THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION MADAM AZLINA BINTI YACOB GROUP MEMBERS: - NURUL ALISYA BINTI OTHMAN - NURUL IFFAH BINTI MOHD ASRI
TUTORIAL QUESTION: In pairs, find inÿormation based on these hypotheses: 1. Output Hypothesis (Swain) 2. Interaction Hypothesis (LonĀ) 3. NoticinĀ Hypothesis (Schmidt)
Merrill Swain OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS (SWAIN) A Professor Emerita at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto. Canadian applied linguist whose research has focused on second language acquisition (SLA). The president of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 1998. She received her PhD in psychology at the University of California
OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS (SWAIN) “The output hypothesis claims that the act of producing language (speaking or writing) constitutes under certain circumstances, part of the process of second language learning” SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT 1. The noticing/triggering function: ● It refers to the awareness or “noticing” students find when they cannot say or write exactly what they need for conveying meaning. ● With the use of this function, learners realize there are some linguistics problems they need to manage, so that, it pushes the student to look for the adequate knowledge they require for completing the new discovered gap.
SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT 2. The hypothesis-testing function: ● This function suggests learners may use the method of “trial and error” for testing her /his production expecting to receive a feedback. ● This feedback can be applied in two ways: recasts and elicitations or clarifications requests 3. The metalinguistic (reflective function): ● Reflective or metalinguistic function refers to the fact that in trying to solve a problem in their output learners may consciously reflect upon the nature of the language system. ● Language is seen as a tool conducive to reflection on the language used by the teacher, their partners and the student himself/herself.
Interaction Hypothesis ( Michael Long) An American psycholinguist. a Professor of Second Language Acquisition at the University of Maryland, College Park. Michael Long - Long introduced the concept of focus on form, which entails bringing linguistic elements (e.g., vocabulary, grammatical structures, collocations) to students’ attention within the larger context of a meaning-based lesson in order to anticipate or correct problems in comprehension or production of the target language. - Long is also usually credited for introducing the Interaction Hypothesis, a theory of second language acquisition which places importance on face-to-face interaction.
● The Interaction Hypothesis claims that comprehensible input is important for language learning. ● It refers to when learners engage with their interlocutors in negotiations around meaning (Long 1981, 1983a, 1996) and that the effectiveness of comprehensible input is greatly increased when learners have to negotiate for meaning (Rod, 1997). Focus on form ★ "Rather, during an otherwise meaning-focused lesson, and using a variety of pedagogic procedures, learners' attention is briefly shifted to linguistic code features, in context, when students experience problems as they work on communicative tasks, i.e., in a sequence determined by their own internal syllabuses, current processing capacity, and learnability constraints. This is what I call focus on form." Applying Long's Ideas to the Classroom Provide Task-Based Language Teaching ● meaningful experiences of language learners ● problem solving through communicative tasks Provide Cooperative Learning activities ● motivates learners ● promotes interlanguage talk (talk between native and non-native speakers)
Richard Schmidt NOTICING HYPOTHESIS (SCHMIDT) He was the president of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 2003, and most recently served as a senior consultant for the National Foreign Language Resource Center at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. An American linguist and professor in the Department of Language Studies, University of Hawaii. His chief research interests were cognitive factors and affective factors in adult second-language acquisition
NOTICING HYPOTHESIS (SCHMIDT) 1. Learners have to consciously notice instances of the constructions of a second language in input in order to acquire them. 2. Schmidt claims that learner must attend to and notice linguistic features of the input that they are exposed to if those forms are to become intake for learning. 3. He also claims that “noticing” but not “understanding” is required for learning. 4. Learners cannot learn the grammatical features of a language unless they notice them. 5. Noticing is the essential starting point for the acquisition.
How this hypothesis help in teaching and learning? 1. The Noticing Hypothesis can help students to learn a language with strategies that include their interests so they can notice and pay attention to all the details of the language. 2. The Noticing Hypothesis help teachers to motivate language learning outside the classroom because students continue listening to music, watching TV or reading after class. In this way, the learning process does not end.
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Output Hypothesis (Swain) Interaction Hypothesis (Long) Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt) "the act of producing language (speaking or writing) constitutes, under certain circumstances, part of the process of second language learning” - Learning takes place when a learner encounters a gap in his linguistic knowledge of L2 - Learner becomes aware and may be able to modify his output = (learn something new about the language) - We acquire language when we attempt to transmit a message but fail & have to try again. Function of output: 1. The noticing - The awareness (noticing) students find when they cannot use L2 the way they want to convey meaning. 2. The hypothesis-testing function - Learners may use the method of “trial & error” to test his production to receive feedback 3. The metalinguistic - Learners reflect on the language they learn, the output enables them to control & internalise linguistic knowledge https://www.slideshare.net/rogeirolennon/comprehensibleoutput-hypothesis Environment contributes to the development of second language acquisition. Environmental contributions to acquisition are mediated by selective attention and the learner’s processing capacity during negotiation for meaning. Emphasis on face to face interaction and the form of language as a result: - Conversational Interaction between a more competent interlocutor & leaner is an essential condition for SLA. Through it, speakers modify their speech and interaction. - Modifies interaction leads to negotiation of meaning, which makes input comprehensible. Comprehensible input promotes SLA. https://www.slideshare.net/AtuAhuja/interaction-hypoth esis-by-atula-ahuja-20291820 "the noticing hypothesis states that what learners notice in input is what becomes intake for learning." 3 Aspects of consciousness in Language learning: 1. Awareness 2. Intention 3. Knowledge a) whether a learner deliberately attends to a linguistic form in the input or it is noticed purely unintentionally, if it is noticed it becomes intake; and b) that noticing is a necessary condition for L2 acquisition. https://www.tesl-ej.org/ej23/a2.html
WEEK 4: THEORIES OF SLA BY: NABIHAH, JANNAH, HANIM LECTURER: MADAM AZLINA
OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS (swain) -The comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis states that learning takes place when learners encounter a gap in their linguistic knowledge of the second language. By noticing this gap, learners becomes aware of it and may be able to modify their output so that they learn something new about the language. -Merrill Swain (1985), does not claim that CO is responsible for all or even most of our language competence. -Comprehensible output can advance the accuracy and fluency of language use because the learners can realize their mistakes and then correct it guided by teachers. Thanks to the feedback, the learners learn some new language CONCEPT
output hypothesis (swain) BACKGROUND In the 1970s, immersion education in Canada centrally focused on comprehensible input, achieved by teaching school subjects in French. In the 1970s, Swain pushed for change in the way immersion language teaching was conducted. Swain pointed out in a 1974 paper co-authored by Henry Barik about their observations in French immersion classrooms in two schools in Elgin county that even after many years in the immersion program, that “some of the errors do not disappear”. Swain pushed for a “combination of emphasis on grammatical accuracy and … meaningful communication from the very start”.Swain hypothesized that when exposed to content instruction in the target language, learners can deduce the meaning of language through contextual knowledge without needing to understand grammatical structures, and that it is more difficult to use this kind of shortcut when producing output.Swain suggested that students should be given more opportunities to produce output in the target language, as it would cause students to better notice structural aspects of the language.
output HYPOTHESIS I bought five tapes in a bookstore. I needed two receipts-one for two tapes and another one for the rest. But it took quite a long time for the shop assistant to understand what I was talking about because I had used the word "invoice " instead of "bill" or " receipt" I was not able to pay the driver because the passenger standing nearby refused to " exchange " my five-dollar bill as I had asked. I could not help but wonder how the nearby passenger could not have understood " exchange " in that context. Only after consulting a native speaker the next day did I understand that I should have asked the passenger to " change " rather than " exchange " the five-dollar bill EXAMPLES
Noticing hypothesis (schmidt)’S BACKGROUND The noticing hypothesis is a theory within second-language acquisition that a learner cannot continue advancing their language abilities or grasp linguistic features unless they consciously notice the input. The theory was proposed by Richard Schmidt in 1990.
Noticing hypothesis (schmidt) DEFINITION It also claims that learner must attend to and notice linguistic features of the input that they are exposed to if those forms are to become intake for learning. “noticing” but not “understanding” is required for learning. Concious learning is necessary for second language improvement and competence. In more simple words, people learn about the things that they pay attention to and do not learn much about the things they do not attend to.
Noticing hypothesis (schmidt) Learners cannot learn the grammatical features of a language unless they notice them. Two case studies (Japanese Artist Learning English & Professor himself) that Professor Schmidt carried out in those years led him to question that assumption.
EXAMPLE: (PROFESSOR HIMSELF) • Professor’s learning experience in Brazil. • He went to learn Portuguese for 5 months. He took a class for five weeks, and the rest of the language learning was through interaction with native speakers. • “The results of this study indicated that classroom instruction was very useful, but presence and frequency in communicative input were more important.” CONCLUSION: Professor and partner Frota found that some forms that were frequent were still not acquired until they were consciously noticed. This was the origin of the Noticing Hypothesis.
INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (Long) suggesting that environment contributes to the development of second language acquisition. Long proposes that environmental contributions to acquisition are mediated by selective attention and the learner’s processing capacity during negotiation for meaning.
INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS The crucial element in language process is the modified input How input is made comprehensible Interaction need to be modified to make the input comprehensible. Comprehensible input promotes acquisition Clarification Requests efforts to get the clarification by L2 to show that they don’t understand. example: Could you say that again?
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Notice gap in knowledge Interact Theories of SLA 1 3 2 Output Hypotheses (Swain) Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt) Interaction Hypothesis (Long) Merrill Swain Comprehensible Output (CO) "the act of producing language (speaking or writing) constitutes, under certain circumstances, part of the process of second language learning” (Swain 2005, p.) Noticing a gap in one's knowledge, testing and evaluation, and reflection upon language Richard Schmidt (1990) The change from linguistic input into intake and is considered a form of conscious processing. The claim that learners have to consciously notice instances of the constructions of a second language in input in order to acquire them Michael Long Long stated that participation in conversation with native speakers, which is made possible through the modification of interaction, is the necessary and sufficient condition for second language acquisition. TestReflect Modify Learn
Output Hypothesis (Swain) Interaction Hypothesis (Long) HYPOTHESES Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt) a theory in second language acquisition that suggests learners improve their language skills when they focus on producing language output. emphasizes the importance of actively using and producing the language you're trying to learn Input per se is not enough for LA. you need to practice the language the theory encourages learners to practice and actively use the language a theory that focuses on the idea that learners must "notice" or become aware of linguistic features in the input they receive in order to acquire them learners are more likely to learn and internalize aspects of a new language when they consciously pay attention to those features during communication or exposure to the language simply being exposed to the language is not enough; learners need to actively notice and focus on specific linguistic elements suggests people learn a new language better when they engage in conversations and interactions with speakers of that language actively communicating with others in the target language helps language learners improve more effectively Receiving feedbacks and correction guides learners to accurately learn a language it Highlights the importance of real communication and social interaction in the language learning proces
THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION MAHATHIR . ADAM
Output Hypothesis proposed by Merril Swain in 1980 suggested that learners not only improve their language profieciency through input but also through producing output. output Hypothesis Producing language makes learners notice their gap in knowledge & understanding “Pushed output” is where learners are pushed to produce language beyond their proficiency level. Output allows learners to reflect on their language production as they receive feedbacks It is closely related to interaction hypothesis where language learning occurs through interaction MERRILL SWAIN (1980)
INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (LONG) Comprehensible input is important for language learning. Long believes that face-to-face interaction paves way to language development. Provide Task-Based Language Teaching meaningful experiences of language learners problem solving through communicative tasks Provide Cooperative Learning activities motivates learners promotes interlanguage talk between native and non-native speakers
Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt) LEARNERS HAVE TO CONSCIOUSLY NOTICE INSTANCES OF THE CONSTRUCTIONS OF A SECOND LANGUAGE IN INPUT IN ORDER TO ACQUIRE THEM THE HYPOTHESIS CLAIMS THAT LEARNERS CANNOT LEARN THE GRAMMATICAL FEATURES OF A LANGUAGE UNLESS THEY NOTICE THEM
TSLB3103 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Lecturer: Madam Azlina Binti Yacob Prepared by: Miasara Faiha & Siti Nurhidayah
THEORIES OF SLA Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt) Output Hypothesis (Swain) ● Language learning occurs when learners encounter knowledge gaps during language production (Speaking & Writing) ● Learners become aware of these gaps through the process of "noticing," which leads to the reanalysis and development of their language skills 01 ● The development of language proficiency is promoted by face-to-face interaction. ● Comprehensible input is a requirement for second language acquisition. ● Interactional modification makes input comprehensive, hence promotes acquisitions. 02 ● Learners need to consciously notice the features of the language they are exposed to in order to learn them. ● Attention and noticing lead to the reanalysis of language knowledge and the development of language skills. 03 Interaction Hypothesis (Long)
BY: AMNI & YASMIN MADAM AZLINA BINTI YAACOB TSLB 3103
THEORIES OF SLA ● Speaking or writing in the language is crucial for learning. ● Actively expressing thoughts and ideas helps solidify language understanding. ● The process of producing language deepens linguistic knowledge. ● Learning is enhanced when learners engage in meaningful language output. OUTPUT HYPOTHESIS (Merrill Swain) ● Learning a language is best through interactive communication. ● Face-to-face interactions provide valuable opportunities for language acquisition. ● Meaningful conversations help in understanding and being understood. ● Feedback received during interactions aids in correcting mistakes and improving language skills. INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (Michele Long) ● Paying attention ("noticing") is crucial for language acquisition. ● Learners need to actively notice linguistic features in the language input. ● Actively observing and being aware of language details facilitate learning. ● Conscious attention helps internalize and remember language elements. NOTICING HYPOTHESIS (Richard Schmidt)
Theories of Second Language Acquisition Madam Azlina Binti Yacob Farrah, Hanis, Shuhada
In pairs, find information based on these hypotheses: 1. Output Hypothesis (Swain) 2. Interaction Hypothesis (Long) 3. Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt) Tutorial question
Merrill Swain a Canadian applied linguist whose research has focused on second language acquisition (SLA). Swain was the president of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 1998. Merrill Swain is a professor emerita of second-language education at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto. Born: 1944 (age 80 years) She received her PhD in psychology at the University of California.
Output Hypothesis The output hypothesis claims that the act of producing language (speaking or writing) constitutes under certain circumstances, part of the process of second language learning. The output hypothesis argues that learners should actively engage themselves in the creation of “comprehensible output” in order to develop linguistically and cognitively. People inclined to pay attention to the understanding of the meaning during the process of input but they would not be aware of the expression of forms. Functions of output The noticinĀ/ triĀĀerinĀ ÿunction The hypothesistestinĀ ÿunction The metalinĀuistic (reflective ÿunction)
Michael Hugh Long (1945 - February 21, 2021) was an American psycholinguist. INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS: MICHAEL LONG He was a Professor of Second Language Acquisition at the University of Maryland, College Park. Career: -LL.B. (Bachelor of Laws) degree -A Post Graduate Certificate from the Department of English -A M.A. in Applied Linguistics -A Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics Long is also credited for introducing the Interaction Hypothesis, a theory of second language acquisition which places importance on face-to-face interaction.
INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS Claims that comprehensible input is important for language learning. It refers to when learners engage with their interlocutors in negotiations around meaning. The Input Hypothesis states that a language learner only needs to be supplied with “input” through the forms of reading, listening to conversations, and lessons on grammar and vocabulary. The Output Hypothesis, on the other hand, stresses the importance of practicing and speaking to retain and remember the language. The Interaction Hypothesis combines both the “input” and “output” by stating that interaction is not only a means for a learner to study the language, but also a way for the learner to practice what he has learned. Two hypotheses integrated on second language acquisition (SLA): the input and the output hypothesis.
THE NOTICING HYPOTHESIS ● Born on 1941 and passed away on Wednesday, March 15, 2017 (76 years old). ● Professor in the Department of Second Language Studies at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. ● The president of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 2003, ● His most recent book was the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 4th Edition. ● The 2009 recipient of the AAAL Distinguished Service and Scholarship Award. ● The longest serving director for the National Foreign Language Resource Center (NFLRC), from 1994 through 2012, ● His primary research areas concerned cognitive and affective factors in adult second and foreign language acquisition, and he was most known for developing the noticing hypothesis
➔ The Noticing Hypothesis is a language learning theory, proposed by Richard Schmidt in 1990. ➔ The hypothesis claims that learners have to consciously notice instances of the constructions of a second language in input in order to acquire them, ➔ Language learners need to consciously notice or become aware of the grammatical forms of a language to learn them effectively. It posits that simply being exposed to a language is not enough – learners must actively notice language features to acquire them. THE NOTICING HYPOTHESIS we notice = we pay attention = we are aware = we are focally aware we can notice purely inadvertently – we perceive competing stimuli and may notice them if we choose our focus of attention is on surface structures in the input storage without conscious awareness is impossible
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