Approved by Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Curriculum Development
Centre, Sanothimi, Bhaktapur as an additional material
Green
Health,
Population &
Environment
Education
10
Editor
Jayananda Kapadi
Authors
Bhan Dev Kapadi
Biraj Shrestha
Deepak Bhatta
Ranjana Prajapati
Lalitpur, Nepal, Tel: 977-1-5529899
E-mail: [email protected]
www.greenbooks.com.np
Green
Health,
Population &
Environment
Education 10
Publisher: Green Books
Copyright: Authors and Editor (2075 BS)
All rights reserved. No part of this book maybe
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means without prior permission
in writing from the authors and editor.
Edition
B.S. 2075 (2018 AD)
Layout
The Focus Computer
[email protected]
Printed in Nepal
Preface
It gives us an immense pleasure in presenting this book- Green
Health, Population and Environment Education for class 10.
This book has been written specially to meet the requirements of
the new syllabus introduced by Government of Nepal, Ministry
of Education, Curriculum Development Centre, Sano Thimi,
Bhaktapur, Nepal.
Our aim and effort while writing this book is to help students
understand, enjoy and appreciate the fascinating subject of
Health, Population and Environment Education by making
the process of learning enjoyable and stimulating. We have
attempted to present the subject matter covering the entire
prescribed syllabus. Each unit of the book has been carefully
planned to make it student-friendly and present the subject
matter in an interesting, understandable and enjoyable manner.
The text is supplemented with estimated teaching periods,
learning outcomes, course outline, glossary and a large
number of well-labelled accurate pictures. We sincerely hope
that this book will serve its intended purpose and be received
enthusiastically by both the students and teachers concerned.
We wish to express our sincere gratitude to Green Books
Team for publishing this book. Our hearty thanks go to Focus
Computer for excellent type setting and layout.
We also wish to acknowledge our great indebtedness to many
teachers for their valuable suggestions and advice concerning
the textbook. We are confident that as a result of their suggestions
this book will be more useful than any other textooks. However,
sympathetic criticisms and constructive suggestions for further
improvement of the book, if any, will be welcomed and with
warm regards incorporated in the subsequent editions.
Authors and Editor
Kathmandu, Nepal
September 2018
Content
1. Concept of Health, Population and Environment Education .............. 5
2. Demography, Population Change and Management ................... 12
3. Population, Environment and Development .......................... 58
4. Population and Environmental Status of Nepal ........................ 72
5. Family Life Education and Quality of Life............................. 94
6. Natural Resources and Biodiversity ................................. 112
7. Environmental Health and Diseases ................................. 138
8. Adolescence, Sexual and Reproductive Health Education .............. 172
9. Consumer’s Health and Community Health ......................... 204
10. Primary Health Care, Precaution and Security on Risk ................. 234
Specification Grid................................................. 255
Model questions .................................................. 256
4 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
unit Concept of Health,
1 Population and
Environment Education
Estimated Teaching Periods: 16
Learning Outcomes
Learning Objectives
After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to:
i. explain the various aspects of health, population and environment.
ii. identify the inter-relationship between various aspects areas of health, population and environment.
Course Outline
1.1 Aspects of health, population and environment.
1.2 Inter-relationship between aspects of health population and environment.
Glossary
health : the condition of being sound in body, mind or spirit, freedom from physical
diseases or pain
population : the whole number of people or inhabitants in a country or region
environment : the complex of physical, chemical and biotic factors (as climate, soil and
living things) that act upon organisms or ecological community and
ultimately determine its form and survival
psychological : of or relating to psychology, i.e. the science or study of the mind and
behaviour
political : of or relating to governmentn or the conduct of government
calamity : an event that causes great harm and suffering
degradation : the act or process of damaging or running something
satellite : a machine that is sent into space and that moves around the earth, moon
or a planet
missile : an object that is thrown, shot or launched as a weapon; especially: a rocket
that explodes when it hits a distant target
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 5
1.1 Aspects of Health, Population and Environment
Health, population and environment education is very broad and multidisciplinary. It
includes subject matters related with health, population, family life as well as various
resources in environment. All the subject matters which are regarded as aspects of
health, population and environment are regarded as aspects of health, population and
environment. We can show various aspects of health, population and environment in the
following figure:
Physical aspect
Health,
Psychological aspect Biological aspect
Political aspect Population Socio-cultural aspect
and
Environment
Science and technological aspect Economic aspect
Various aspects of health, population and environment are described below:
a. Physical aspects
Physical aspects of health, population and environment
include the abiotic factors, natural things and man-
made things. Air, water, soil, minerals, mountains,
hills, terai, etc. are the natural things present in
environment. Similarly, the physical infrastructures
like roads, bridges, canals, tunnels, airports, hydro-
power, industries, transportation facilities, etc. made
by human beings to fulfill their needs are also physical Fig: 1
aspects.
b. Biological aspects
Biological aspects of health, population and
environment include all the living things in
environment. For example: plants, animals, birds,
insects, reptiles, micro-organisms, etc. There is variation
in plants, animals, birds, etc. depending on differences
in geographical conditions. It is very important for
proper growth, development and survival of human Fig: 2
beings as well as for making balance in environment.
6 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
c. Socio-cultural aspects
Socio-cultural aspects of health, population and
environment include social norms, values, traditions,
culture, religious practices made by our ancestors
utilizing their valuable knowledge, skills and time.
There is variation of social norms, values, culture and
tradition in different societies. Actually, all of them
maintain discipline and sense of unity among people
in the society. For example: birth rites, death rites, Fig: 3
festivals, ceremonies, functions, culture, etc.
d. Economic aspects
Economic aspects of health, population and environment
are related with employment activities or income
generation. Actually, people need to have sufficient
income to fulfill their needs. People are involved in
various jobs like painting, sewing, knitting, sculpturing,
farming, horticulture, agriculture, fishery, services,
business and trade etc. These all are included in Fig: 4
economic aspects of health, population and environment.
e. Science and technological aspects
Science and technological aspects of health, population
and environment are related with the development of
science and technology and improvement related with
science and technology. There has been tremendous
improvement in industrial sector, invention of
machineries, improvement in health services, Fig: 5
development of transportation, communication, equipments, instruments, etc. with the
development of science and technology. Development of internet, email, e-learning,
e-commerce, bullet trains, aeroplanes, rockets, satellites, invention of medicines,
vaccines, human organ transplantation, nuclear energy, atomic bombs, tanks, etc. are
related with science and technological aspects.
f. Political aspects
Political aspects of health, population and environment are related with political activities,
political leaders, political parties, formulation of plans and policies at the government and
administrative level. The plans and policies related with social, economic, infrastructural
development, human rights, distribution of resources, conservation of resources,
fulfillment of human needs, etc. are political aspects. For example: literacy campaign,
awareness generation programme, child care programme, nutritious food programme,
female and handicapped programme, etc.
g. Psychological aspects
Psychological aspects of health, population and environment are related with attitudes,
thinkings, feelings and behaviors of people. The feelings and attitudes are related with
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 7
the behaviors of people. When people have positive thinking, they work for conservation
of environment, control of pollution, control of diseases, maintenance of cleanliness and
sanitation. But, when people have negative feelings and thinking, they tend to destroy
resources which in turn affects health and population as well.
1.2 inter-relationship Between Aspects of Health, Population and Environment
Health, population and environment education are inter-related and interdependent
on one another. We must have knowledge and understanding about them. If we lack
knowledge on any one of them, the rest of others become incomplete. For example:
people like to live in the places having fresh air, supply of drinking water, etc. Clean
environment makes the life of people healthy. Due to population growth, there is increase
in environment degradation, increase of pollution, spreading of disease and many other
environmental problems. Likewise, it is only the human being who can use natural
resources in sustainable way and manage them properly. That is how, health, population
and environment are inter-related with each other.
We can show the inter-relationship between health, population and environment
education through the following chart:
Physical Socio-cultural
aspects aspects
Health Population
Biological Education Education Psychological
aspects aspects
Economic Environment Political
aspects Education aspects
Science and technological aspects
a. Relationship of Physical Aspects with Other Aspects
Physical aspects include the natural and artificial things present in environment. They
are most essential for proper growth, development and survival of human beings. The
presence of physical aspects supports in the existence of human life. Physical aspects of
health, population and environment are related with health and population. For example,
people like to live in such places which have fresh air, clean environment, cultivable land,
drinking water, etc. Clean environment makes people healthy. Availability of cultivable
land supports in growing of different crops in order to maintain health. When people
randomly use natural resources, there is degradation of environment which in turn causes
spreading of diseases and many other problems to people.
8 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
b. Relationship of Biological Aspects with Other Aspects
Biological aspects of health, population and
environment include the living beings like plants,
animals, birds, insects, human beings, etc. They are
also essential for proper growth, development and
survival of human beings. They help to make balance
in the environment. People get food from varieties
of plants and animals. Various crops like rice, wheat,
maize, barley, etc. and various fruits and wide range of
vegetables are the chief food items for human beings. Fig: 6
Different animals and birds provide meat, egg, milk and milk products for people.
Similarly, various types of plants, animals and their parts are used as raw materials for
different industries. Various medicinal plants are used for production of medicines.
c. Relationship of Socio-cultural Aspects with Other Aspects
Socio-cultural aspects include the social traditions,
cultural activities and religious practices made by
our ancestors utilizing their valuable skill and time.
Those traditions, cultural activities and religious
practices are related with health, population and
environment. People need fruits, flowers, cereals,
plants, animals, birds, water, etc. during various
traditions, functions, ceremonies, festivals, etc. They
all are part of environment. During the festivals
and functions, people organize parties and feasts. Fig: 7
People need varieties of food items in such occasions. But people discharge the food stuff
and garbages here and there in the surrounding after such occasions. As a result, there
is increase of air, water and land pollution, spreading of diseases, etc. Sometimes, people
consume a lot of food during feasts and parties and suffer from various health problems.
d. Relationship of Economic Aspects with Other Aspects
Economic aspects are related with the job opportunities and income generation. The
economic condition of people seriously affects their health and environment. Due to poverty,
people misuse the resources in environment which leads towards deforestation, increase
of pollution, spreading of diseases, occurrence of natural calamities and environment
degradation. Similarly, poor people cannot afford nutritious food and suffer from various
diseases very often. Moreover, they cannot treat the diseases properly and suffer a lot.
e. Relationship of Science and Technological Aspects with Other Aspects
Science and technological aspects are related with development of science and technology.
Due to development of science and technology, there has been improvement in health
sector, invention of medicines, control over diseases, extension of life expectancy,
improvement in communication, invention of equipments, development of technologies
etc. They have made massive change in health sector, environmental conservation as
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 9
well as for the population. Similarly, negative use
of science and technology has developed nuclear
weapons, chemical weapons, biological weapons,
missiles, launchers, etc. Use of missiles, launchers,
etc. in wars kills many people. Use of chemical
and biological weapons has serious health impacts
on people. Above all, use of the nuclear weapons
destroys the entire environment.
Fig: 8
f. Relationship of Political Aspects with Other Aspects
Political aspect is related with the development of rules and regulations at the government
and administrative level. Actually, political parties form the government and rule the nation.
Hence, all the political parties and political leaders should be responsible enough for the
formulation of rules and regulations to control population, to produce healthy manpower,
to develop health services as well as for the conservation of resources in environment.
g. Relationships of Psychological Aspects with Other Aspects
Psychological aspects are related with the attitudes, feeling, perceptions and thinking of people.
Every individual should have strong determination and commitment to maintain health, to
control population as well as sustainable use of resources and their effective management.
If people respect nature, they develop the habit of utilizing the natural resources properly. If
they think about small family size, the population growth will be controlled. If people follow
healthy rules and practice healthy behaviours, they can maintain good health.
Activity: 1
Discuss in groups in your class regarding social, economic and environmental impacts caused
by presence of forest and deforestation in your locality. Prepare a report with conclusion.
Activity: 2
Make groups in your class and discuss about positive and negative impacts caused by
science and technological development in the world.
Summary
1. Health, population and environment education is very broad and multidisciplinary.
It includes subject matters related with health, population, family life as well as
various resources in environment.
2. Physical aspects of health, population and environment include the abiotic factors
natural things and man-made things. Air, water, soil, minerals, mountains, hills,
terai, etc. are the natural things present in environment.
3. Biological aspects of health, population and environment includes all the living
things in environment.
4. Socio-cultural aspects of health, population and environment include social norms,
values, traditions, culture, religious practices made by our ancestors utilizing their
valuable knowledge skills and time.
10 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
5. Economic aspects of health, population and environment are related with
employment activities or income generation.
6. Science and technological aspects of health, population and environment is related
with the development of science and technology and improvement related with
science and technology.
7. Political aspects of health, population and environment are related with political
activities, political leaders, political parties, formulation of plans and policies at the
government and administrative level.
8. Psychological aspects of health, population and environment are related with
attitudes, thinkings, feelings and behaviors of people.
9. When people randomly use natural resources, there is degradation of environment
which in turn causes spreading of diseases and many other problems to people.
10. Various crops like rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc. and various fruits and wide range
of vegetables are the chief food items for human beings.
11. Due to poverty, people misuse the resources in environment which leads towards
deforestation, increase of pollution, spreading of diseases, occurrence of natural
calamities and environment degradation.
12. Every individual should have strong determination and commitment to maintain
health, to control population as well as sustainable use of resources and their
effective management.
Exercise
A. Write very short answer to the following questions:
1. What do you mean by aspects of health, population and environment?
2. What is physical aspect?
3. What is included in biological aspect?
4. What are social rites and cultures regarded as?
5. What are transportation and communication services regarded as?
6. What does political aspect include?
B. Write short answer to the following questions:
1. How are physical aspect and biological aspect inter-related with health,
population and environment?
2. Make a chart which shows various aspects of health, population and environment.
3. How are socio-cultural aspects related with health, population and environment?
4. What does science and technological aspect mean? What are the things included
in it?
C. Write long answer to the following questions:
1. List out different aspects of health, population and environment. Explain any 3
of them briefly.
2. How are science and technological aspect and political aspect inter-related with
health, population and environment?
3. How are psychological aspect and economic aspect inter-related with health,
population and environment?
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 11
unit Demography,
2 Population Change and
Management
Estimated Teaching Periods: 17
Learning Outcomes
Learning Objectives
After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to:
i. explain demography, its components, process and measurement.
ii. describe fertility, fecundity and measurement of fertility and mortality.
iii. introduce migration and explain the measurement of migration.
iv. state the consequences of rapid population growth.
v. introduce population management and explain methods of population management.
Course Outline
2.1 Demographic components, process and measurement.
2.2 Consequences of rapid population growth
2.3 Population Management
Glossary
demography : the study of changes (such as the number of births, deaths, marriages and
illnesses) that occur over a period of time in human populations
fertility : the actual performance, the state of being fertile
fecundity : the ability to producing many babies, young animals or plants
mortality : the quality of state of being a person or thing that is alive and therefore
certain to die
migration : to move from one country or place to live or work in another
infant : a child in the first period of life
contraception : things that are done to prevent a woman from becoming pregnant
vasectomy : an operation that makes a man unable to make a woman pregnant
12 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
2.1 Demographic Components, Process and Measurement
People live in different places. Some places have more population and some have less
population. Population is studied under demography. Demography is made up of two
Greek words demos which means people or population and ‘graphien’ which means
study. In simple words, demography is the study of population. Demography is the
scientific, mathematical and statistical study of population in relation to population size,
structure, density, distribution, composition, etc.
The word ‘demography’ was first coined by a Belgian, Achille Guillard in his famous
book called ‘Comparative Demography’ in 1855 A.D. But the demographic study was
first conducted by John Graunt who is also regarded as ‘Father of Demography’. He
published a book “Natural and Political Observation” in 1662 A.D. in which he analyzed
the statistics on deaths of people (Bills of Mortality) in London.
Population is dynamic in nature. It keeps on changing time and again. It never remains
constant. Birth, death and migration are actually responsible for change of population.
With the variation in all of them, population also keeps on changing.
The following table shows demographic components, processes and measurements:
Demographic Components Demographic Processes Demographic Measurements
Birth Fertility Fertility Rate
Death Mortality Mortality Rate
Migration Migration Migration Rate
Demographic Components
Those elements which are responsible for change of population in a place are called as
demographic components. Birth, death and migration have direct impact on population
of a place. They are called demographic components. When there is birth of a child, there
is increase in the number of family members which results in the increase of population.
Once a person takes birth, sooner or later, he/she has to die. Death causes decrease
of population in a place. Migration can either increase or decrease the population.
Inmigration (internal migration) and immigration (international migration) increase the
population whereas out migration (internal migration) and emigration(international
migration) decrease the population of a place. Birth and death are natural factors of
population change and migration is artificial factor of population change.
Demographic Processes
The performance of demographic components is called demographic processes. Fertility,
mortality and migration are demographic processes. There is change of population with
all of them. Fertility is related with birth and increase of population. Mortality denotes
death and decreases population. Migration is related with national and international
migration which shows either increase or decrease of population. These demographic
processes either increase or decrease population in a place.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 13
Demographic Measurement
The mathematical representation of demographic
components is called demographic measurement. It is
presented in rates and ratios. Different statistical tools
and mathematical formulae are used in demographic
measurements. They show birth, death and migration
in numerical figures. It means that the increase and
decrease of population in a place are shown in numerical Fig: 1
figures by demographic measurements. Fertility rate,
mortality rate and migration rate are regarded as demographic measurements. We can
analyze population size, structure, distribution, composition by means of demographic
measurements. Analyzing population data supports to know population situation as well
as trend of future population in a place.
Fertility and Fecundity
Fertility
Fertility is the actual birth performance of a female or total children given birth by female
during the reproductive period. If a female has given birth to five children during her
reproductive period (15 - 49) years, her fertility is regarded as 5. Since, only the females
give birth to children, it is related only with females. Those females who give birth to
children are called fertile women.
Fecundity
Fecundity is the capability of male and female to take part in reproduction. It is the biological
and physiological potentiality to bear children. It is related to both male and female. Females
have generally starting of menstruation at the age of 15 years which is called menarche The
menstruation generally stops at the age of 49 years which is called menopause. Females
are capable of bearing children only from menarche till menopause. Hence, their fecundity
remains from 15 to 49 years. Males can make females pregnant after the production of sperms
in their body. Generally sperm production starts at the age of 13 years in males and may
continue till 70/80 years as well. It means that males have more fecundity. But, fecundity varies
from individual to individual. It differs among own siblings and even among twins as well.
The differences between fertility and fecundity are shown in the following table:
Fertility Fecundity
1. Fertility is the actual birth 1. Fecundity is the capacity of male and female
performance of a female. to take part in reproduction.
2. It is related only with females. 2. It is related with both males and females.
3. It is less than fecundity. 3. It is more than fertility.
4. Every fertile women are fecund. 4. Every fecund women may not be fertile.
5. It increases population directly. 5. Simply fecundity doesn’t increase population .
6. It is the effect. 6. It is the cause.
14 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
Measurement of Fertility
Fertility can be measured by four different ways. They are as follows:
a. Crude Birth Rate (CBR) b. General Fertility Rate (GFR)
c. Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR) d. Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
a. Crude Birth Rate(CBR)
The total live births taken place among 1000 mid year population in a certain place in a
year is called as crude birth rate.
Mathematically,
Total live births in a place in a year
CBR = × 1000
Mid year population of that place in the same year
It is expressed per 1000.
In order to calculate crude birth rate, there is need of data on mid year population as well
as total live births.
Mid Year Population
Mid year population is the mean of total population in a certain place in a year.
Mathematically,
Population at the beginning of a year + Population at the end of a year
Mid year population =
2
or,
Population of Jan. 1 + Population of Dec. 31
st
st
Mid year population =
2
Note:
Live birth means birth of an alive baby. It means a baby needs to cry, respire, move
muscles, blink eyes, should have heart beat, feel pulse, etc.
Worked out example: 1
In a district, in 2014 A.D. there was 797456 population and 143672 live births took place in
that district in that year. Calculate crude birth rate of that district in that year.
Solution:
Given
In a district in 2014 A.D.,
Total population = 797456
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 15
Live births = 143672
Crude birth rate (CBR) = ?
Now,
According to the formula,
Total live births in a place in a year
CBR = × 1000
Mid year population of that place in the same year
143672
= × 1000
797456
= 180.16 per 1000
∴ CBR of that district in 2014 A.D. was calculated as 180.16 per 1000.
In the above example, CBR is calculated as 180. 16 per 1000. With this value, we understand
that nearly 180 live births took place among 1000 mid year population in the district in the
year 2014 A.D.
Advantages of CBR
i. CBR is the simplest form of measuring fertility.
ii. It is easy to calculate.
iii. There is need of only live births and mid year population to calculate CBR.
Disadvantages of CBR
i. It is the rough estimation of fertility as total population is considered.
ii. It is not useful to compare fertility of different age group of females.
iii. It is affected by age and sex composition of population.
b. General Fertility Rate(GFR)
The total live births given by 1000 women of child bearing period (15-49) years in a place
in a year is called as general fertility rate.
Mathematically,
Total live births given by women of 15-49 years
GFR = × 1000
Mid year population of women of 15-49 years
It is expressed per 1000.
General fertility rate is somewhat more accurate than crude birth rate as there is use of
data on women of 15-49 years. According to Nepal Demographic Health Survey 2011, the
GFR of Nepal was 96 per 1000.
16 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
Worked out example: 2
In a city in 2010 AD, there were 242732 females in child bearing period (15-49 years) at the
beginning of year and at the end of year, they were counted as 244986. They gave birth to
138475 children in the same year. Calculate the general fertility rate of females.
Solution:
Given,
In a city in 2010 AD,
Live births = 138475
Population of females of 15-49 years at the beginning of year = 242732
Population of females of 15-49 years at the end of year = 244986
General Fertility Rate (GFR) = ?
We know,
Mid year population of females of 15-49 years
Population at the beginning of year + Population at the end of year
=
2
242732 + 244986
=
2
= 243859
Now,
Total live births given by females of 15-49 years
GFR = × 1000
Mid year population of females of 15-49 years
138475
= × 1000
243859
= 567.84
∴ GFR of that city in 2010 AD was calculated as 567.84 per 1000.
In the above example, GFR is calculated as 567.84 per 1000. It means that nearly 568 live
births were given by 1000 women of child bearing period (15-49 years) in the year 2010
AD.
c. Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)
Total live births given by 1000 women of a specific age group in child bearing period in a
place in a year is called as age specific fertility rate (ASFR).
Mathematically,
Total live births given by women of specific age group
ASFR = × 1000
Mid year population of women of the same age group
It is aso expressed per 1000.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 17
In order to calculate ASFR, generally total females in child bearing period are divided into
different age groups with an interval of 5 years, i.e.(15-19), (20-24), (25-29), (30-34), (35-39)
years, and so on. ASFR is more effective and accurate than CBR and GFR in calculating
fertility as there is use of data on specific age group of females in child bearing period. In
the context of Nepal, females of (20-30) years age group have more fertility than females
of other age groups.
Worked out example: 3
In a city of Nepal in 2012 A.D., there were 35000 women of (20 - 24) years and they gave
birth to 15000 children in the same year. Calculate the age specific fertility rate of those
women in that year.
Solution:
Given,
In a city of Nepal in 2012 A.D.
Total live births = 15000
Females of (20-24) years = 35000
Age specific fertility rate (ASFR) = ?
Now,
Total live births given by women of (20 -24) years
ASFR = × 1000
Mid year population of women of (20 - 24) years
15000
= × 1000
35000
= 428. 57
∴ ASFR of women of (20-24) years in that city of Nepal in 2012 A.D. was 428.57 per 1000.
In the above example, ASFR is calculated as 428.57 per 1000. It means that nearly 429 live
births were given by 1000 women of specific age group (20-24) years in that city of Nepal
in 2012 A.D.
Activity: 1
There were 20000 women of (25-29) years in a town in 2016 A.D. If the age specific
fertility rate of the women was calculated as 514. 75 per 1000, what would be total live
births given by them in that year.
Answer : 10295
d. Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Total fertility rate is an index of child bearing performance of a woman in child bearing
period. It can simply be said as the average children given birth by a woman/female
during her child bearing period in a place. It is calculated by multiplying the sum of age
18 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
specific fertility rate (ASFR) of women of different age groups with 5 (class interval) and
dividing it by 1000. It is regarded as more efficient and accurate than CBR, GFR and ASFR
for measuring fertility.
Mathematically,
ΣASFR × 5(class interval)
TFR =
1000
It is expressed per woman.
Worked out example: 4
Find out Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of female in mountain and hilly region based on
the following table:
Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)
Age Groups
Mountain Region Hilly Region
(15 – 19) years 152 182
(20 – 24) years 280 308
(25 – 29) years 363 400
(30 – 34) years 225 305
(35 – 39) years 185 206
(40 – 44) years 105 110
(45 – 49) years 50 65
Solution:
Given,
In Mountain Region
ΣASFR = 152 + 280 + 363 + 225 + 185 + 105 + 50
= 1360
Now,
ΣASFR × 5
TFR =
1000
1360× 5
=
1000
= 6. 80 per woman
Again,
In Hilly Region,
ΣASFR = 182 + 308 + 400 + 305 + 206 + 110 + 65
= 1576
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 19
Now,
ΣASFR × 5
TFR =
1000
1576 × 5
=
1000
= 7. 88 per woman
∴ TFR of women in mountain and hilly region were 6.80 per woman and 7.88 per
woman respectively.
Activity: 2
Calculate TFR of women on the basis of following table:
Age Group Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR) per 1000 women
(15 – 19) 80
(20 – 24) 185
(25 – 29) 130
(30 – 34) 70
(35 – 39) 35
(40 – 44) 15
(45 – 49) 5
Total 520
Answer: 2. 6 per woman
Measurement of Mortality
According to WHO, death can be defined as, “The permanent disappearance of all the
evidences of life.” Death is natural factor of population change. Everyone in the earth
whoever has taken birth has to die sooner or later.
Mortality can be measured by four different ways which are given below:
a. Crude Death Rate (CDR)
b. Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR)
c. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
d. Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)
a. Crude Death Rate (CDR)
The total deaths among 1000 mid year population in a place in a year is called as crude
death rate.
20 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
Mathematically,
Total deaths in a place in a year
CDR = × 1000
Mid year population of that place in a year
It is also expressed per 1000.
In CDR, only two data, total deaths and mid year population are required. So, it is easy
to calculate and compare. But, it is rough estimation as total deaths of any age groups are
considered in mid year population. According to 2011 A.D. census, CDR of Nepal was 7.3
per 1000.
Worked out example: 5
In 2015 A.D., 500 people died in a town in which there was 125670 population. Calculate
crude death rate of that town in that year.
Solution:
Given,
In a town in 2015 A.D.
Total deaths = 500
Total population = 125670
Crude death rate (CDR) = ?
Now,
Total deaths in a place in a year
CDR = × 1000
Mid year population of that place in a year
500
= × 1000
125670
= 3.97
∴ CDR of that town in 2015 A.D. was calculated as 3.97 per 1000.
In the above example, CDR is calculated as 3.97 per 1000. It means that nearly 4 people
died among 1000 mid year population in a town in 2015 A.D.
b. Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR)
The total deaths of specific age group of people in 1000 mid year population of the same
age group of people in a place in a year is called as age specific death rate.
Mathematically,
Total deaths of people of specific age group
ASDR = × 1000
Mid year population of the same age group
It is also expressed per 1000.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 21
In order to calculate ASDR, total number of people is divided into different age groups
with an interval of 5 years. (i.e.0 – 4) (10 – 14) (15 – 19), (20 – 24) etc. It is more accurate
and efficient than CDR. It can be used to calculate mortality rate for both male and female
separately.
Worked out example: 6
In a district in 2011 A.D., there were 544320 children of ( 0-4) years and 2952 of them died
in the same year. Calculate Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR) of children in that district.
Solution:
Given,
In a district in 2011 A.D.,
Death of children of (0 – 4) years = 2952
Total population of children of ( 0 – 4) years = 544320
Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR) = ?
Now,
We know,
Total deaths of children of specific age group (0 – 4) years
ASDR = × 1000
Mid year population of children of the same age group (0-4) years
2952
= × 1000
544320
= 5. 42
∴ ASDR of children of (0 – 4) years of that district in 2011 A.D. was 5. 42 per 1000.
In the above example, ASDR is calculated as 5. 42 per 1000. It means that nearly 5 deaths
of specific age group of population (0-4) years has taken place among 1000 mid-year
population of the same age group of population in a district in 2011 A.D.
c. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
Total deaths of infants in 1000 live births in a place in a year
is called as infant mortality rate.
Mathematically,
Total deaths of infants in a place in a year
IMR = × 1000
Total live births in a place in a year Fig: 2
It is also expressed per 1000.
Infant mortality rate indicates the socio-economic and health situation in the country. If
IMR is very high, it denotes poor socio-economic and health condition where as low IMR
22 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
denotes very good socio-economic and health condition in the country. Generally, the
developed nations have very low IMR but poor and developing nations have high IMR.
Worked out example: 7
In a village in 2010 A.D., there was birth of 986 children. If the infant mortality rate of that
village was calculated as 11.15 per 1000, what would be number of infants died?
Solution:
Given,
In a village in 2010 A.D.,
Total live births = 986
Infant mortality rate (IMR) = 11.15 per 1000
No. of infants died = ?
We know,
Total deaths of infants in a place in a year
IMR = × 1000
Total live births in a place in a year
Total deaths of infants
or, 11.15 = × 1000
986
11.15 × 986
or, Total deaths of infants =
1000
= 10.99 ≈ 11
∴ There was death of 11 infants in that village in 2010 A.D.
d. Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)
According to WHO, maternal death is defined as, “The death of a woman while pregnant
or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the
pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management
but not from accidental or incidental cause.”
Maternal mortality rate is defined as total deaths of mothers in 100000 live births in a
place in a year especially due to problems related to reproduction and pregnancy.
Mathematically,
Total deaths of mothers in a place in a year
MMR = × 100000
Total live births in the place in the same year
It is also expressed per 100000.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 23
Worked out example: 8
Suppose in Nepal in 2009 A.D., there were 2069415 live births but 318 mothers died in the
same year. Calculate maternal mortality rate in Nepal in that year.
Solution:
Given,
In Nepal in 20009 A.D.,
Total live births = 2069415
Total deaths of mother = 318
Maternal mortality rate (MMR) = ?
We know,
Total deaths of mothers in a place in a year
MMR = × 100000
Total live births in the place in the same year
318
= × 100000
2069415
= 15. 36 per 100000
∴ MMR of Nepal was calculated as 15. 36 per 100000 in 2009 A.D.
In the above example, MMR is calculated as 15. 36 per 100000. It means that nearly 15
mothers died among 100000 live births in 2009 A.D.
Measurement of Migration
Migration is the movement of people from one place
to another either permanently or temporarily due to
various reasons. Actually people migrate from one
place to another due to pull and push factors.
Pull Factors Fig: 3
Those factors which attract people to come to live in a particular place are called pull factors.
For example, Availability of facilities like health education, sanitation, transportation,
communication, drinking water, suitable climate, employment opportunities, availability
of cultivable land, security, entertainment facilities, etc.
Push Factors
Those factors which force people to leave a place and migrate to other places are called
push factors. For example scarcity of facilities like health, education, transportation,
communication, political conflict, insecurity, unfavourable climate, lack of cultivable
land, spreading of disease/epidemics, occurrence of natural calamities like flood,
24 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
landslide, earthquakes, volcanic eruption,cyclones, tsunami, etc., increase of pollution,
desertification, lack of drinking water, etc.
We can measure migration by four different ways which are explained below:
a. In-Migration Rate(In- MR)
b. Out - Migration Rate (Out MR)
c. Net Migration Rate (NMR)
d. Gross Migration Rate (GMR)
a. In-Migration Rate(In- MR)
The total number of in-migrants in 1000 mid year population in a place in a certain year
is called as in-migration rate.
Mathematically,
Total number of in migrants in a place in a year
In-MR = × 1000
Mid year population of that place in the year
It is also expressed per 1000.
Worked out example: 9
The population of a city in 2008 A.D. was 225000. In the same year, there were 38000 in-
migrants in the city, calculate the in-migration rate of that city in that year.
Solution:
Given,
In a city in 2008 A.D.,
Number of in-migrants = 38000
Total population = 225000
In - migration Rate (InMR) = ?
We know,
Total number of in migrants in a place in a year
In-MR = × 1000
Mid year population of that place in the year
38000
= × 1000
225000
= 168.88
In-MR of that city in 2008 A.D. was 168. 88 per 1000.
In the above example, In-MR is calculated as 168.88 per 1000. It means that nearly 169
people in-migrated among 1000 mid year population in a city in 2008 A.D.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 25
b. Out - Migration Rate (Out MR)
The total number of out migrants in 1000 mid year population in a place in a year is called
as out migration rate.
Mathematically,
Total number of out migrants in a place in year
Out MR = × 1000
Mid year population of that place in the year
It is also expressed per 1000.
Worked out example: 10
The population of a village in 2013 A.D. was 2893. What would be out migration rate of
that village if 172 people out migrated from that city in that year?
Solution:
Given,
In a village in 2013 A.D.,
Number of out migrants = 172
Total population = 2893
Out Migration Rate (Out MR) = ?
We know,
Total number of out migrants in a place in a year
Out MR = × 1000
Mid year population of that place in the year
172
= × 1000
2893
= 59.45
∴ Out MR of that village in 2013 A.D was 59. 45 per 1000.
In the above example, Out MR is calculated as 59.45 per 1000. It means that nearly 59
people out migrated among 1000 mid year population in a place in a year.
c. Net Migration Rate (NMR)
The difference between number of in-migrants and out migrants in 1000 mid year
population in a place in a year is called as net migration rate.
Mathematically,
Number of in-migrants – Number of out migrants
NMR = × 1000
Mid year population of a place in a year
It is also expressed per 1000.
26 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
Worked out example: 11
The population of a city was 225000 in the beginning of year and at the end of year, it
reached 2,20, 000. About 1200 people in migrated and 900 people migrated out from the
city. Now, calculate net migration rate of that city.
Solution:
Given,
In a city,
Population at the beginning of year = 225000
Population at the end of year = 220000
Number of in-migrants = 1200
Number of out-migrants = 900
Net Migration Rate (NMR) = ?
We know,
Mid year population of that city in a year
Population at the beginning of year + Population at the end of year
=
225000 + 220000 2
=
2
445000
=
2
= 222500
Again,
Number of in-migrants – Number of out-migrants
NMR = × 1000
Mid year population of a place in a year
1200 – 900
= × 1000
222500
= 1. 34
∴ NMR of that city was 1.34 per 1000.
In the above example, NMR is calculated as 1.34 per 1000. It means that nearly 1 in-migrant
is more than out migrant among 1000 mid year population in a city.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 27
Note
While calculating NMR, if the value of NMR is positive, it shows that there is more
number of in-migrants than out migrants in a place which ultimately increases
population in a place.
If the value of NMR is negative, it shows that there is more number of out migrants than
in-migrants in a place which ultimately decreases the population in that place.
d. Gross Migration Rate(GMR)
The sum of in-migrants and out-migrants in a place in a year is called as gross migration
rate.
Mathematically,
Number of in-migrants + Number of out migrants
GMR = × 1000
Mid year population of a place in the year
It is also expressed per 1000.
Activity: 3
The mid year population of a town is 25,455. If 590 people came from the village and 466
left the town, what will be the gross migration rate in that town?
Other Measurements
a. Rate of Natural Increase(RNI)
The difference between CBR and CDR is called as rate of natural increase.
Mathematically,
CBR – CDR
RNI = × 100
1000
It is expressed in percentage. In RNI, there is no discussion of migration, only data on
birth and death are used.
Worked out example: 12
If CBR and CDR of a country are 32. 7 per 1000 and 9.2 per 1000 respectivley, what will be
the rate of natural increase?
Solution:
Given,
In a country
CBR = 32.7
28 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
CDR = 9.2
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) = ?
We know,
CBR – CDR
RNI = × 100
1000
32.7 – 9.2
=
10
23.5
=
10
= 2.35%
∴ RNI of that country is 2.35%.
b. Population Growth Rate (PGR)
Population growth rate is the sum of rate of natural increase (RNI) and net migration rate
(NMR). It shows the increase or decrease of population in a place or a country.
Mathematically,
CBR + CDR + NMR
PGR = × 100
1000
It is expressed in percentage.
While calculating PGR, if the value of NMR is positive, ‘+’ sign is used but if the value of
NMR is negative, ‘–’ sign is used.
Worked out example: 13
If a place has 31 crude birth rate, 9 crude death rate and 2 migration rate, find out the
population growth rate of that place.
Solution:
Given,
In a place,
Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = 31
Crude Death Rate (CDR) = 9
Net Migration Rate (NMR) = 2
Population Growth Rate (PGR) = ?
We know,
CBR – CDR + NMR
PGR = × 100
1000
31 – 9 + 2
=
10
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 29
24
=
10
= 2.4 %
∴ The PGR of that place is 2.4 %.
c. Population Doubling Time (PDT)
Population doubling time can be defined as the time period required to double the
population if the annul population growth rate remains constant in the future as well.
Population doubling time estimates the calculation of population in a place in future. It
helps to determine the size of population.
Mathematically,
70
PDT =
PGR
It is expressed in years.
If the annual population growth rate is 1%, it will take 70 years to double population.
With 2 % annual population growth rate, population will double in 35 years and with 3 %
annual growth rate, it will double in 23. 33 years.
Worked out example: 14
During the census of 2011 A.D, the total population of Nepal was 2,64, 94, 504 and the
annual population growth rate was 1.35%. Calculate how many years it will take to double
the population.
Solution:
Given,
In Nepal in 2011 A.D.,
Total population = 2,64,94, 504
Annual Population Growth Rate (PGR) = 1.35%
Population Doubling Time (PDT) = ?
We know,
70
PDT =
PGR
70
=
1.35
= 51. 85 years
The population of Nepal will double in 51.85 years with the annual population growth
rate of 1.35%.
30 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
d. Dependency Ratio (DR)
The total population is broadly classified into three major age group as (0–14) years
children, (15–59) years and 60 years and above old people. Children of (0–14) years and
old people of 60 years and above are dependent population or economically inactive
population. Similarly, people of age group 15 to 59 years are independent population
or economically active population. The independent population needs to take care of
dependent population. We can calculate the dependency ratio to show relation between
dependent and independent population.
Dependency ratio can be defined as total number of dependent population in 100
independent population.
Mathematically,
Total number of dependent population
D.R. = × 100
Total number of independent population
or
Total number of (0 – 14) year + 60 years and above population
D.R. = × 100
Total number of (15 – 59) years population
It is expressed in percentage.
Activity: 4
In a country in 2011 A.D., there were 8859234 children below 15 years, 2261532 old
people of 60 years and above and 14015792 people of (15 – 59) years. Calculate the
dependency ratio of that country. Ans: 79. 34%
e. Sex Ratio (SR)
Sex ratio can be defined as total number of males in 100 females.
Mathematically,
Total number of males
Sex Ratio (S.R.) = × 100
Total number of females
It is also expressed in percentage (%).
Sex ratio helps to know the total number of males and females as well as number of males
in 100 females.
Worked out example: 15
If the male population of a place was 22563921 and female population 22587902, find out
the sex ratio of that place.
Solution:
Given,
In a place,
Male population = 22563921
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 31
Female population = 22587902
Sex Ratio (S.R) = ?
We know,
Total number of males
S.R. = × 100
Total number of females
22563921
= × 100 = 99.89%
22587902
∴ The sex ratio of that place is 99.89%.
In the above example, sex ratio is calculated as 99.89%. It means that there is nearly equal
number of males and females in a place.
2.2 Consequences of Rapid Population Growth
Birth, death and migration are responsible for change of population. They affect the size of
population, density and composition of population. When the annual population growth
rate is more that 2.1 % and total fertility rate (TFR) of women is 2.1 per woman, it is regarded
as rapid increase of population. Rapid population growth seriously affects social, economic
and environmental aspects. It directly affects in the overall development of entire nation.
When there is increase in population, there is increase in number of feeding mouth. They
demand more food and shelter place. They randomly cut down forest to extend cultivable
land and place for shelter. Deforestation leads towards depletion of wildlife, degradation
of natural resources, scarcity of underground water, imbalance in environment and
occurrence of natural calamities. Similarly, extension of settlement areas leads towards
unmanaged urbanization, increase of pollution, problem of solid waste management, etc.
The increase of population creates increase in demand of several facilities like health,
education, drinking water, transportation, communication, entertainment, employment,
security, etc. Increase of population causes scarcity of all those facilities and increase of
crimes,violence as well as disturbance in peace, prosperity and harmony in the society.
The consequences of rapid population growth in various aspects of our life are described
below:
Impact of Rapid Population Growth on Socio-economic Aspects
a. Impact on Health
Health is the basic right of every individual.
People like to remain healthy and free from
diseases. Rapid increase of population has serious
impact on the health of people. With the increase
of population, there is increase in number of
patients as well. But in the ratio of increased
population, the number of health centres and
Fig: 4
32 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
healthy manpower is not increased or sufficient. There is increase in number of patients
in the limited number of hospitals. In many conditions, there is lack of hospital beds
and patients are treated either keeping two in one bed or in the floor. Likewise, there is
more pressure of patients for the limited doctors in hospital. Many people have to wait
for long period of time for their turn for check up or for the surgery. It has been observed
that people have to wait for six months to one year for the surgeries in major hospitals
in Nepal. Moreover, the doctors can’t provide sufficient time for the patients either for
check ups or counselling. As a result, people do not have proper diagnosis of diseases and
they have to suffer a lot. Apart from this, people do not get basic health services. There
is prevalence of many communicable diseases, increase of infant mortality rate, maternal
mortality rate and scarcity of medicines in Nepal.
b. Impact on Education
Education leads us from darkness to light. It
makes us knowledgeable and supports for
taking right decision at right time. With the
increase in number of people, there is increase
in number of students as well. But in the
ratio of increased population, the number of
schools and colleges is not sufficient. There is
increase in competition among large number
of students for admission in limited seats. Even Fig: 5
if they get admission in schools and colleges,
the classrooms become crowded, noisy and there is scarcity of benches for all of them. It
becomes difficult for the teacher to control the class. Only the limited students can listen
whatever the teacher teaches. Likewise, there is scarcity of educational materials and
skilled as well as trained teachers. As a result, there is great impact on the overall learning
and achievement of students. Hence, there is decrease in quality of education.
c. Impact on Cultural Heritages
Cultural heritages are our valuable properties
and are made by our ancestors utilizing their
valuable skills and knowledge. They are
the means which make the country popular
and renowned in the world. Every year,
thousands of tourists visit several cultural
heritages and cultural heritage sites by which
there is promotion of tourism development
and generation of foreign currency. With Fig: 6
the increase in population, there is random
extension of settlement areas. People construct tall buildings near the cultural heritage
sites even encroaching their land areas. Construction of tall buildings block the cultural
heritages and diminishes their importance and beauty. Even there is extension of markets
near the cultural heritage sites which increases pollution there. Similarly, some people
throw the wastes here and there in the surroundings. Likewise, population growth causes
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 33
unemployment and unemployed people steal valuable idols and monuments. Moreover,
the increase in pollution caused by industrialization and unmanaged urbanization has
destroyed the monuments and cultural heritages. Increase in pollution causes corrosion
and degradation of important monuments and idols.
d. Impact on Employment
Due to population growth, there is increase in
number of economically active population. They
need some sorts of jobs in industries, government
services and other commercial sectors. But in the
ratio of increased population, less employment
opportunities are available in industrial sectors,
commercial sectors, government and non–
government sectors. There is huge competition
among large number of people for the vacancy Fig: 7
of limited posts. We can observe the data on
application of several thousand people on the vacancy published for few posts by public
service commission in Nepal . So, only some people are enrolled in jobs and many other
applicants remain jobless. As a result, there is increase in crime and violence. Moreover, people
have difficulty to sustain their life, their living standard decreases and poverty is increased.
e. Impact on Drinking Water
Water is one of the most essential parts of our
life. It is very important in our daily life. Due to
population growth, there is increase in demand
of drinking water. There has been increase of
deforestation with the increase of population.
Deforestation leads towards scarcity and drying
up of underground water. There is increase
in consumption of under ground water by
increased population but its recharge is less due
to deforestation. Similarly, increase of population Fig: 8
has resulted into unmanaged urbanization and
industrialization. The industrial wastes are randomly discharged in water sources like river,
lakes, ponds, streams etc. which cause pollution of them thereby affecting the supply of
drinking water. Similarly, the industrial discharges are also mixed in water sources. Hence,
people suffer a lot during winter season. Generally, in the dry season, people have to remain
in long queue to get a few litres of water in the urban areas whereas people have to walk
several miles to fetch little water in the rural areas. People in the rural areas have to spend a
lot of energy and time in search of drinking water.
f. Impact on Food
Food is the most essential part of our life. It is most important for our proper growth,
development and survival. People must consume nutritious food and balanced diet so as
to remain healthy and free from diseases. With the increase of population there is increase
in number of feeding mouth and increase in demand of food. Hence, people randomly
34 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
cut down forest so as to extend the cultivable land and settlement areas. Moreover, people
randomly and massively utilize chemical fertilizers on land. As a result, there is increase
in land pollution as well as decrease in soil fertility and food production. Similarly,
increase of population has caused random extension of settlement areas thereby leading
towards decrease of cultivable land. Due to decrease of cultivable land, food production is
reduced. In order to fulfill the increased demand of food by population growth, country
has to import more food from abroad which causes increase in price of food. Thus, more
and more people cannot get sufficient amount of food and ultimately their living standard
is decreased. In the context of Nepal, every Nepalese should have 2256 calorie of energy
everyday. But, people are getting only 1815 calorie of energy everyday. When people do
not get sufficient amount of food containing all the required nutrients like carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals, they will suffer from malnutrition. Malnutrition
seriously affects the physical and mental development of people.
g. Effect on Clothing
Clothes are also equally important in our life.
People need to wear suitable clothes according
to the weather and climatic condition of a place.
They need to wear thick clothes in winter and
thin clothes in summer. Due to population
growth, there is increase of demand of clothing.
But there is establishment of limited clothing
industries in Nepal. Even there is increase of
deforestation with the increase of population.
As a result, there is scarcity of raw materials for Fig: 9
clothing industries. Moreover, there is increase in demand of clothing due to population
growth. Hence, the demand of clothing is high but the supply is less. Then, the country
needs to import large amount of clothing from abroad. This leads towards increase in price
of clothing as well. There is a serious impact on the overall economy of nation with more
imports. The increase in price of clothes makes many problems to the poor people.
h. Impact on Housing
Housing is also one of the basic needs
of people. People need to have better
housing with required facilities in it. Due to
population growth, there is random extension
of settlement areas which leads towards
unmanaged urbanization. Unmanaged
urbanization makes serious problems for the
management of drinking water, drainage,
electricity, communication facilities, solid
waste management etc. It causes adverse Fig: 10
effects on people themselves and in the environment. With the increase of population,
there is increase in number of people living in the same house. Hence, there is lack of
toilets and problem of drainage in the house. Likewise, increase in crowd in the house
increases unhealthy environment and causes spreading of various diseases. Moreover,
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 35
construction of more houses leads towards increase of pollution and the environment
looks untidy as well.
i. Impact on Security and Entertainment
People need to feel secured for the stability in life.
They need to feel secured in home, surrounding
areas, working place and so on. They must feel
secured of their family members and family
properties. Due to population growth, there is
high chance of unemployment among increased
population. Increase of unemployment leads
towards violence and crime like pickpocketing,
stealing, kidnapping, robberies, murdering,
etc. Hence,the peace and prosperity as well as Fig: 11
security and harmony in the society are hampered with the increase of population.
People equally need entertainment activities. They provide refreshment and support
in relieving mental tensions, anxieties and tiredness. Due to population growth, there
is increase of crowd in cinema halls, parks, swimming pools and other public places.
Even the play grounds, lakes, ponds, open places, etc. are also destroyed. People have to
remain in a long queue to get tickets in the public places. Moreover, people can’t enjoy
in those places due to more crowd. As a result, people have to face several problems in
entertainment activities.
Impact of Rapid Population Growth on Environmental Sectors
a. Impact on Forest and Vegetation
Forest is very important natural resource
for human beings. Forest provides us fresh
air, conserves underground water, causes
rainfall, maintains balance in eco-system,
binds, the soil and prevents occurrence of
natural calamities. Due to population growth,
there is random increase of deforestation so
as to extend settlement areas and cultivatable
land. People cultivate even in slopy areas and
destroy forest. They randomly cut down forest Fig: 12
for firewoods, food and fodder for animals
as well. Deforestation leads towards the destruction or limitation of shelter place of
wildlife, rareness of wildlife, scarcity of underground water, lack of fresh air, occurrence
of natural calamities like flood, landslide, soil erosion as well as imbalance in ecosystem
and environment.
36 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
b. Impact on Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystem
With the increase of population, there is
random increase of deforestation for extension
of settlement areas and cultivable land. As a
result, the shelter place of wildlife is either
limited or destroyed. Destruction of shelter
place affects in the free movement, reproduction
process and food chain of wildlife. People do
hunting and poaching of different animals and
birds as well. Hence the number of wildlife is
decreased. Many of them have become rare Fig: 13
and some of them are already extinct.
Increase of population has resulted into
unmanaged urbanization and industrialization.
They cause land and water pollution. The
harmful solid and liquid wastes mixed with
deadly chemicals are randomly thrown on land
and get mixed into water resources like river,
lake, pond, watershed, streams etc. Random
discharge of waste on land causes spreading
of diseases, serious impact on reproduction
process and life cycle of terrestrial plants and Fig: 14
animals. Similarly, the plants, animals and
insects in the aquatic bodies are severely affected by mixing of solid and liquid wastes. As
a result, the entire water ecosystem is destroyed.
c. Impact on Water
Water is very important for all the living
creatures. Water resources and water
ecosystem are seriously affected by increase
of population. Due to increase of population,
there is increase of unmanaged urbanization
and industrialization. The wastes produced
from settlement areas and markets are thrown
in nearby water resources like rivers, streams,
lakes, ponds, etc. There is direct joining of
drainage and sewage from settlement areas Fig: 15
into water resources. There is increase of water
pollution and quality of water is decreased. Similarly, the industries randomly discharge
solid wastes and liquid discharges containing harmful chemicals, gases. They are mixed
into the water resource. Likewise, flood in river during rainy season and run off of chemical
fertilizers used on land to grow more food also increase water pollution. Hence, there
is scarcity of drinking water, spreading of various water borne diseases like diarrhoea,
dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, hepatitis, cholera, viral fever, liver problem, kidney disease,
gastric problems, nerve problems, etc. and serious impact on water ecosystem.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 37
d. Impact on Air
Air is very important element in our life. We
need air for our survival. Without air, we
cannot survive even for few minutes. Air is
present in our surrounding every time. Air
is regenerated naturally in the earth. The
plants and trees produce oxygen gas during
photosynthesis process which is most essential
for our breathing. But, air is highly polluted
due to human beings and human activities. Fig: 16
Due to population growth, there is random increase of unmanaged urbanization and
industrialization. Unmanaged urbanization has caused random extension of settlement
areas and gathering of more people in rooms and houses. This has increased pollution
of air in the surrounding. Even there is increase of deforestation with unmanaged
urbanization. Due to deforestation, there is scarcity of fresh air. Even there is production
of various gases from kitchens in the houses which adds up air pollution. Industrialization
has caused establishment of various industries and factories in different parts of nation.
Industries and factories produce large amount of smoke containing harmful gases like
CO , CO, CH , SO , NO , NO, CFC, etc. Mixing of all those gases leads towards air
2
2
4
2
pollution. Similarly, there is increase in number of vehicles with the increased population.
Vehicles produce large amount of carbon monoxide (CO) gas which creates air pollution.
Likewise, unmanaged urbanization leads towards random construction of buildings and
apartments. Construction works add up dust particles in air and decrease the quality of
air. As a result, there is increase of ozone layer depletion, acid rainfall, global warming,
green house effect, climate change, desertification and other environmental consequences.
Moreover, there is spreading of various diseases like lung cancer, bronchitis, asthma,
pneumonia, Acute Respiratory Tract Infection (ARTI), etc.
e. Impact on Land
Land is the place where various living
creatures including human beings live. It is
the place where people cultivate various crops,
vegetables and other fruits plants. So, it is the
place which supplies us food for our proper
growth, development and survival. Increase of
population causes over utilization of land and
land pollution. Fig: 17
With the increase of population, there is increase in demand of food. People randomly
cut down forest so as to extend the cultivable land to grow more food. Even there is
unmanaged urbanization which causes extension of settlement areas and decrease of
land to grow food. Moreover, people excessively and randomly use chemical fertilizers,
insecticides, pesticides, etc. on land. They cultivate even in the slopy areas. As a result,
there is decrease in soil fertility, food production as well as increase of land pollution
and occurence of natural calamities like, landslide, soil erosion, etc. In the same way,
unmanaged urbanization and industrialization lead towards random discharge of
38 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
plastics, solid and liquid wastes here and there in the surrounding. This increases
spreading of insects and germs as well as various diseases like diarrhoea, dysentery,
tuberculosis, malaria, encephalitis, dengue, etc. Similarly, land pollution increases air and
water pollution which seriously affect the food chain, life cycle and balance in ecosystem.
f. Impact on Minerals
Minerals are the metallic and non-metallic
substances which are present on and inside
the earth’s surface. They are non-renewable
natural resources. They are limited in earth.
There is close relationship between people
and the minerals available on earth. Minerals
have close relationship in our day to day
activities. They are used as raw materials in
different industries as well as they are utilized
in development of various infrastructures.
Due to population growth, there is random Fig: 18
increase of settlement areas and other
construction works like roads, hydropower dams, airport, bridges, canal, colleges and
universities, shopping malls, commercial buildings, apartments, colonies, etc. During the
construction works, various metallic minerals like iron, copper, steel, zinc, tin, aluminium
as well as non-metallic minerals like limestone, marble, granite, sand, stone, glass, etc. are
excessively utilized. There is increase in demand of such minerals with the increase of
construction works. Increase in demand of such minerals leads towards excessive mining.
During mining, the crude mineral compounds are explored initially. When the mineral
compounds are exposed to air on land, they cause air and land pollution. Similarly, the
mineral compounds get mixed into water sources leading towards water pollution. People
need to face several problems with different types of pollution. Moreover, excessive use
of minerals disturbs the balance between human beings and environment as well as
evacuation of mineral resources from earth.
g. Increase of Sound Pollution
Sound is produced from different sources.
When there is production of large amount
of sound we feel irritated and the peace and
harmony in the environment are disturbed.
Sound is produced from various human
activities.
Due to population growth, there is increase
in number of people. Increase in crowd leads
towards more production of sound. Similarly,
urbanization and industrialization are
increased with population growth. Extension Fig: 19
of urban areas increases random construction
works. The use of machineries and equipments during construction works increases
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 39
sound pollution. In the same way, vehicles, aeroplanes, trains, etc. are increased in the
urban areas which add up sound pollution there. Likewise, musical concerts, festivals,
sports tournaments, etc. are also increased in urban areas and sound pollution is increased.
With the industrialization, many industries and factories are established in different parts
of nation. Many equipments and machineries run continuously for several hours in the
industries and factories. Continuous running of machineries creates sound pollution. As a
result, people have various health impacts. The physical and mental conditions of people
are seriously affected. They have loss of hearing power, increase of irritation, mental
tension, blood pressure, insomnia, etc.
2.3 Population Management
People need air, water, soil, minerals, forest, etc. for their survival. In one way or another,
they are most essential for their proper growth and development. When there is increase
of population in a place, all the resources like forest, water, soil, minerals are massively
utilized. As a result, there is increase of pollution, depletion of wildlife, degradation
of environment as well as several consequences related with them. Moreover, there is
increase of imbalance in environment. Hence, the population should be managed and the
size of population should be maintained based on available resources in the environment.
Population management is the process of making balance in the distribution of population
so that the available resources in environment can be effectively utilized.
Population management is not simply control of population. It even denotes increase of
population as well. When there is less population in a place than the available resources
in the environment, the resources are not effectively utilized. Though, there are not many
adverse impacts on the environment with less population than the available resources,
no doubt, there is somehow imbalance in environment. Many of the developed nations
have negative population growth. The population is decreasing in those nations. Hence,
increase of population in those nations is a part of population management.
Methods of Population Management
Though population management includes either increase or decrease of population, there
is discussion about methods of control of population for population management in this
unit.
There are various methods of population management. It can be managed directly and
indirectly. Direct way of population management is related to control of migration and
birth rate directly whereas indirect way is related to generation of awareness on people
so as to bring change in their attitudes and behaviours towards the control of population.
The following chart shows the methods of population management.
40 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
Methods of Population Management
Direct Method Indirect Method
Marriage at Appropriate Age Gender Equality
Conception at Appropriate Age Improvement in Status of
Birth Spacing Women
Expansion of Population
Legal Abortion
Education
Adoption of Contraceptive
Methods and Use of Enrollment in Income
Contraceptive Devices Generation
The direct and indirect methods of population management are described below:
Indirect Methods of Population Management
a. Gender Equality
Gender equality is the maintenance of balance
between son and daughter considering both
of them have equal existence. It is the freedom
from biasness and favouratism in the matter of
sex. People must treat son and daughter equally.
Both of them should be provided with equal
opportunities in education, health, nutrition,
training, etc. When people maintain gender
equality, people get satisfied with either one or Fig: 20
two children no matter they are sons or daughters.
Gender equality reduces the priority of people for bearing son child no mater they
have already given birth to many daughters. Moreover, both husband and wife should
consider themselves equal. Both of them must fulfill their family responsibilities equally.
They must participate equally in bringing up of children. They should have common
consensus for bearing children and maintaining family size. The feeling and behaving
equally for each other no doubt supports in considering son and daughter equally as well
as control population.
b. Improvement in Status of Women
More than 50% of total population in Nepal is
occupied by females. But, the status of females is
not better. They are highly discriminated and are
given less opportunities for education. According
to 2011 A.D. census, only 57.4% of females are
literate that is quite less than 75.1% of literate
males. Females are simply thought to remain in
home, bear children, take care of them and do all Fig: 21
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 41
the household activities. They are deprived of decision making and planning of family.
In certain cases, females are forced to bear more children as well as have polygamy due
to their status. Hence, the females need to be educated and people must maintain gender
equality. Generally, the educated females understand the effects of population growth and
they are aware of controlling population. Moreover, they should be given opportunities for
acquiring skills and trainings, employment, social and political participation, awareness
generation, decision makings etc. When the females get job opportunities, they have less
time in bearing and rearing children. Ultimately, the population is controlled.
Direct Methods of Population Management
a. Marriage at Appropriate Age
Marriage is compulsory in our society. But, people
need to marry only after proper physical growth and
socio-economic empowerment. Getting married only
after physical and socio-economic empowerment is
regarded as marriage at appropriate age. It is better
to get married at the appropriate age, i.e. 25-30 years
for both males and females. It is better to get married
at that age group from physical, mental, biological,
social, economical, emotional, pshychological and
reproductive point of view. People must avoid early
marriage because early marriage can lead towards Fig: 22
increase in fertility rate of females and increase in
number of children. Even, they must avoid late marriage which can have adverse impact
on health of mother and child. Marriage at appropriate age delays bearing of children and
controls population growth.
b. Conception at Appropriate Age
People need to get married at the appropriate age. After marriage, people like to bear
children but it is better to bear children only after proper physical maturity. Females need
to conceive only after 20 years. That is called as conception at appropriate age. It reduces
complications during pregnancy and delivery period. Similarly, there are less physical
and emotional problems by conception at appropriate age. Moreover, conception at
appropriate age decreases fertility rate in females.
c. Birth Spacing
Maintaining at least four to five years of gap
between the birth of two children is called birth
spacing. People must strictly maintain birth
spacing when they wish to bear more than one
child. There are several advantages of birth
spacing. Some of them are as follows:
i. It helps to maintain family size.
Fig: 23
ii. It helps parents to bring up children.
42 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
iii. It provides time for parents to get involved into social and economic activities.
iv. It helps to resettle the reproductive organs of females.
v. It reduces complications during pregnancy and delivery time.
vi. It helps to reduce infant mortality rate and maternal mortality rate.
d. Adoption of Contraceptive Methods and Use of Contraceptive Devices
People need to have family planning through proper management and mobilization of
means and resources in the family for the maintenance of peace, prosperity, happiness
as well as welfare of all the family members. People can have happiness and prosperity
when they have small family size. People need to adopt various contraceptive methods
and use various contraceptive devices so as to limit the family size and control population.
By adopting various contraceptive methods and using contraceptive devices, people can
ensure small family and remain happy in the family life.
Contraceptive devices include artificial devices, equipments or some chemicals which
prevent the fusion between sperm of males and ovum of females. As a result, fertilization
does not take place. In the same way, contraceptive method includes some procedures in
which the fallopian tubes that transmit ovum in females and vas deferens that transmit
sperms in males are cut and tied off. Likewise, in other contraceptive methods, there is
no use of any artificial devices or equipments. The following chart shows contraceptive
methods and contraceptive devices:
Contraceptive Methods and Devices
Artificial Methods Natural Methods
Rhythm method
Temporary Method Permanent Method Withdrawl method
Cervical mucus
Male Female Male Male method
- Condom - Oral pills - Vasectomy - Minilap Body temperature
method
- Gossypol - Foam tablets - Laparoscopy
Lactional
- Depoprovera injection Amenorrhoea
- Norplant Method, (LAM)
- IUCD
- Femidom
- Jellys, oinments
Natural Contraceptive Methods
The methods in which there is no use of any artificial device are called as natural
contraceptive methods. However, this method is not much reliable method to control
population. Some of the natural contraceptive methods are described as follows:
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 43
i. Rhythm Method
Rhythm method is the method in which there is avoidance of sexual intercourse from
9th-19th day of menstruation. That period is regarded as unsafe period because there is
high chance of fertilization between sperm and ovum during this period. But, first eight
days of menstruation and the days after 20 day of menstruation are regarded as safe
th
period. There is less chance of fertilization between sperm and ovum during safe period.
This method is also called as calendar method. It is based on the menstruation cycle in the
females. This method is practised by many females.
ii. Withdrawl Method
The method in which males pull out their penis from vagina during the time of ejaculation
in sexual intercourse is called withdrawl method. This method is also called coitus
interruptus method. When the sperm is ejaculated outside the female’s body, there is no
chance of fertilization between sperm and ovum. This method is practically difficult to
practise because at the time of ejaculation, males are in orgasm phase and may not control
ejaculation of semen. This method is practised by males.
iii. Cervical Mucus Method
The method of testing cervical mucus before
having sexual intercourse is called as cervical
mucus method. In this method, people need to
wash their hand properly and insert the fingers
into vagina to take out mucus. Then, mucus is
stretched keeping it into thumb and index fingers.
If the mucus is thick, translucent, non-slippery
and non-stretchable, it indicates about safe period
for sexual intercourse. But, if the mucus is thin, Fig: 24
stretchable, slippery and transparent, it indicates
about unsafe period for sexual intercourse. This method is not much reliable method.
iv. Basal Body Temperature Method
The method in which body temperature of females is measured throughout the whole
month to judge about day of sexual intercourse is called as body temperature method. It
is said that body temperature of females is increased during the time of ovulation. Hence,
people can avoid sexual intercourse observing the body temperature.
v. Lactational Amenorrhoea Method (LAM)
The period in which mother feeds her breast milk to
her baby is called lactation period. The lactational
amenorrhoea method remains effective among
the mothers who are quite active in breast feeding
their children. During the lactation period, there
is less production of oestrogen and progesterone
hormones, supression of ovum production and
postpone of menstruation cycle. As a result, Fig: 25
44 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
there is very less chance of fertilization between sperm and ovum. This continues till
few months only. Once, there is starting of menstruation cycle in lactating females, this
method does not work.
Artificial Contraceptive Methods
The methods in which there is use of artificial devices to control birth of children are
called artificial contraceptive methods.
It is further divided into following two types as:
i. Temporary Contraceptive Method ii. Permanent Contraceptive Method
i. Temporary Contraceptive Method
The method in which there is use of artificial devices to delay the pregnancy or birth of
children for certain time period is called temporary contraceptive method. It is applied
for birth spacing.
There has been development of separate temporary contraceptive devices for both males
and females. Males can use condom where as females have many more choices. They
can use oral pills, foam tablet, IUCD, depoprovera injection, norplant, femidom, jelleys,
ointments, etc. All of them are explained in brief.
Temporary contraceptive device for male:
Condom
Condom is temporary contraceptive device
developed for males to avoid conception. It is
cylindrical in shape whose one end is open and
another end is closed. It is made up of thin,
elastic, rubbery material called polyurethane. It
is used from open end in erect penis and rolled
down the penis. Since, one end of condom is
closed, the sperms after ejaculation in sexual
intercourse remain in condom and hence, there
is no chance of fusion between sperm and ovum. Fig: 26
It even protects from transmission of various
types of STIs like HIV/AIDS, Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Hepatitis B and C, etc. It is found in
different sizes. Nowadays, there is availability of dotted, ribbed and different flavoured
condoms in the market.
Advantages
It is easily available in the market.
It is cheap.
It prevents fusion between sperm and ovum.
It prevents transmission of various types of STIs.
It is very effective device.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 45
Disadvantages
It can be used only once.
It can cause allergy to some people.
Sometimes, it can rupture.
Temporary Contraceptive devices for female
a. Oral Pills
Oral pills are temporary contraceptive devices
developed for females which are consumed by
females orally daily so as to avoid conception.
They are found in the market in the form of tablets
as ‘Gulab’ or ‘Nilocon White’.
A packet of oral pills contains 28 tablets in which
21 tablets are white and 7 tablets are brown.
Initially, females should start consuming white
tablets one at a time daily continuously for 21
days. After then, the brown tablets should be
consumed. If the females forget to take any tablet Fig: 27
even for a day, it becomes ineffective and cannot
avoid conception in case of sexual intercourse.
Oral pills contain oestrogen and progesterone hormones which suppress the ovum
production and prevent fertilization between sperm and ovum. They also produce thick
mucus in cervix which neutralizes the sperms and block the entrance of sperms in vagina.
Advantages
It is 99% effective if consumed daily.
It is easily available in the market.
It is cheap.
It helps to continue menstruation cycle.
It does not affect in sexual intercourse.
Disadvantages
It becomes ineffective if forgotten to consume even a single day.
Females gain weight.
There is irregularity of menstruation cycle.
There is increase of bleeding during menstruation.
It may cause headache and dizziness for some females.
Females suffering from liver, heart, kidney problems as well as cancer should not use
the oral pills.
Females should consult the physician before using it.
46 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
b. Foam Tablet
Foam tablet is an effective device which is inserted into
the vagina 10 to 15 minutes before sexual intercourse.
With the body temperature, it melts down and forms a
foam. So, it is regarded as a foam tablet. In the market,
it is available as ‘Kamal’ tablet. The formation of foam
neutralizes the sperms and blocks the entrance of
sperms into vagina.
Advantages Fig: 28
It is an effective device.
It is cheap.
It is easily available in the market.
It is easy to use.
It does not cause negative effects.
Disadvantages
It is only partially effective against STIs.
Some may have possibilities of allergies or irritation.
People need to wait for 10 to 15 minutes to melt down foam tablet before sexual
intercourse which may be impractical.
c. Depoprovera Injection
It is the device which is taken in the form of injection.
It is used once in 3 months interval either in thigh or
arm. As it is taken in 3 months interval, it is called as
tin mahine sui (three months) injection or sangini sui.
It contains progesterone hormone. It should be taken
within 7 days of menstruation. It suppresses the ovum
production, makes the cervical mucus thick which
blocks the entrance of sperms into vagina and disturbs in
implantation of fertilized zygote into the walls of uterus.
Fig: 29
Advantages
It works for 3 months.
Females do not need to use any other devices.
Even diabetic and hypertension patients can also use it.
Disadvantages
Females gain weight.
It may cause abdominal pain and headache in some females.
It causes irregularity of menstruation cycle.
It causes excessive bleeding during menstruation.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 47
d. Norplant
Norplant contains six thin small capsules which
are very effective devices. These capsules contain
progesterone hormones and are inserted into arms
within 7 days of menstruation. Once the capsules
are inserted in arms, capsules release progesterone
hormones in the body. They affect the ovary, supress
ovum production, make cervical mucus thick and
prevent entrance of sperms into vagina. As a result,
conception does not take place. Norplant works for
5 years. However, it can be inserted only by a trained Fig: 30
medical personnel.
Advantages
It works for 5 years.
It is very effective device.
Capsules can be removed before 5 years if the females wish to bear children.
Even breast feeding mother can use it.
Disadvantages
It makes females gain weight.
There is irregularity of menstruation cycle.
It causes excessive bleeding during menstruation.
It needs frequent check ups.
It is not available everywhere.
It cannot be used by cancer, liver patients as well as smokers.
It is not suggested to use by females above 30 years.
e. Intra Uterine Contraceptive Devices (IUCD)
Those devices which are kept inside the uterus of females
are called as Intra Uterine Contraceptive Devices. For
example, copper T, loops, diaphragm, spirals, etc. But,
copper T is used more than others. Here, only copper-T
is described.
Copper T is an English letter ‘T’ shaped device made up
of plastic wrapped by metal copper. It contains a string
and is inserted into uterus. The use of copper T blocks
the entrance of sperms into uterus as well as it destroys
the already developed foetus. It can be inserted only by Fig: 31
trained medical personnel. It works for 10 years once it is inserted.
48 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
Advantages
It is 95% effective device.
It does not affect the sexual intercourse.
It works for 10 years once inserted in uterus.
Females do not need to use any other devices after using it.
It can also be removed before 10 years if females wish to bear children.
Disadvantages
It makes females gain weight.
It causes abdominal pain.
It causes irregularity of menstruation cycle.
It causes excessive bleeding during menstruation.
It is not easily available anywhere.
Sometimes, it may come out itself.
It needs to be inserted only by a trained medical personnel.
It does not prevent transmission of STIs.
f. Femidom
Femidom is female condom. It is made up of thin, elastic,
transparent, strong and soft rubbery material called
polyurethane. It is somewhat larger than male condom. Its
one end is open and another is closed. It is also cylindrical
in shape. The closed end is inserted inside vagina. During
the sexual intercourse, the sperms of males are collected at
the closed end of the femidom after ejaculation. So, there
is no chance of fusion between sperm and ovum. The use
of femidom prevents transmission of various types of STIs.
Fig: 32
Advantages
It is very effective device.
It prevents transmission of STIs.
It prevents conception.
It can be used by females of any age.
It does not affect sexual intercourse.
There is very less chance of allergy.
It can be used by females having vaginal dryness.
It can be used by females who have various side effects of using other devices.
GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10 49
Disadvantages
It is expensive.
It is not easily available in the market.
It can be used only once.
It should not be used together with male condom.
Emergency Contraceptive Method and Its Use
Every time people may not want to bear a child after sexual
intercourse. Generally, when people have unprotected
sexual intercourse, they do not desire to bear unwanted
pregnancy. Most of the unwanted pregnancies by unsafe
sexual intercourse lead to unsafe abortion. This has
serious health impacts on females and sometimes death
of females may occur. Females must adopt emergency
contraceptive method during emergency condition Fig: 33
especially during unprotected sexual intercourse.
The method adopted in unprotected sexual relationship so as to avoid fertilization between
sperm and ovum is called as emergency contraceptive method. In this method, emergency
contraceptive pills and IUCDs are used. This method should be adopted only during
emergency condition and should not be used regularly as other contraceptive method.
Situation in which emergency contraceptive method is used:
i. When there is sexual relationship without using any contraceptive devices.
ii. When the condom ruptures or tears.
iii. When a female forgets to take oral pills, regularly for 2 days.
iv. When IUCD or copper T comes out itself or diaphragm moves.
v. When people are not sure about effectiveness of natural contraceptive method.
vi. When there is raping of a female.
Precautions to be considered before using emergency contraceptive method
i. A pregnant woman should not use any kind of contraceptive devices.
ii. It should not be used by females suffering from chronic diseases like diabetes, heart
disease, cancer, chronic allergies, edema (swelling of limbs), etc. Females should have
health check up before using emergency contraceptive method.
Use of Emergency Contraceptive Methods
The oral pills containing more concentration of oestrogen and progesterone hormones as
well as IUCDs are used as emergency contraceptive devices. The following devices are
used as emergency contraceptive devices.
50 GREEN Health, Population and Environment Education Book-10
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