is Important Scientists and engineers have marveled for centuries at the design and structure of the human foot. It is rigid enough to support the weight of your entire body, and yet flexible enough to allow you to run, dance, play sports, and take you anywhere you want to go. They also absorb a great deal of stress on a construction site and, as a result, are a common spot for injuries, which can include debilitating injuries that would prevent you from working in the future. Employees who face possible foot or leg injuries from falling or rolling objects or from crushing or penetrating materials should wear protective footwear.
131 Potential Hazards to the Foot The following are some of the hazards that are commonly associated with foot injuries: • Impact Injuries: If you have ever stubbed your toe, you know that impact injuries can hurt. At work, heavy objects can fall on your feet. If you work around sharp objects, you might also step on something sharp and puncture your foot. • Injuries from Spills and Splashes: Liquids such as acids, caustics, and molten metals can spill onto your shoes and boots. These hazardous materials can cause chemical and heat burns. • Compression Injuries: Heavy machinery, equipment, and other objects can roll over your feet. The result of these types of accidents is often broken or crushed bones. • Electrical Shocks: Accidents involving electricity can cause severe shocks and burns. • Extremes in Cold, Heat, and Moisture: If not protected, your feet can suffer from frostbite if you must work in an extremely cold environment. Extreme heat, on the other hand, can blister and burn your feet. Finally, extreme moisture in your shoes or boots can lead to fungal infections. • Slipping: Oil, water, soaps, wax, and other chemicals can cause you to slip and fall. Housekeeping Poorly maintained machinery and tools, sloppy work areas, and cluttered aisles all contribute to foot injuries. It is important that employers institute proper housekeeping measures to reduce the likelihood of a foot injury occurring. Keep walkways or other high-traffic areas clear of debris or tools that a worker might accidentally kick or run into. Ensure heavy materials or equipment are secured so that they cannot fall or be dropped onto workers’ feet. Ensure all tools that could cause a foot injury are inspected and maintained properly so that they do not malfunction. Wearing and Using Safety Footwear Select and use the right kind of footwear for the job you are going to be performing. Prior to 2005, footwear was required to meet or exceed the standards set by ANSI (ANSI Z41-1991). Since high-quality footwear can sometimes last for decades, shoes with this designation may still be in use. Following 2005, footwear has been required to conform to the newer ASTM F 2413 Specifications for Performance Requirements for Protective Footwear.
132 The specifications in ASTM F2413 contain the following standards: • Footwear should be impact and compression resistant at the toe. • The metatarsal bones at the top of the foot should be protected. • The shoes should reduce electrical conductivity to avoid static that could cause ignition of flammable gasses or other substances, as well as to avoid the potential hazards arising from stepping on a live electrical wire. • The shoes should be puncture resistant. Care of Protective Footwear As with all protective equipment, safety footwear should be inspected prior to each use. Shoes should be checked for wear and tear at reasonable intervals. This includes looking for cracks or holes, separation of materials, and broken buckles or laces. The soles of shoes should be checked for pieces of metal or other embedded items that could present electrical or tripping hazards. Employees should follow the manufacturers’ recommendations for cleaning and maintenance of protective footwear. Remember to do the following: • Select footwear that fits properly. • Inspect your footwear before you use it. Look for holes and cracks that might leak. • Replace footwear that is worn or torn. • After working with chemicals, cleanse your footwear appropriately to rinse away any chemicals or dirt before removing footwear. • Avoid borrowing footwear; footwear is personal protective equipment. • Store footwear in a clean, cool, dry, ventilated area. Lesson Summary • Head injuries can be very serious and are common on construction sites. Causes include falling objects, passing vehicles, or electric shocks. • Hard hats should be provided to workers if they are exposed to head hazards. Hard hats should have a rigid outer shell, a suspension system that acts as a shock absorber, and, if necessary, they should be shock resistant. Hard hats should be inspected daily. • High noise levels are also common on worksites and can present hazards for workers. Noise is measured in decibels, and when the noise action level of 85 decibels is reached, employers must create a written hearing conservation plan. Hearing protection devices include foam and PVC earplugs, as well as earmuffs. • There are many potential hazards to the hands on a worksite. Common injuries include traumatic injuries (a single, traumatic event
133 causes the injury), contact injuries (the hands come into contact with dangerous or caustic substances), and repetitive motion injuries (resulting from repeating the same motion over and over again). • Gloves are the most common form of hand protection. The type of gloves used depends on a variety of factors, including the type of chemical being handled, the duration of the contact, and the grip requirements. • Contaminated gloves must be removed carefully to avoid getting any caustic substances on your hands in the process. • Foot hazards on a worksite include impact injuries, compression injuries, electrical shocks, extreme temperatures, and slipping on oil or lubricant. • Foot injuries can be avoided by implementing proper housekeeping techniques to keep walkways clear of debris or tools. Depending on the working conditions, special footwear may also be required, such as shoes with steel-toes. Module 4: Health Hazards in Construction Module Description Construction workers are can be exposed to a variety of health hazards on the job. Generally, these hazards are associated with a particular job are either inherent (present before the worker shows up); or hazards that can be created by the work (e.g., welding & cutting, use of fuel-poweredwered equipment, etc.). As a worker who might be exposed to these hazards, you have a responsibility to wear personal protective equipment (PPE), practice good hygiene, and take advantage of training programs like this. Exposure to hazardous materials on the job can be unknowingly brought back to a person’s home; heavy metals such as lead dust, concrete crusted clothing, and a variety of oils, greases and solvents can all unintentionally affect your family! Learning about the health hazards associated with your job lets you be better prepared to make good decisions regarding your health and safety and protect your family. The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) provides information to workers and employers about various chemical hazards that exist in the workplace, and what protective measures they can take to prevent the adverse effects of such hazards. This module will give you a basic understanding of how to deal with hazardous chemicals and how workers can prevent and protect themselves from chemical hazards at a construction worksite.
134 Module Learning Objectives At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to: • Describe the purpose of The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) • Discuss labels and Safety Data Sheets • Differentiate between physical and health hazards associated with hazardous chemicals • Distinguish between symbols used to identify hazards • State how to prepare and implement a written hazard communication program • Explain the importance of proper training Lesson 1: Introduction to Hazard Communication Standard Lesson Focus At the end of this lesson, students will be able to: • Describe the Hazard Communication Standard (HCS or HazCom) • Identify common hazardous materials • Provide important definitions associated with the HCS The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS or HazCom) The simple idea behind the Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) is that workers have both a need and a right to know about the hazards and identities of the chemicals they are exposed to when performing their tasks and duties. According to OSHA, over 650,000 hazardous chemical products exist, and hundreds of new ones are being introduced annually. More than 32 million workers are potentially exposed to one or more chemical hazards in more than 3 million American workplaces.. As a result, the HCS was developed to ensure all relevant information needed to protect workers is readily available. Chemical manufacturers and importers are required to evaluate the hazards of the chemicals they produce or import and prepare labels and safety data sheets to convey the hazard information to their downstream customers. Employers with hazardous chemicals in their workplaces are then responsible for having labels and safety data sheets for their exposed workers and training them to handle the chemicals appropriately. The Hazard Communication Standard Coverage Implementation of HCS for all those companies who import, produce, distribute, or use hazardous chemicals in the United States is mandatory. They must provide proper
135 information and training to all of their affected employees. The HCS covers both physical (such as explosive, flammable) and health (acute and chronic) hazards. It is required that all chemical manufacturers, importers, and distributors convey complete information about a chemical and its hazards in the form of labels and SDSs. It is also mandatory that employers conduct hazard communication training programs in order to provide complete information to their employees through SDSs, labels, and training sessions.
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137 Hazardous Materials Hazardous and toxic materials are those chemicals that may be present in a workplace and have the capacity to cause harm. Mixtures, fuels, solvents, paints, and dusts may all be considered hazardous substances or materials. Recognition of Hazardous Chemicals Before working with or using chemicals, it is important to recognize those that may be physically hazardous or are capable of posing health problems to you. Recognition of hazardous chemicals prior to work can reduce the risk of chemical accidents. Depending on exposure, chemicals can cause many serious health effects such as cancer, nervous system damage, lung damage, liver damage, kidney damage, and reproductive system effects. Important Definitions • Personal Protective Equipment: The devices or clothing used by workers to protect against hazards in the environment are called personal protective equipment (PPE). Some common examples of PPE are respirators, gloves, and chemical splash goggles. • Toxicity: The term toxicity is used to describe the ability of a substance to cause a harmful effect. • Flashpoint: This is the minimum temperature at which a liquid produces enough vapor within a test vessel to form a flammable mixture with air near the surface of the liquid. The factor that determines whether a liquid is flammable or not is its flashpoint. • Flammable Liquids: Liquids that have a flashpoint below 100 °F (37.8 °C). Flammable materials require more care than combustible materials because they ignite at lower temperatures. • Combustible Liquids: Liquids that have a flashpoint at or above 100 °F (37.8 °C). • Container: Any bag, barrel, bottle, box, can, cylinder, drum, reaction vessel, storage tank, or the like that contains a hazardous chemical. For the purposes of this section, pipes or piping systems, and engines, fuel tanks, or other operating systems in a vehicle, are not considered to be containers. • Exposure or Exposed: Exposure (or exposed) means that an employee is subjected, as a condition of employment, to a chemical that is a physical or health hazard, including potential (accidental or possible) exposure. "Subjected" in terms of health hazards includes any route of entry (such as inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, absorption, or injection). • Hazard Warning: Any pictograms, words, pictures, symbols, or combination thereof appearing on a label or other appropriate form of
138 warning which conveys the specific physical and health hazard(s), including target organ effects of the chemical(s) in the container(s). • Immediate Use: Immediate use means that the hazardous chemical will be under the control of and used only by the person who transfers it from a labeled container and only within the work shift in which it is transferred. Any hazardous material decanted—transferred from a primary to a secondary container—should have the labeling information transferred to the secondary container also. • Organic Peroxide: Any carbon-containing compound with two oxygen atoms joined together. Organic peroxides can be severe fire and explosion hazards. • Oxidizer: A chemical other than a blasting or explosive agent that initiates or promotes combustion in other materials, thereby causing fire either by itself or through the release of oxygen or other gases. • Pyrophoric: Pyrophoric means a chemical will ignite spontaneously in air at a temperature of 130 °F (54.4 °C) or below. • Unstable (Reactive): Unstable (reactive) means a chemical that in its pure state, or as produced or transported, will vigorously polymerize, decompose, condense, or become self-reactive under conditions of shocks, pressure, or temperature. • Water-Reactive: Water-reactive means a chemical that reacts with water to release a gas that is either flammable or presents a health hazard. Lesson Summary • The simple idea behind the Hazard Communication Standard (HCS or HazCom) is that workers have both a need and a right to know about the hazards and identities of the chemicals they are exposed to when performing their tasks and duties. The standard covers both physical and health hazards. • Hazardous materials are those substances, often chemicals, found on a worksite that pose a danger to workers. Lesson 2: Labels, SDSs, Symbols, Hazards, and Training Lesson Focus At the end of this lesson, students will be able to: • Describe the importance and contents of labels • Describe Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) • Recognize the symbols found on SDSs • Describe the physical and health hazards found on a construction site
139 Explain how to control physical and health hazards • Describe a proper Hazard Communication Program (HCP or HazCom) • Describe the proper training necessary Labels The HazCom standard requires that information about chemical hazards is provided on labels using quick visual notations, providing immediate recognition of the hazards. Labels must also provide instructions on how to handle the chemical so that users are informed about how to protect themselves. Labels are considered the most immediate source of information about chemicals and their hazard potential. All hazardous chemical containers must be labeled. The following information must be included on all labels: • Contact Information: Name, address, and telephone number of the chemical manufacturer, importer, or other responsible party. • Product Identifier: This can be (but is not limited to) the chemical name, code number or batch number. Complete chemical name or names, no abbreviations; formula may be used as an option. • Signal Word: This word is used to indicate the relative level of severity of the hazard and to alert the reader to a potential hazard. There are only two signal words: “Danger” and “Warning.” • Hazard Statement(s): Describe the nature of the chemical’s hazards, including, where appropriate, the degree of hazard. For example: “Causes damage to kidneys through prolonged or repeated exposure when absorbed through the skin.” All of the applicable hazard statements must appear on the label. • Precautionary Statement(s): Describe recommended measures that should be taken to minimize or prevent adverse effects resulting from exposure to the hazardous chemical or improper storage or handling. • Pictogram(s): Graphic symbols used to communicate specific information about the hazards of a chemical. Labels must appear on each container and must be legible and written in English, although other languages can also be used if required. Many manufacturers of chemicals also include safe handling procedures on labels. Pictograms Pictograms are graphic symbols used to communicate specific information about the hazards of a chemical. Pictograms on labels alert users to the chemical hazards to which they may be exposed. The pictogram on a label are determined by the chemical hazard classification.. Each pictogram consists of a symbol on a white background framed within a red border and represents a distinct hazard.
140 It is important to note that the OSHA pictograms do not replace the diamond shaped labels that the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) requires for the transport of chemicals, including chemical drums, totes, tanks, or other containers. Those labels must be on the external part of a shipped container and must meet DOT requirements. Safety Data Sheet (SDS) A safety data sheet (SDS) provides detailed information about a specific hazardous material. Although labels are a good way to provide information about hazardous chemicals, sometimes you need more information than can be included on a label. The SDS includes information such as the properties of each chemical; the physical, health, and environmental health hazards; required protective measures; and safety precautions for handling, storing, and transporting the chemical. The information contained in the SDS must be in English (although it may be in other languages as well). The SDS must be maintained in the facility for use by personnel while the material is in the facility and must be retained for a period of at least 30 years. As you’ve seen, SDSs are required to be presented in a consistent, user-friendly, 16-section format.
141 The SDS must always be immediately available to all affected employees for review; however, they can be stored electronically. Click here for a sample SDS. It also does not include Sections 11 – 16 which are not enforced by OSHA however employees should be made aware of them for effective HazCom training. Section 1: Identification This section identifies the chemical on the SDS as well as the recommended uses. It also provides the essential contact information of the supplier. The required information consists of: • Product identifier used on the label and any other common names or synonyms by which the substance is known • Name, address, phone number of the manufacturer, importer, or other responsible party, and emergency phone number • Recommended use of the chemical (e.g., a brief description of what it actually does, such as flame retardant) and any restrictions on use (including recommendations given by the supplier) Section 2: Hazard(s) Identification This section identifies the hazards of the chemical presented on the SDS and the appropriate warning information associated with those hazards. The required information consists of: • The hazard classification of the chemical (e.g., flammable liquid, category1) • Signal word • Hazard statement(s) • Pictograms • Precautionary statement(s) • Description of any hazards not otherwise classified Section 3: Composition/Information on Ingredients This section identifies the ingredient(s) contained in the product indicated on the SDS, including impurities and stabilizing additives. The required information consists of: • Chemical name(s) • Common name and synonyms • Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) number and other unique identifiers
142 • Impurities and stabilizing additives, which are themselves classified and which contribute to the classification of the chemical Section 4: First-Aid Measures This section describes the initial care that should be given by untrained responders to an individual who has been exposed to the chemical. The required information consists of: • Necessary first-aid instructions for relevant routes of exposure (inhalation, skin and eye contact, and ingestion) • Description of the most important symptoms or effects, and any symptoms that are acute or delayed • Recommendations for immediate medical care and special treatment needed, when necessary Section 5: Fire-Fighting Measures This section provides recommendations for fighting a fire caused by the chemical. The required information consists of: • Recommendations of suitable extinguishing equipment, and information about extinguishing equipment that is not appropriate for a particular situation • Advice on specific hazards that develop from the chemical during the fire, such as any hazardous combustion products created when the chemical burns • Recommendations on special protective equipment or precautions for firefighters Section 6: Accidental Release Measures This section provides recommendations on the appropriate response to spills, leaks, or releases, including containment and cleanup practices to prevent or minimize exposure to people, properties, or the environment. The required information may consist of recommendations for: • Use of personal precautions (such as removal of ignition sources or providing sufficient ventilation) and protective equipment to prevent the contamination of skin, eyes, and clothing • Emergency procedures, including instructions for evacuations, consulting experts when needed, and appropriate protective clothing. • Methods and materials used for containment (e.g., covering the drains and capping procedures)
143 • Cleanup procedures (e.g., appropriate techniques for neutralization, decontamination, cleaning, or vacuuming; adsorbent materials; and/or equipment required for containment/clean up) Section 7: Handling and Storage This section provides guidance on the safe handling practices and conditions for safe storage of chemicals. The required information consists of: • Precautions for safe handling, including recommendations for handling incompatible chemicals, minimizing the release of the chemical into the environment, and providing advice on general hygiene practices (e.g., eating, drinking, and smoking in work areas is prohibited) • Recommendations on the conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities. Provide advice on specific storage requirements (e.g., ventilation requirements) Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection This section indicates the exposure limits, engineering controls, and personal protective measures that can be used to minimize worker exposure. The required information consists of: • OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) • Appropriate engineering controls (e.g., use local exhaust ventilation, or use only in an enclosed system) • Recommendations for personal protective measures to prevent illness or injury from exposure to chemicals, such as personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., appropriate types of eye, face, skin or respiratory protection needed based on hazards and potential exposure) • Any special requirements for PPE, protective clothing or respirators (e.g., type of glove material, such as PVC or nitrile rubber gloves; and breakthrough time of the glove material) Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties This section identifies physical and chemical properties associated with the substance or mixture. The minimum required information consists of: • Appearance (physical state, color, etc.) • Upper/lower flammability or explosive limits • Odor and odor threshold • Vapor pressure and density
144 • pH level • Relative density • Melting point/freezing point • Solubility(ies) • Initial boiling point and boiling range; • Partition coefficient: n-octanol/water • Flash point and auto-ignition temperature • Evaporation rate • Decomposition temperature • Flammability (solid, gas) • Viscosity Note: The SDS may not contain every item on the above list because information may not be relevant or is not available. Section 10: Stability and Reactivity This section describes the reactivity hazards of the chemical and the chemical stability information. This section is broken into three parts: reactivity, chemical stability, and other. The required information consists of: • Reactivity: a description of the specific test data for the chemical(s). • Chemical stability: an indication of whether the chemical is stable or unstable under normal ambient temperature and conditions while in storage and being handled. • An indication of the possibility of hazardous reactions, including a statement whether the chemical will react or polymerize, which could release excess pressure or heat, or create other hazardous conditions • A list of all conditions that should be avoided • A list of all classes of incompatible materials with which the chemical could react to produce a hazardous situation • A list of any known or anticipated hazardous decomposition products that could be produced because of use, storage, or heating Section 11: Toxicological Information This section identifies toxicological and health effects information or indicates that such data are not available. The required information consists of: • Information on the likely routes of exposure (inhalation, ingestion, skin and eye contact). The SDS should indicate if the information is unknown. • Description of the delayed, immediate, or chronic effects from shortand long-term exposure.
145 • The numerical measures of toxicity (e.g., acute toxicity estimates such as the LD50; the estimated amount [of a substance] expected to kill 50% of test animals in a single dose. • Description of the symptoms. This description includes the symptoms associated with exposure to the chemical including symptoms from the lowest to the most severe exposure. • Indication of whether the chemical is listed in the National Toxicology Program (NTP) Report on Carcinogens (latest edition) or has been found to be a potential carcinogen in the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monographs (latest editions) or found to be a potential carcinogen by OSHA. Section 12: Ecological Information (non-mandatory by OSHA) This section provides information to evaluate the environmental impact of the chemical(s) if it were released to the environment. The information may include: • Data from toxicity tests performed on aquatic and/or terrestrial organisms, where available • Whether there is a potential for the chemical to persist and degrade in the environment • Results of tests of bioaccumulation potential • The potential for a substance to move from the soil to the groundwater • Other adverse effects (e.g., environmental fate, ozone layer depletion potential, and/or global warming potential) Section 13: Disposal Considerations (non-mandatory by OSHA) This section provides guidance on proper disposal practices, recycling or reclamation of the chemical(s) or its container, and safe handling practices. The information may include: • Description of appropriate disposal containers to use • Recommendations of appropriate disposal methods to employ • Description of the physical and chemical properties that may affect disposal activities • Any special precautions for landfills or incineration activities Section 14: Transport Information (non-mandatory by OSHA) This section provides guidance on classification information for shipping and transporting of hazardous chemical(s) by road, air, rail, or sea. The information may include: • UN number (i.e., four-figure identification number of the substance) • UN proper shipping name
146 • Transport hazard class(es) • Environmental hazards • Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code) • Guidance on transport in bulk • Any special precautions which an employee should be aware of or needs to comply with, in connection with transport or conveyance either within or outside their premises Section 15: Regulatory Information (non-mandatory by OSHA) This section identifies the safety, health, and environmental regulations specific for the product that is not indicated anywhere else on the SDS. The information may include any national and/or regional regulatory information of the chemical or mixtures (including any OSHA, Department of Transportation, Environmental Protection Agency, or Consumer Product Safety Commission regulations). Section 16: Other Information This section indicates when the SDS was prepared or when the last known revision was made. The SDS may also state where the changes have been made to the previous version. You may wish to contact the supplier for an explanation of the changes. Other useful information also may be included here. Availability of SDSs Every employer must train every affected employee in the information derived from the SDS for each hazardous material in the facility, before exposing the employee to the hazard. An employee should ideally only need to consult an SDS on an infrequent or emergency basis. Note: Remember, it is the employer's responsibility to ensure that each employee who handles or uses any hazardous material knows where SDSs are located and how to read and understand them. Physical Hazards There are frequently two types of hazards (physical and health) present in a workplace where hazardous chemicals or materials are present. Physical hazards refer to dangers presented by physical objects or forces on the worksite, as opposed to biological dangers. Falls, falling objects, caught-in-between accidents, and electrical hazards are examples of physical hazards. They are responsible for hundreds of deaths and injuries each year in the United States. Accidents involving physical hazards are often the consequence of a lack of training or neglect, concerning the flammability of chemicals. Fire and explosion are common physical hazards.
147 Health Hazards Hazardous chemicals can affect our health in different ways. Generally, two terms— acute and chronic—are used in order to understand the nature of the health hazards. Acute effects indicate that symptoms have arisen rapidly compared to chronic effects, which means symptoms have manifested themselves over a longer period of time. Example: If you accidentally spill a strong acid on your hand and the acid begins to burn your skin, this is an acute effect as opposed to a chronic effect. Determination of Health Hazards Determining whether a hazard is affecting the health of a worker or not can be very difficult. Often, the signs and symptoms associated with the acute or chronic health effects of working are already present in the same workers as a result of nonoccupational sources. For example, lung cancer, kidney failures, and nervous system breakdowns are some common health problems that may occur in occupationally exposed persons but, of course, can also be found in non-occupationally exposed persons. Chronic Health Hazards Chronic effects develop as a result of long-term exposures. Some examples of chronic health hazards include: • Silicosis • Some dermatitis (others may be from an acute exposure) • Lung Cancer (from occupational exposure to carcinogens) Note: Asbestos exposure is a good example of a chronic health hazard. Those people who are exposed to asbestos may take several years to develop serious lung diseases. Health Hazard Symbols The following symbols are used to identify various kinds of health hazards: • The skull and crossbones symbol represents a poisonous material. • The hand and test tubes symbols are used to identify corrosive materials. • The radiating fan symbol is used to represent radioactive materials.
148 Routes of Exposure-Health Hazards Health hazards can affect a body through four routes of entry: • Absorption • Inhalation • Ingestion • Injection The last of these, injection, is unlikely to occur on a worksite, but the other three are common hazards in construction: • Skin Absorption: Some chemicals enter into the body by absorption through the skin. Always use personal protective equipment or clothing in order to protect your body from skin contact with hazardous material. If you are exposed, the proper response should be initiated, based on the chemical involved and the nature of the exposure. • Inhalation: Inhalation is the most common route of entry into the body. It normally occurs when you inhale fumes, vapors, hazardous gasses, or dust. It is the employer's responsibility to be aware of such hazards in the workplace and to protect employees from inhalation hazards. • Ingestion: Do not eat or smoke immediately after handling any hazardous material. When working with hazardous materials, wear appropriate PPE, and then always wash your hands properly before eating, drinking, or smoking. Controlling Physical and Health Hazards There are a number of ways to control the physical and health hazards associated with chemicals in a workplace. The following measures can protect you from physical and health hazards: • Safe work practices help assure that you are using chemicals safely and correctly. • Product Substitution: There are many chemicals that perform similar jobs. One of the many responsibilities an employer has is to attempt to find a chemical that is less toxic but able to accomplish the same job. • Engineering Controls: An orderly and well-designed workplace can minimize exposure to hazardous chemicals. Some engineering controls, like exhaust systems and wetting systems used to control dust, are good examples of hazard control. • Training and communication play an essential role in every field of life. It is vital to know how to work safely with hazardous chemicals.
149 • Environmental monitoring is a component in keeping an environment free from a buildup of hazardous chemicals that could lead to an unsafe working environment. • Personal Monitoring: Monitor yourself and coworkers for symptoms (such as dizziness, eye or throat irritation, skin rashes) that would indicate that you or your coworkers have been exposed to a hazardous material or chemical. If these or other symptoms appear, report them to your supervisor immediately. • Personal Protective Equipment: Always use gloves, aprons, masks, or other PPE whenever called for on a label or SDS. Written Hazard Communication Program A written program must be established in all workplaces where employees are exposed to hazardous chemicals. It should include a list of all hazardous chemicals that are present in the workplace and indicate where employees can get copies of written information about safe chemical handling procedures. A written program also indicates the person in the facility who is responsible for the various aspects of the program. The written program must also describe requirements and information about labels, SDSs, and employee training. Click here for the OHSA fact sheet on HazCom standards and the written hazard communication program. Training Training must be provided to all employees exposed to hazardous chemicals. It must include information on how to handle chemicals safely, how to read and understand labels, SDSs, and other warning information, and what PPE is required before handling or using the hazardous material. It is required, and critical, that employees be trained before working with materials that represent a hazard. Note: Remember, it is not sufficient to just provide SDSs to read. These documents can be long and technical, and contain a great deal of information that may not be directly relevant to all workers. It is the employer’s responsibility to provide, in addition to the SDSs, an easily understood version of the relevant safety information. Basic First Aid OSHA requires employers to make sure medical personnel are available for advice and consultation on matters of occupational health. The employer must ensure prompt first aid treatment for injured employees, either by providing a trained first aid provider at the worksite, or by ensuring that emergency treatment services are within reasonable
150 proximity of the worksite. First aid should be provided only by individuals who are properly trained and provided with the proper protective equipment. Bloodborne Pathogens Bloodborne pathogens are pathogenic microorganisms that are found in human blood, tissue, and organs. These pathogens include the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and the Hepatitis B virus (HBV). OSHA requires employers to perform an exposure determination concerning which employees may incur occupational exposure to blood or other potentially infectious materials. The exposure determination is made without regard to the use of personal protective equipment. Employees must make sure that they never come in contact with any blood or body fluids without proper safeguards in place. Treat all human blood and certain human body fluids as if they were known to be infectious for HIV, HBV, and other bloodborne pathogens. This is known as taking “universal precautions.” If they have to handle any such fluids, workers must wear all appropriate personal protective equipment, especially gloves and safety glasses. Employees must handle and dispose of all sharps—such as needles and syringes—carefully in order to avoid suffering a puncture wound or laceration. Appropriate use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is required by the Bloodborne Pathogens Standard (if exposure to blood and other potentially infectious materials is anticipated, meaning where occupational exposure remains even after engineering and work practice controls have been implemented). Wear appropriate gloves and other required PPE when hand contact with blood, mucous membranes, other potentially infectious materials (OPIM) or non-intact skin is anticipated; when performing vascular access procedures; or when handling contaminated items or surfaces. The employer must ensure that employees wash hands and any other exposed skin with soap and water and flush mucous membranes with water as soon as feasible after contact with blood or OPIM. They should provide readily accessible hand washing facilities and ensure PPE is properly disposed of. Protective clothing must be removed before leaving the work area and placed in an appropriately designated area or container for storage, washing, decontamination, or disposal. Temperature Stress Extremely hot or cold temperatures at the work site can cause various disorders. Employees must make sure to take protective measures against heat and cold stresses.