An Introduction to the Geography of Tourism
An Introduction to the Geography of Tourism VELVET NELSON ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC. Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK
Published by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 10 Thornbury Road, Plymouth PL6 7PP, United Kingdom Copyright © 2013 by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-inPublication Data Nelson, Velvet, 1979– An introduction to the geography of tourism / Velvet Nelson. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4422-1071-4 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-4422-1072-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978- 1-4422-1073-8 (electronic) 1. Tourism—Environmental aspects. 2. Geographical perception. I. Title. G156.5.E58N45 2013 338.4'791—dc23 2012050789 ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America
Contents
Contents Contents Preface Abbreviations PART I: THE GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM Chapter 1: Geography and Tourism Chapter 2: Basic Concepts in Tourism Chapter 3: Overview of Tourism Products PART II: THE GEOGRAPHIC FOUNDATION OF TOURISM Chapter 4: The Historical Geography of Tourism Chapter 5: The Transport Geography of Tourism Chapter 6: The Physical Geography of Tourism: Resources and Barriers Chapter 7: The Human Geography of Tourism: Resources and Barriers PART III: THE GEOGRAPHY OF TOURISM EFFECTS Chapter 8: The Economic Geography of Tourism Chapter 9: The Social Geography of Tourism Chapter 10: The Environmental Geography of Tourism PART IV: THE GEOGRAPHY OF SPACE, PLACE, AND TOURISM Chapter 11: The Organization, Development, and Management of Space in Tourism Chapter 12: Tourism Representations of Place Chapter 13: Experiences of Place in Tourism Glossary Bibliography About the Author
Preface When I undertook this project I first wondered if I would have enough material to fill a textbook. However, once I started working on it, I quickly realized that this concern was misplaced. Instead, I began to wonder how I was going to fit all of the material I wanted to cover into one textbook. The possibilities for subjects to be discussed in this book are endless. Making choices about what to include was made even more difficult by the fact that every day I would read about some new product, destination, issue, or trend in tourism. My goal for this textbook was to provide a broad overview of tourism from a geographic perspective. I wanted it to help students in geography use the foundation that they’ve been building to learn about a new topic and to help students in tourism look at their topic from a new perspective. I drew from the ever-growing literature on tourism in general, and tourism geography specifically, and covered a wide range of subjects and approaches. But there is much more that could be done. For example, in chapter 3, I introduce a number of tourism products. For the most part, these are products that are useful in framing the discussions in subsequent chapters, such as the economic, social, and environmental issues associated with tourism. But these are only a small sampling. New products, designed for various purposes, needs, and/or special interests, are emerging all the time, including things like medical/dental tourism, roots tourism, dark tourism, slow tourism, slum tourism, creative tourism, tourism for peace, even space tourism. Each new product has its own implications, many of which still remain to be seen. Tourism is clearly a dynamic industry, and the geography of tourism is an exciting field of study. This book is just a place to start. I encourage students to use this introduction as an opportunity to decide what part of the topic interests them most and learn more about it. For additional secondary research, begin by checking out the sources listed at the end of each chapter. However, in my opinion, a more in-depth knowledge of tourism geography requires primary research. For this, I recommend the participant observation methodology—get out there and experience it yourself! There are, of course, many people who have made invaluable contributions to this project. I must first thank Susan McEachern, editorial director at Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, for her interest in publishing a book such as this, and her
support throughout the entire process, as well as Dave Kaplan for suggesting the project in the first place. Thanks to Tom Nelson for all of the time he put in serving as my sounding board and proofreader, and also to Carolyn Nelson, Matt Stewart, Ava Fujimoto-Strait, and the spring 2012 GEO 3352 class for reading chapter drafts and providing feedback. Thanks also to Gang Gong for producing some of the maps used in the case studies. In addition, I am grateful to all of the family and friends who not only shared with me the travel photos and stories that appear in this book but also patiently answered my seemingly random questions, such as “Give me an example of a place that you’ve always wanted to go based on a movie.” (Most common answer: “That place in Thailand from The Beach.”) I appreciate all those who played along—although I did have to promise confidentiality to the source whose answer was “The redwood forests in California because of the Ewok scene in Return of the Jedi.” Thanks also go to Rebecca Torres for introducing me to the geography of tourism, to Brian Cooper for agreeing with me that travel is an essential part of my job, and to Barret Bailey for providing me with support and encouragement.
Abbreviations AAG Association of American Geographers BTA Barbados Tourism Authority CTC Canadian Tourism Commission CTD central tourism district CTO Caribbean Tourism Organization GIS geographic information system IGU International Geographical Union NCGE National Council for Geographic Education
NGO nongovernmental organization NGS National Geographic Society PPT pro-poor tourism RGS Royal Geographical Society SIDS small island developing states TALC tourist area life cycle TIES The International Ecotourism Society TRA tourism resource audit UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization WWF World Wildlife Federation
Chapter 6 The Physical Geography of Tourism: Resources and Barriers As tourists, we routinely evaluate the physical geography of potential destinations. From this perspective, it isn’t important that we understand the science behind how or why a place is shaped by the earth’s physical processes. Rather, we simply need to know enough to determine if a place has the physical setting we’re looking for, if its physical conditions will provide us with the opportunity to participate in the activities we want, or if its conditions might keep us from doing those things. Armed with a little knowledge about the patterns of a place, we can try to make informed decisions about where to go as well as when. This same knowledge is also needed by stakeholders at both emerging and existing destinations to assess (and reassess) the physical resources for tourism in that place. However, for these stakeholders, it may be more important that they have some understanding of physical geography, especially when it comes to negotiating the physical barriers to tourism in that place. Because tourism is a human phenomenon, greater emphasis is placed on examining tourism through the topical branches of human geography. Nonetheless, it is still important to consider the physical side of geography. Physical geography is the subdivision of geography that studies the earth’s physical systems. As in human geography, physical geography is further organized into topical branches, including meteorology and climatology, hydrology and oceanography, geomorphology, and biogeography. This chapter introduces each of these topical branches and examines how the elements in the earth’s physical system affect tourism, either as a resource that provides the basis for tourism or as a barrier that prevents tourism. In addition, it considers how global environmental change is also affecting patterns of tourism. First,
however, we will discuss the concept of resources as applied in the context of tourism. Resources, Barriers, and the Tourism Resource Audit In general terms, resources refer to some type of product that is perceived to have value and may be used to satisfy human needs and/or wants. Geographic research on resources recognizes that these products are relative and subjective. This means that what is considered a resource depends on the cultural, political, economic, and/or technological circumstances of a society at a given point in time. Consequently, something that might be considered a resource for one group of people might not be for another due to different cultural values, political priorities, economic conditions, or levels of technology. Likewise, what is considered a resource in one time period might not be in another due to changes in all of these factors. While resources may be human or cultural, we typically think of physical or natural resources that are elements in the earth system. The availability of these resources is dependent on physical processes but also human efforts. Applied to the context of tourism geography, tourism resources are those components of a destination’s environment (physical or human) that have the potential to facilitate tourism or provide the basis for tourism attractions. Physical tourism resources are considered to be “an invaluable tourism asset and . . . fundamental to the development of tourism for virtually all destinations. They tend to be the foundation from which other resources are developed, and thus often play both a principal and key supporting role in tourism.” 1 Moreover, tourism activities are contingent on not one but a combination of resources. These resources may be readily available tangible features in the geography of a place, but for many resources, destinations must still develop them to be used in tourism. This is based on the goals and values of the target tourist market to meet their demands and create that complementarity between places discussed in chapter 5. Whereas the presence of resources can allow a destination to develop, the presence of barriers can prevent it. A barrier refers to something material in the environment that constitutes a physical impediment or something immaterial that creates a logistical or perceptual impediment. As with resources, what is considered a barrier—and the extent to which it functions as a one—varies with different cultural norms, political policies, economic circumstances, or
technological advancement. Elements in the earth-ocean-atmosphere system can present distinct physical barriers, but they also have the potential to become perceptual barriers as well. In tourism, both physical and perceptual barriers may prevent tourists from visiting certain destinations. Additionally, these barriers have the potential to shape the ways in which destinations develop. Thus, a destination needs to evaluate its physical geography not only for potential resources but also for any barriers and to find ways of overcoming them—whether it is grading the landscape, installing artificial snowmakers, or convincing potential tourists that the weather’s really not as bad as they think it’s going to be. Tourism stakeholders, especially those at emerging destinations, frequently fail to fully understand the conditions of their own resource base. With economic benefit as the goal, stakeholders may take shortcuts in the development process. They may choose to model their industry on that of a successful destination, even though circumstances are different for each place. They may conduct only a superficial analysis of the area’s resources, or they may simply assume that they already have all of the information they need. Yet, it’s never that simple. Some resources are attractions in themselves; these are the ones that are often easy to spot (e.g., Mount Everest). Others, however, simply provide the framework that allows for tourism. It can be much more difficult to understand how the quality, quantity, distribution, accessibility, seasonality, and so forth of these resources are going to affect tourism in that place. The tourism resource audit (TRA) is a tool that can be used by destination stakeholders to systematically identify, classify, and assess all of the features of a place that will impact the supply of tourism. Because resources are subjective, however, this can be tricky. Typically, a range of stakeholders, coming from different perspectives, should be involved to create the most comprehensive and appropriate dataset. This will include experts to provide scientific data and analysis, community members to contribute local knowledge, industry analysts to assess market potential, and even tourists to offer the demand-side perspective. A variety of strategies can be used to create an exhaustive list of resources that are critically evaluated to understand how they might affect tourism. In recent years, geographic information systems (GIS) have been used to manage the often large datasets created by a TRA. Analysis of this data allows stakeholders to determine the strengths and weaknesses of tourism at the destination, improvements that need to be made, and strategies that should be put in place for both immediate and long-term development.
Although this process is, perhaps, less exciting than other aspects of tourism development and promotion, it is fundamental. According to the authors of The Tourism Development Handbook, “The effort put in at this stage should be well rewarded later on with the development of a more successful and sustainable tourism destination.” 2 Still, a TRA only captures the condition of resources at a given time. Resources, and what are considered resources, are not static. Consequently, the TRA database should be updated regularly, and tourism strategies reevaluated accordingly. The Physical System, Physical Geography, and Tourism A system is defined as an interrelated set of things that are linked by flows of energy and matter and are distinct from that which is outside the system. This is an important organizing concept in physical geography, as the earth is made up of interrelated physical systems, including the abiotic systems (i.e., the overlapping, nonliving systems consisting of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere) that provide the basis for the biotic system (i.e., the living system made up of the biosphere). Specifically, the atmosphere is the thin, gaseous layer surrounding the earth’s surface. The hydrosphere encompasses the waters that exist in the atmosphere, on the earth’s surface, and in the crust near the surface. The lithosphere includes the solid part of the earth. Finally, these three spheres form the basis for the biosphere, which is the area where living organisms can exist. Each of these spheres can be studied through different but ultimately interrelated topical branches in geography, including meteorology and climatology (atmosphere), hydrology and oceanography (hydrosphere), geomorphology (lithosphere), and biogeography (biosphere). Table 6.1 provides a summary of the resources and barriers associated with each of these branches of physical geography, and the issues are discussed below. In the past, there have been fewer links between tourism and these topical branches of geography, in comparison with those on the human side of geography. Nonetheless, physical geography plays a crucial role in our understanding of the earth and our place in it, and geographers recognize that these physical systems have distinct impacts on all aspects of human life. Thus, there is clear potential for greater research connecting physical geography and tourism geography. METEOROLOGY, CLIMATOLOGY, AND TOURISM
METEOROLOGY, CLIMATOLOGY, AND TOURISM While it may seem like the atmosphere is beyond the scope of geography, it is still an integral part in the earth system. Not only do atmospheric processes affect what happens in other spheres, these phenomena also affect human life every day. Geographers are interested in both weather and climate to understand how patterns vary from place to place, how they shape those places, and how they affect human activities on the earth’s surface. Meteorology and climatology are interrelated atmospheric sciences. Meteorology is the study of weather, which refers to the atmospheric conditions (e.g., air temperature and pressure, humidity, precipitation, wind speed and direction, cloud cover and type, etc.) for a given place and time. Because these conditions are dynamic, in an almost constant state of change, there is a distinct focus on short-term patterns. Climatology is the study of climate, which refers to the aggregate of weather conditions for a given place over time. Climatology expands upon meteorology by considering longer-term trends, making generalizations about average weather conditions, and identifying variations or extremes. In one introduction to physical geography, the distinction between weather and climate is bluntly put in this way: the idea of a place’s climate is what attracts people to that place, but it is the reality of day-to-day weather conditions that makes them leave. 3 While overly simplistic, this does raise an important consideration for the demand perspective in the geography of tourism. Tourists depend on information about the climate of a destination to try to make an informed decision about whether or not that place generally has the right conditions for the desired tourism activities at the time of year in which they intend to visit. Yet, climate data does not predict specific weather conditions. Forecasts become increasingly unreliable beyond just a few days, and most trips will be planned well in advance of that. Consequently, tourists may find that the actual weather conditions at the destination during their vacation aren’t what they expected. This can be simply an inconvenience or prompt small changes in their plans, but it can also fundamentally alter or even cancel a trip. Table 6.1. Summary of How Features in Each of the Topical Branches of Physical Geography Can Become Resources for or Barriers to Tourism.
Branch
Resources
Barriers
Meteorology and climatology
Attraction In general, good weather conditions Perceptual depending on individual and cultural preferences and desired activities
Detraction Perceptual depending on individual and cultural preferences and desired activities
Basis for activities Moderate temperatures Sun (e.g., sunbathing) Precipitation (e.g., skiing)/lack of precipitation (e.g., most outdoor activities) Wind (e.g., windsurfing)/lack of wind (e.g., swimming)
Disrupt activities Extreme temperatures Precipitation/lack of precipitation Wind/lack of wind Natural hazards (e.g., thunderstorms, hurricanes, blizzards)
Hydrology and oceanography
Attraction Unique water features (e.g., waterfalls, geysers) Specific characteristics (e.g., meandering rivers for floating, rapids for whitewater rafting and kayaking) Distinct properties (e.g., thermal or mineral springs for medical treatments) Foundation for attractive tourism landscapes (e.g., green golf courses, landscaped resorts, decorative fountains)
Detraction Perceptual (e.g., lack of available water to create attractive tourism landscapes) Physical (e.g., poor water quality)
Basis for activities Swimming and bathing Boating and rafting Watersports Fishing
Disrupt activities Lack of available water to participate in tourism activities Health risks from poor water quality Natural hazards (e.g., flooding, tidal surges, tsunamis)
Necessary quantity and quality Drinking and bathing Cooking and cleaning
Branch
Resources
Barriers
Geomorphology
Attraction Unique landforms (e.g., islands, mountains, canyons, caves) Cultural values (e.g., sacred landscapes) Landform processes (e.g., erupting volcanoes)
Detraction Perceptual (e.g., cultural and personal perceptions of uninteresting or ugly landscapes)
Location for resorts High-altitude summer retreats and health resorts
Prevent accessibility Physical (e.g., landforms that cut a destination off from major markets and/or make transportation difficult)
Basis for activities Mountain hiking/climbing Winter sports
Disrupt activities Natural hazards (e.g., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions)
Biogeography
Attraction Distinct biomes (e.g., tropical rainforest, temperate rain forest, desert) Attractive vegetation (e.g., flowering plants, fall colors) Unique, rare, or endangered plant and animal species
Detraction Lack of expected vegetation (e.g., barren instead of lush) Deforested landscapes Diminished wildlife populations due to habitat loss, overhunting, and poaching
Basis for activities Nature hikes, canopy tours Fruit picking, truffle hunting Bird watching, wildlife safaris
Disrupt activities Natural hazards (e.g., wildfires) Outbreaks of animal diseases (e.g., foot-and-mouth disease) One tourism scholar notes: “It is generally accepted that climate is an important part of the region’s tourism resource base, but the role of climate in determining the suitability of a region for tourism or outdoor recreation is often assumed to be self-evident and therefore to require no elaboration.” 4 Another argues that tourism planning rarely considers anything more than “simple, general descriptions of the climate, which are often unconnected to the needs of tourism.” 5 When we consider all of the ways in which weather and climate impact tourism, we should begin to realize that this cannot be taken for granted. While the intersection between the geography of tourism and climatology has been explored in greater depth than the other branches of physical geography, the literature still clearly argues for more work to be done. Box 6.1. Experience: Irish Blue, Tuscan Rain, and Memories of European Weather A few years ago, my husband and I decided that we had the time and money to start traveling more. I had traveled in Europe years ago, before I got married and had children, but my husband had never been. The first destination that we chose was Switzerland. It was wonderful. Every day we had beautiful sunny skies and perfect pleasant temperatures for the kinds of activities we wanted to do: exploring the historic cities and hiking in the mountains. We had such an amazing experience that we decided to make a trip to Europe an annual event. The next year we chose Ireland. Obviously we knew that this was going to be a different kind of experience. Everyone told us to expect that the weather wouldn’t be very good. But it was even worse than we anticipated. Apparently, for the duration of the week that we were there, a front coming off the North Atlantic got stalled over the island. Temperatures were colder, and the rain heavier, than normal. It literally rained every day, and almost all day at that. On the day that we visited the Rock of Cashel, which we were looking forward to as the highlight of our trip, we had horrible, wind-driven downpours. Throughout the course of the trip, we got excited anytime we saw small patches of blue sky, which we dubbed “Irish blue.” We had one afternoon with some skies like this and temperatures
that might have made it up to 60°F. Of course, after everything else, we were grateful for some notentirely-unpleasant conditions. However, we were still somewhat amused by the fact that the locals kept commenting on how great the weather was and headed in droves to the ice cream shops. This isn’t to say that we don’t have good memories of Ireland—we do—and we generally liked it, in spite of the weather. We chose Slovenia after that, and honestly, we didn’t know quite what to expect from the weather. We had some days of nice weather, especially in the Julian Alps, that reminded us of Switzerland. We also had some days of rain. There was one day in particular that we will always remember. We had taken the train to the city of Maribor. We had heard that some of the area’s famous ski slopes were open for hiking during the summer, so we found a place to ride the cable car up the side of a mountain with the intention of hiking down. It was a sort of gray, overcast kind of day, but we assumed (mistakenly) that it was going to stay that way. Shortly after we reached the top and got off, it started to drizzle. At this point, our only option was to start walking. As it turns out, there wasn’t exactly a path, so we just followed the other people down the side of the mountain. As we passed through cow pastures, the rain started getting harder. And harder. Fortunately, we did have rain ponchos with us that kept us from getting completely soaked—on the top half at least. I think I could have poured the water out of my running shoes. It seemed like an awfully long trip down the side of that mountain, and after we reached the bottom, we were on the wrong side of the slope, so we had to walk farther still to the place where we could catch a bus to take us back to the train station. Finally, we stopped at a restaurant and ordered some drinks just to get out of the rain for a little while. We felt rather conspicuous, wearing our silly ponchos and dripping water, as we sat down among the nicely dressed Slovenes there for dinner. I wouldn’t say that this ruined our experience of Slovenia. But it is definitely something that we vividly remember about that trip.
Figure 6.1. Trying to make the best of the situation while hiking in the rain in Maribor, Slovenia. (Source: Carolyn Nelson) Finally, we headed to Italy. We chose Tuscany expressly for its reputation as a warm, sunny destination. On the day that we arrived, it was just that. But after that, we didn’t see the sun again, and we saw even less “Irish blue” than we had in Ireland. It was just plain cold, with driving rain, and we were unable to do any of the things that we had planned to do. We were most looking forward to taking several days to hike in the Cinque Terre, but the paths between the towns were closed because all of the rain had made them treacherous. So we were forced to stick to the cities. Of course, it’s hard to appreciate the spectacular medieval and Renaissance architecture of places like Florence when all you can see is the underside of your umbrella. And because we had expected to spend our time outside, we hadn’t made reservations at any of the museums, and it was too late to do it at that point. Needless to say, it was not a fun trip and the biggest disappointment of all. It’s been a few years, but we haven’t been back to Europe since then. It wasn’t exactly the weather that put us off Europe for a while—although that was definitely part of it. We’ll go back sometime in the next few years, and you can be sure that we will choose both where we go and when carefully to give us the best possible chance of having good weather. We can say from experience that it absolutely does make a difference. —Carolyn It is said that weather and climate have a greater influence over what can and cannot be done in a given place than any other physical feature, and this applies to the development of tourism. These elements determine the time and length of the tourism season, the products that can be developed, the location of activities and infrastructure, and more. Generally speaking, climate is the feature that a destination is least able to manipulate to provide the desired conditions for tourism. An exception might be a snowmaker that ensures tourists can have the experience they came for, although natural conditions, such as a day of sun with five to ten inches of fresh powder, are still considered to be the best. Whether it is nature-based or in an urban area, much of tourism takes place outside. As such, elements of weather and climate can be a resource that does not generate tourism but provides the conditions that allow for tourism activities to take place. Tourism is voluntary; tourists will only participate in an activity if the conditions allow it to be done safely and relatively comfortably. Consequently, there is an important correlation between weather and tourism revenues, either directly (e.g., financial losses due to poor or unexpected weather conditions) or indirectly (e.g., financial gains in secondary tourism activities that are less sensitive to the weather).
These elements of weather and climate can also be the resource on which tourism depends. Obviously, sun is a vital resource for sun, sea, and sand tourism. For these elements of the physical system, though, what is considered a resource for or a barrier to tourism is variable, depending on the activity and perceptions. This means that the same feature can, in fact, be both. For example, in the case of Tarifa, Spain, located between the popular 3S resorts of Costa del Sol and Costa de la Luz, the presence of high winds was a barrier to the development of sun, sea, and sand tourism. However, stakeholders turned this feature into a tourism resource by promoting the destination as the “capital of wind” and developing niche tourism activities like windsurfing. 6 Destinations seek to reassure potential tourists in target markets of their conditions, such as in the case of Barbados and their “perfect weather” (box 2.3). However, even destinations with notoriously poor weather conditions for tourism activities try to make the most of it. For example, Scotland’s National Tourism Organization website, Visit Scotland, cheerfully encourages tourists to “explore Scotland’s landscape of lochs and mountains, its interesting geography and its gloriously unpredictable climate.” 7 Moreover, rather than shying away from their bad weather, they make light of it while highlighting other attractions. In breaking down the seasons, the site declares that hospitality is “something that improves as the weather worsens.” 8 Finally, extreme weather events such as hurricanes or blizzards present a barrier to tourism. As a perceptual barrier, tourists may avoid destinations when and where there is the potential for a hazard to occur (e.g., the low tourism season for destinations in the Caribbean and the Pacific corresponds to the hurricane season). As a physical barrier, these events have the potential to prevent tourists from reaching a destination or participating in the desired activities at a particular time. In addition, the damage and destruction caused by an extreme weather event has a long-term effect on the destination. It will face not only the cost of repairs but also the lost revenues while it is partially or completely closed to tourists. Additionally, the destination may have to work to recover those tourists who went elsewhere for the duration by advertising that they are open again or by offering discount specials. HYDROLOGY, OCEANOGRAPHY, AND TOURISM The hydrosphere includes the surface water in oceans, lakes, and rivers; subsurface water; frozen water; and even water vapor in the atmosphere. As a
result, there is significant overlap between this sphere and the others. Broadly, hydrology is the science of water and considers the properties, distribution, and circulation of water in the hydrosphere. However, modern hydrology is specifically concerned with fresh water. Fresh water is incredibly important in shaping human activities; consequently, the study of hydrology provides us with the means of understanding the availability of fresh water so that this fundamental resource can be appropriately managed to provide people with both the quality and quantity of water that they need. At its most basic, oceanography is the study of processes in oceans and seas and is therefore concerned with saline water. The global ocean is the most extensive feature of the hydrosphere. Covering 71 percent of the earth’s surface, oceans make up approximately 97 percent of the earth’s surface water. 9 Water is a tremendously significant resource for tourism. Combined with the environments surrounding it, this feature provides the basis for countless tourism attractions and activities around the world. Features such as waterfalls and geysers are often scenic attractions, while thermal and mineral springs have long provided the basis for health resorts. Rivers and lakes (both natural and artificial) allow for recreational activities, such as boating, fishing, rafting, kayaking, wildlife viewing, and more. Today, some of the most significant destinations are located in coastal areas. The beach, in particular, is considered to have a powerful appeal to the physical senses. For many societies, it is considered to be an aesthetically pleasing place that provides the potential for recreation from sunbathing to water sports. Knowledge about these environments is important for stakeholders in the development and maintenance of a destination. The characteristics of a coast can shape the attractiveness of the area for tourism as well as its potential for tourist activities. Depositional coastlines characterized by beaches are common mass 3S destinations, while the more rugged erosional coastlines can be a resource for scenic tourism. White sand is often perceived to be the most desirable for beach tourism (figure 6.2), although volcanic black sand can be found on beaches in the Caribbean and Hawaiian islands, and some popular beaches in the Mediterranean are composed of rocks and pebbles. The calm waters of sheltered coves may be an important resource for mass tourism but not for niche tourism based on adventure and sport. Stakeholders also need to be aware of the physical processes at work along coastlines that can affect these resources and other infrastructure. Tourism destinations may need to periodically undertake beach nourishment to artificially replace lost sand or improve sand quality. For
example, nearly US$70 billion have been spent in efforts to maintain, rebuild, and replenish beaches in Miami-Dade County, Florida. 10 Figure 6.2. White sand beaches, such as this one at Verdado, Cuba, are distinct tourism resources and often the basis for modern 3S tourism destinations. (Source: Velvet Nelson) Finally, stakeholders need information about these resources to provide a safe and suitable environment for tourism activities. Data about tides, currents, and waves should be used to identify the optimal times to participate in water sports (e.g., swimming, snorkeling, scuba diving, surfing, etc.) and provide tourists with warnings about potentially hazardous conditions. A lack of water—in terms of appropriate quality or quantity—can present a tangible barrier to tourism development; however, this can be overcome. Water is a necessary precondition for tourism because it is a fundamental human