FROM AGE OF CHAUCER

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LESSON 1
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
THE PROLOGUE TO THE CANTERBURY TALES
Contents
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Chaucer’s life
1.3 His works
1.4 Translation of the prologue to the Canterbury
1.5 English social life as reflected in the prologue
1.6 style and technique in Chaucer’s prologue to the Canterbury tales
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 lessons – end activities
1.9 References
1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The present lesson presents the following aspects of Geoffrey Chaucer in
detail
1) Chaucer’s life
2) His works
3) Translation of the prologue to the Canterbury.
After reading this lesson you can understand the English social life as reflected in the
prologue, style and technique in Chaucer’s prologue.

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1.1 Introduction

The Age of Chaucer is one of the most active, complicated, vexed and entangled
transitional periods in the history of England. This age was a meeting ground of the
two divergent and incongruous periods—the old and the new, the Medieval and the
Renaissance. The leaven of the Renaissance or the modern spirit was discernible on
the horizon but the Medieval Age by no means had completely passed away. The
Medieval and the Renaissance stood side by side. The distinctive feature of the
Medieval mind is its belief in spirituality and abstract ideas, whereas the Reniassance
lays emphasis on the sensuous and the concrete. In the attitude towards society the
Medieval mind supports communism ; the Renaissance advocates individualism. The
Medieval mind does not tolerate free thought, speculation and reason. "The right of
private judgment, which lies at the very foundation of Protestantism is nothing but a
corollary of the individualism of the Renaissance." (R. K. Root)

1.2 CHAUCER'S LIFE

Geoffrey Chaucer — the Father of English poetry and who is so much the
greatest figure in the English literature of the fourteenth century that he has thrown all
his contemporaries completely into the shade, was born about 1340 in London. His father
did a flourishing business as a merchant vintner.

No information is available about his childhood. But it is evident from the wide
and varied scholarship which characterises his writings that he must have enjoyed the
advantages of the liberal education.

At seventeen he received a court appointment as page to the wife of the Duke of
Clarence, Edward Ill's third son. In 1359 he was with the English army in France,
where he was taken prisoner; but he was soon ransomed, and returned to England.

Some time after this he married, and became valet of the king's chamber. From
that time onward he was for many years closely connected with the court. He was often
entrusted with diplomatic missions on the continent, two of them being to Italy. He was
thus brought into direct touch with Italian culture in the days of the early Renaissance and
may even have met Petrarch and Boccaccio, to the former of whom he makes pointed

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reference in the prologue to the 'Clerkes Tale'. During these years he received many
marks of royal favour, and for a time, sat in Parliament as knight of the shire of Kent.
But after the overthrow of the Lancastrian party and the banishment of his special
patron, John of Gaunt, he fell on evil days and with approaching age felt the actual
pinch of poverty.

Fortunately, on the accession of John of Gaunt's son, Henry IV, things mended
with him, and the grant of a royal pension at once placed him beyond want and anxiety.

At Christmas, 1399, he took a long lease of a house at Westminster, which
suggests that he still looked forward to many years of life. But he died before the next
year was out, and was buried in that part of Westminster Abbey which afterwards came to
be known as the Poets' Corner.

In studying Chaucer's work it is important to remember that his education as a
poet was two- fold. Part of it came from literature; but part of it came from life. He
was a thorough student, and in one of his autobiographical passages (in The House of
Fame) he tells us how after a long day over his accounts, he would go home at night
and there pore over his beloved volumes till he was completely dazed. But he was not a
mere bookman, nor was he in the least a visionary.

Like Shakespeare and Milton he was, on the contrary, a man of the world and of
affairs. He had travelled much; he had seen life; his business at home and abroad brought
him into intimate relations with people of all sorts; and with his quick insight into character
and his keen eye for everything dramatic and picturesque and humorous, he was precisely
the king of poet to profit by such varied experiences. There is much that is purely bookish
in his writings; but in the best of them we are always aware that he is not merely
drawing upon what he has read, but that his genius is being fed by his wide and deep
knowledge of life itself.

1.3 HIS WORKS :

It is usual and convenient to divide Chaucer's literary career into three periods,
which are called his French, his Italian and his English period, respectively. His genius
was nourished, to begin with, on the French poetry and romance which formed the

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favourite reading of the court and cultivated society during the time of his youth.
Naturally he followed the fashion, and his early work was done on French models.

Thus, besides translating portions at least of the then popular Roman de la Rose, he
wrote, among other quite imitative things, an allegory on the death of Blanche, John of
Gaunt's wife, which he called 'The Boke of the Duchesse' (1369), and which is wholly in
the manner of the reigning French school.

Then, almost certainly as a direct result of his visits to Italy French influences
disappear, and Italian influences take their place.

In this second period (1370-84), Chaucer is the disciple of the great Italian
masters, for 'The House of Fame' clearly owes much to Dante while 'Troylus and
Cryseyde', by far his longest single poem, is based upon, and in part translated from,
Boccaccio's 'Filostrato'.

To the close of this period the unfinished 'Legende of Good Women' may also
be referred.

Finally, he ceases to be Italian as he had ceased to be French, and becomes
English. This does not mean that he no longer draws freely upon French and Italian
material. He continues to do this to the end. It simply means that, instead of being
merely imitative, he becomes independent, relying upon himself entirely even for the
use to which he puts his borrowed themes.

To this last period belong, together with sundry minor poems, the 'Canterbury
Tales', in which we have Chaucer's most famous and most characteristic work.

1.4 TRANSLATION OF THE PROLOGUE TO THE CANTERBURY:

When the sweet showers of April have pierced the dry soil of March down to
the roots, and bathed every vein in moisture so that from its vital power the flowers
are born. When the West wind has also breathed upon the tender shoots in every glade
and field with its sweet breath or the spring sun has completed half of its course
through the sign of the Rain and little birds that sleep all night with eyes open (for the
dawn) make their music because their hearts are so thrilled by nature - then people
become anxious to go on pilgrimage and palmers to seek strange shores (visiting the
shrines) of distant saints famous in many lands and above all from the ends of every

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county in England, they proceed to Canterburry to seek the holy blessed martyr (St.
Thomas) who has helped them when they were sick.

One day in that season, as I stayed at the Tabard Inn in Southwak ready to go
with devout heart on my pilgrimage to Canterburry, there happened to come to the inn
in the evening as many as twenty nine in a party, a mixed company whom chance had
brought together and they were all pilgrims who planned to ride to Canterbury. Rooms
and stable were ample and we were entertained comfortably in the best manner. And
to be brief, by sunset I had spoken with everyone of them so that from thereon I
became one of their party and we agreed to rise early to start our journey to
Canterbury, as I describe it to you.

But nevertheless, while I still have the time and space (and) before I continue
this tale, I think it is reasonable to tell you all of the condition of each of them as it
appeared to me and who they were and of what station and also the manner in which
they were dressed; and I will begin with a Knight.

THE KNIGHT (Lines 43 - 78)

There was a Knight who was an honourable man. From the time that he had first
begun to go on compaigns he had loved chivalry, truth, honour, generosity and courtesy. He
had been very brave in the war of his feudal superior ; Moreover while no man had ridden
further than he in Christendom and heathen countries and he had always been acclaimed for his
bravery. He had been at Alexandria when it was captured. On many occasions he had sat at
the head of the table as the most honoured guest in company with the Teutonic Knights. In
Lithuania and Russia had no Christian man of his rank so often gone on military expedition. In
Granada he had been present at the siege of Algeeria and had ridden in Benmarin. He was present'at
Layas and Attaila when they were captured and in the Medittareanean he had been a member
of many noble expeditions./ He had partaken in fifteen mortal battles and had fought for our faith
at Tremsen in three tournaments, always killing his foe. This same brave Knight had also at
one time been with the Lord of Palathia against another heathen in Turkey, since which he had a
great reputation. And although he was brave, he was also wise, and his bearing was as meek as a
girl's.

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He had never spoken in a manner unworthy of a gentleman to any sort of1 person in all
his life. He was a true perfect and noble Knight. But now to tell you of his attire, his horses
were good but he was not gaudily dressed. He wore a gypon (a short vest-like coat worn
under armour) of stout cotton cloth, which was soiled with his coat of mail, for he had recently
returned from his expedition, and was on his way to do his pilgrimage.

THE YOUNG SQUIRE (Lines 79-100)

With him there was his son, a young squire - a lover and a gay'probationer
with hair curled as if it had been laid in a press. I think he was twenty years old. He
was of moderate height and very active and very strong and once only he had been on
a military expedition in Flanders, Artois and Picardy, where he had distinguished
himself, considering his lack of opportunity, as he wished to stand in his lady's favour.
His coat was embroidered all full of fresh white and red flowers, like a meadow. He
sang and played the flute all day and was as fresh as the month of May. His gown was
short, with long wide sleeves. He knew how to sit his horse well and how to ride
excellently. He could compose songs and verses, joust, draw well, write and also
dance. He was so passionate that at night time he slept no more than a nightingale
does. He was courteous, modest and ready to serve and carved for his father at table.

THE YEOMAN (lines 101 - 117)

With him was a Yeoman but no other servant, for it was his pleasure' to ride in
that manner. The Yeoman wore a coat and hood of green and very carefully carried a
sheaf of shiny sharp arrows fitted with peacock feathers under his pouch. In true
Yeoman fashion he took great care over his equipment and his arrows never fell short
because of faulty feathers. He carried a long bow in his hand, his head was closely
shaven and his face was brown. He knew all the techniques of carpentry and carried a
fine guard on his arm, a sword and shield on one side, and a finely decorated spear-
shaped dagger on the other side. He wore a shining silver picture of St. Christopher on
his breast. He also carried a horn which had a green baldric. 1 feel certain that he was
a true Woodsman.

THE PRIORESS (lines 118-164)

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There was also a Nun, a Prioress, who smiled very naturally and coyly. The
strongest oath was shown only by St. Loy and she was called Madame Eglentyne. She
sang the divine service fluently, nasalizing her singing in a fitting manner and she
spoke French very well and elegantly, according to the school of Stratford-by-Bow,
because she was not familiar with Parisian French, Moreover she had been taught well
how to behave at table. She allowed no morsel to fall from her lips nor wet her tongue
deeply in the gravy. She could pick up and keep a morsel well so that no food dropped
nor fell upon her breast. 2'

She set great store by good manners. She wiped her mouth so clean that no small particle
of grease was to be seen in her cup. When she had finished her drink she reached out very
daintily for her food and she certainly was very mirthful while her behaviour was very
pleasant and amiable. She took pains to imitate court manners and to be of stately
deportment so as to be regarded worthy of reverence. But now to mention her
sensitiveness, she was so charitable and so merciful that she would weep if she saw a dead or
bleeding mouse caught in a trap. She had some small dogs which she fed on raost-meat or
milk and bread made of fine white flour. But she would weep piteously if one of them died or
if somebody hit one sharply with a stick and she was all sensibility and tenderness of heart. Her
wimple was attractively pleated ; her nose was long and well formed, her eyes were as grey as
glass ; her mouth was very small and in addition soft and red but certainly she had a noble
forehead. I believe it was almost a span broad ; certainly she was not below average height. I
was aware that her cloak was very neat around her arm, she wore a small rosary made with
coral gauded with green beads and on it hung a beautiful gold broach on which was written
first a capital " A " and after ' Love conquers all things'. Riding with her were another Nun
who served as her assistant and three priests,

THE MONK (lines 165 - 207)

There was a Monk, a good one above all others, who had been appointed to visit the
various properties owned by the monastery and who loved hunting. He was an upright person
and well fitted to be an abbot. He had many valuable horses in his stable and when he rode one
could hear his bridle clearly jingling in a whistling wind as the loud as the chapel bell of the small
monastery where this lord was head. Because the rule of St. Maurers or of St. Benedict was old
and some-what strict, this same Monk ignored the seold things and held his course in conformity
with the new order of things. The Monk did not care for the value of a hen that had lost its

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feathers for the text that says that hunters are not holy men, and that a monk out of the cloister is
as a fish out of the water. But that same text he regarded as not worth an oyster and I said he had
good opinions. Why should he study and make himself mad by studying a book in the cloister, or
work and labour with his hands as Augustine bids? How will this benefit the world? Let
Augustine have his work reserved for himself. Thus he was a hard rider in the hunt all right,
and he had grey hounds who were as swift as birds on the wing, tracking and hunting the hare
by its footmarks was his only pleasure, for which he would spare no cost. I saw that his
sleeves were fringed at the wrist with expensive grey fur the finest in the land for fastening
his hood under his chin he had a curiously shaped brooch wrought in gold, while there was a
love knot in the bigger end. This bald head and his face shone like glass as if he had been
anointed. He was a very fat lord and in good condition. His eyes were bright and rolled in
his head, which shone like a cauldron furnace. His boots were supple and his horses in fine
condition; without a doubt he was a good prelate, He was not pale like a tormented and
wasted ghost and his favourite roast was a fat swan. His palfrey was as brown as a berry.

THE FRANKLIN (lines 331 – 360)

His companion (i.e. the Sergeant) was a Franklin, with a beard as white as a
daisy; he was of sanguine temperament, and liked to have wine, with pieces of bread
or cake dipped into it, in the morning. His desire was always to live in pleasure for he
was a true son of Epicurus, who held the opinion that great pleasure was in reality
perfect happiness. He was a great householder, being a veritable St. Julian in his
district and his bread cellar was known nowhere else. His house was never without
pies of fish and meat and those in such plenty that in house it snowed food and drink
and all the delicacies that one could think of; he varied his food or supper according to
the seasons of the year. He had very many fat partridges in a coop and great numbers
of beams and pikes in his fish pond. Woe betide his cook if his sauce was not
pungent and sharp and with food all the day long. At county meetings of the Assizes
he was representative and Chairman, and on many occasions, he had been Knight of
the Shire. A dagger and a hawking pouch hung at his girdle, which was as white as
morning milk. He had been a Sheriff and a legal auditor; nowhere was there such a
distinguished landowner.

THE FIVE GILDSMEN AND THEIR COOK (lines 361 – 387)

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There were also a Haberdasher, a Carpenter, a cloth weaver, a Dyer and an
upholsterer and they were all dressed in the livery uniforms of a powerful and
important craft guild. Their apparel was fresh and newly trimmed, while their knives
were not fashioned from brass but had sheaths with silver caps, and their belts and
purses were beautifully wrought after the same manner. Each one of them seemed a
burgess worthy to sit on the dais in a gild hall. Their knowledge, wealth, and income
would have justified their position had they been elected as aldermen. Their wives
would have surely been at fault not to have consented to do this – for it is pleasant to
be called ‘Madam’ and good to lead this procession into church and have one’s
mantle carried in royal fashion.

For this occasion they had brought a cook with them, to boil chickens with
marrow-bones, sharp flavoured powder and galingale spice. He could recognize the
flavour of London ale, and could roast, steam, boil and fry, make stew and bake a pie
well. But I felt it was a great pity that he had gangrene on his skin. His masterpiece
was minced chicken in white sauce.

THE SHIPMAN (lines 388 – 411)
There was a shipman who lived far away to the west country for ought I know,

he came from Dartmouth. He rode upon a farm – nag as well as he could, in a gown
of course woollen cloth, (stretching) to the knee. He had a dagger hanging on a cord
about his neck which passed down under his arm. The hot summer sun had made his
complexion quite brown, and undoubtedly he was a rascal. He had stolen very many
mouthfuls of wine on the journey home from Bordeaux while the merchant slept. He
was not troubled by a scrupulous conscience for if he fought and gained the upper
hand, he threw his prisoners into the sea; with regard to his profession there was no
one from Hull to Carthagena as good as (he) at calculating the tides, the currents and
the dangers that beset him, the harbours and (the phases of) the moon and the art of
piloting a ship. He was bold and prudent in his undertaking and his beard had been
shaken by many a tempest. He knew well the havens as they lay from Gottland to

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Cape Finisterre, and every creek in Brittany and in Spain. His vessel was named the
Magdalene.

THE DOCTOR OF PHYSIC (lines 412 – 414)

With us there was a doctor of medicine; there was no one like him in all the
world in the sphere of medicine and surgery, for he was well versed in astrology; he
took very great care of his patients at the critical hours by means of astrology. He was
skilful in choosing a favourite time for making astrological figures for his patients
when the influence of the planets would make these most effective. He knew the
cause fo every disease; whether it came from excess of hot, cold, moist or dry and
where they had originated and in what ‘humour’ : he was a very perfect practitioner.
Once the cause and origin of the malady was known, he at once gave the sick man his
remedy. He had his chemists always prepared to send him drugs and medicinal
powders, as each of them brought profit to the other; their friendship was no new
thing. He was familiar with the old Aesculapius, with Dioscorides, and also Rufus.
Old Hippocrates, Hali and Galen, Serapion, Rhazes and Avicenna, Avenoes, John of
Damascus, Constantine, Bernard, Gaddesden and Gilbertine. In his diet he was
temperate, as it was very nourishing and easily digestible and contained no excesses.
He very seldom studied the Bible. He was dressed in red and blue- grey lined with
taffeta, and thin silk and yet his expenditure was moderate; he saved what he earned
during times of plague. Since Gold is the heart stimulant in medicine, he thus
especially loved it.

THE WIFE OF BATH (lines 445 – 476)

There was a good wife from near Bath, but she was somewhat deaf, and this
was a pity. She was so skilful at cloth- making that she surpassed those of Ypres and
Ghent. Of all the parish wives there was none who had the right to go to the offering
(i.e. bread and wine offered at the altar for consecration) before her, and if one did,
she became so angry that she showed no charity. Her head coverings were very finely
woven and I can swear that the ones she wore on Sunday weighed ten pounds. Her
stockings were of the finest scarlet and very tightly laced, while her shoes were very
soft and new. She had a bold fair face, with red complexion She had been a wealthy
woman all her life and had been married legally on five occasions besides having
other lover in her youth, but for the present there is no need to speak about that. She

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had thrice been to Jerusalem and had crossed many a foreign river. She had been to
Rome, Boulogne, Cologne, and to the shrine of St. James in Galicia ; she knew a great
deal about traveling along the roads. To tell the truth she was gap-toothed. She sat
easily upon her ambling horse, well provided with a wimple and with a hat as large as
a small round shield. She had a large foot-cloth about her hips and on her feet a pair
of sharp spurs. In company she knew well how to laugh and chatter; perhaps she
knew (Ovid’s) Remedia amoris for she was well versed in all the approved devices of
love-making.

THE POOR PARSON (lines 477 – 528)

There was a good religious man, a poor town parson, who (nevertheless) was
rich in pious thoughts and deeds. He was also an educated man, a scholar, who
genuinely preached Christ’s Gospel and devoutly taught his parishioners. He was
gentle, extremely hard working and had proved himself on numerous occasions to be
very patient in adversity. He was extremely reluctant to demand his tithes, and
undoubtedly would give his poor parishioners in the neighbourhood his Easter money
and also his own property. His material needs were easily satisfied. Those who were
in sickness or in adversity were visited by the Parson, who trudged staff in hand to the
farthest reaches of his wide parish, with houses far asunder, in all weathers and at all
times. The shepherd set a noble example to his flock, which he had learnt from the
Gospel. He first practised good works and then taught them. If a priest be ungodly in
whom congregants place their trust – then the sinful man will quickly degenerate for
should gold rust what can be expected of iron? But it is an even greater shame to
have a sinful shepherd and pure sheep. By his clean living, a priest should set an
example to his parishioners. The Parson did not hire out his services leaving his
congregants without leadership, nor did he run to St. Paul’s in London to answer the
advertisement of some craft gild for a chaplain to be retained by that body, instead he
stayed at home to guard his flock from mischief; he was a true parson, not a
mercenary. And although he was a virtuous and holy person, he did not despise sinful
men, nor was gentle and discreet. His task was to save souls by setting a good
example. But should a person prove obstinate, then the parson should sharply reprove
the erring parishioner, no matter what his station was in life, I believe that a better
priest is to be found nowhere else. He did not seek honour or respect, nor was he so

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over concerned with fine points that he lost sight of the lessons of Christ and his
twelve Apostles, which he taught though first followed them himself.

THE PLOWMAN (lines 528 – 541)

With him (i.e. the Parson) was his brother, a Plowman, who in his time, had
pulled many a cart- load of manure, for he was a good, honest worker who lived
peacefully and was charitable to all. Whether it caused him pleasure or pain, he loved
God with his whole heart at all times and (next to God) he loved his neighbours as
himself. To please God, he was prepared to thresh, dig ditches, and lay water
channels for all poor folk without charge if he possibly could. He paid the tithes
derived from his own labour and those derived from the profits on his stock fully and
regularly. He wore a sleeveless oat and rode a mare”.

THE MILLER (Lines 542 – 566)

Except for a Reeve a Miller, a Summoner, a Pardoner, a Manciple and myself
(i.e. Chaucer) there were no other pilgrims.

The Miller was an exceedingly stout fellow, with very big muscles and bones;
these served him well, for everywhere he went he always won the wrestling contests.
He was a short-shouldered, broad thick set fellow and there was no door that he could
not heave off its hinge, or break open by running at it with his head. He had a broad,
spade-like beard, which was as red as a sow or a fox. He had a mark on the tip of his
nose, which was surmounted by a tuft of red hair, which resembled the bristles in a
sow’s ear; he had flaring black nostrils. A sword and a small round shield hung at his
side; his mouth was a wide as a great furnace. He was an idle talker and a teller of
indecent stories of sin and harlotries. He well knew how to steal corn and take his toll
three times, and yet, by God, he had a thumb of gold (in other words he illustrated the
old proverb, ‘An honest miller has a golden thumb’ – i.e. he was as honest as millers
go, which implies that he was not honest at all). He wore a white coat and a blue
hood. He could blow and play a bagpipe well, and with it he piped us. (i.e. the
pilgrim party) out of town.

THE MANCIPLE (lines 567 – 586)

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There was a noble Manciple who served a College for lawyers, from whom
buyers of victuals take an example on how prudently to purchase – for, whether he
bought for cash or on credit he always came out well and ahead of everyone else.
Now, is not God good to allow an ignorant fellow to surpass the learned in sharp
wits? He had ore than thirty masters who were expert and skilled lawyers of which
there were a dozen in that college capable of being stewards of income and property
for any lord in England not only could they have seen to it that such a lord lived
honourably on his own income or as economically as he pleased unless he was mad
but they were able to help a whole country in any legal dispute that might arise and
yet, in spite of all this, the Manciple made fools of them all.

THE REEVE (lines 587 – 622)

The Reeve was slightly-built, bad tempered man, whose beard was shaven
closely to the skin, while his hair was cut around his ears and tonsured shortly at the
front of his head in priestly fashion; his legs were as long and thin as walking sticks,
and his calves could not be seen. He well knew how to keep a granary and a bin and
no auditor could detect mistake in his accounts, while by observing the dry and rainy
seasons of the year, he knew exactly when to sow and when to reap. This Reeve was
in complete charge of his lord’s sheep, cattle, dairy, swine, horses, stock and poultry.
Ever since his lord was twenty years old he had been under contract to render the
estate accounts and no one could ever discover him to be in arrears. There was no
bailiff, herdman or farm labuorer who was in any way cunning or deceitful that he did
not know about and they were as fearful of him as of the plague. His pleasant home
upon the heath was shaded with green trees. He could make purchases more
advantageously than his lord could and he had secretly enriched his own barns
through craftily pleasing his lord by giving and lending him even from his own
property and being rewarded with the lord’s thanks and gifts of a gown and hood. In
his youth he had learnt a useful trade and could work competently as a carpenter.
This Reeve sat upon a low-bred, undersized horse of dapple grey which was called
Scot; he wore a long overcoat of bluish grey carried a rusty sword by his side. This
Reeve of whom I am speaking came from Norfolk and lived near a town called
Baldewelle. His long coat was tucked into his girdle in friar-like fashion and he
always rode at the rear of the company.

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THE SUMMONER (lines 623 – 668)

With us in that place was a Summoner (i.e. one paid to summon serves to trial
before an ecclesiastical Court) who had a fiery red cherubic face covered with
pimples. His eyes were small and he was as lustful and lecherous as a sparrow, while
his eye brows were scably and black and his beard scanty – children were afraid of his
appearance. There was no quicksilver lead-ointment sulphur, borax, white lead,
cream of tartar, or any other ointment which could cleanse and cauterize his skin, rid
him of his white pimples and cure the boils, which disfigured his cheeks. He was
passionately fond of garlic, onions and leeks and loved strong blood red wine, and,
under its influence, he would shout and loved strong blood red wine, and under its
influence, he would shout and cry out as if he had taken leave of his senses – (in fact)
when he was well he was well sodden with wine he would only speak Latin. He knew
two or three legal phrases which he had learnt from some document, which was no
wonder since he heard such terms all day long and it is well known that the parrot can
call out Walter as well as the Pope. But if any one questioned him on something else,
it would soon be found that he had exhausted all his knowledge and would cry out
‘What section of the law applies to this case?” Although he was a good-natured,
gentle rogue and one would not find a better fellow, yet, in return for a quarter of
wine, he would turn a blind eye on a friend’s immorality for 12 months. He well
knew how to plunder a foolish fellow and if he encountered some doubtful rascal, he
would put his mind at rest and teach him not to be afraid of the Archdeacon’s powers
of excommunication unless his soul lay in his purse (i.e. he was a miser) for it was
only in the purse that punishment need take place – ‘purse is the Archadeaon’s hell’
he declared. For my part I know quite well that he lied since every guilty man should
fear excommunication in which lies the path of death just as absolution will save the
soul so one should certainly be wary of excommunication (significant’ was the first
word in the writ authorising the seizure of the goods of an excommunicated person).
According to his own way, he had all the young people of the diocese in his power,
since he knew all their secrets and acted as their adviser. He wore on his forehead a
garland which was large enough to have served as an inn-sign, while he had made a
small shield for himself and of a loaf of bread.

THE PARDONER (lines 669 – 714)

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Alongside the Summoner there rode a noble Pardoner from the Priory of
Rouncivale, his friend and his companion, who had recently come from the (Papal)
Court of Rome, and who loudly sage the song ‘Come hither, love, to me!” while the
Summoner accompanied him in such a deep bass that a trumpet could never make half
as much din. This Pardoner had hair as yellow as wax which hung smoothly like a
bundle of flax, his lacks hung in narrow strands and covered his shoulders. Out of
jolliness he wore no hood, which was packed in his bag, for to him it seemed more
festive to ride bareheaded, except for a cap on his disheveled locks, on which he had
embroidered a copy of St. Veronica’s handkerchief. He had hare-like, staring eyes, a
voice as thin as a goat and wore no beard-nor was he likely to have one, as his chin
was as smooth as if just recently shaved. His bag lay on his lap before him brimful of
pardons, hot from Rome, and with regard to his profession, there was never such a
pardoner from Berwick down to Ware. In his bag he had a pillow case which he
claimed was our Lady’s Veil; he said he had a piece of the sail belonging to St. Peter
when the latter walked upon the sea until Jesus Christ saved him; he had a cross of
brass studded with stones, and the bones of a pig in a glass. By means of these relics
he made more money in a day than a poor county parson can make in two months.
And thus with feigned flattery and tricks he made fools of the person and his
congregants. But in conclusion he was a noble preacher in church; he could read well
a lesson or a story, but best of all he sang the ‘Mass anthem’ for he knew full well
that, when that song was sung, he might preach and polish his tongue to gain silver;
and as he could do this excellently, so he sang even more cheerfully and loudly.

AUTHOR’S PLAN OF REPORTING (lines 715 – 746)

Now in a few words I have accurately told you the condition, the attire, the
number and also the purpose of this company assembling in Southwark at this
excellent hostelry called the Tabard, close beside this excellent hostelry called the
Tabard, close beside the Bell. But now it is true to tell you how we spent that evening
after arriving at the inn, thereafter I will recount our journey and all the rest of our
pilgrimage.

But first of all, I beg your courtesy not to think me ill-bred, if I speak plainly
about this matter, telling you of their words and there actions, though I report their
speech accurately. For you know as well as I do that anyone who wishes to repeat a

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tale he had heard from another, must repeat if possible, every phrase as faithfully as
he can, eventhough these be rough and rude; otherwise, if it is recast into refined
works and fresh phrases, the story will no longer be genuine. The story-teller must
not filnch, eventhough it were his brother’s word he is repeating for, having spoken
one word, he might as well complete the tale. Christ himself spoke quite openly in
the Holy Scriptures, and you are well aware that there is nothing unseemly therein.
And Plato also says, for those able to read him that ‘The words must be closely
related to the facts’.

I also beg of you to forgive me if I have not placed the people of the story in
their proper places according to their rank in life, since you will realize that my
knowledge (about these matters) is limited.

THE HOST AND HIS PROPOSALS (lines 747 – 84)

Our Host provided good fare for everyone of us, set us down to supper without
more ado, and served as with an excellent meal, during which we were glad to drink
the strong wine. Our Host was a striking person, fit to be master of ceremonies in a
guild hall. He was a well-built man, with bright eyes-there was certainly no more
prosperous citizen in Cheapside; although outspoken in his speech, he was both
prudent and tactful and lacked none of the manly qualities. In addition, he was an
extremely cheerful fellow, and after supper began to play music, while among other
things, when we had paid our accounts, he spoke as follows : ‘Now my masters, you
are truly and heartily welcome : by my troth I am not lying when I declare that I have
not seen this year such a cheerful company in this tavern as is now gathered all
together. I am anxious to entertain you to the best of my ability and a thought has just
struck me of some fun to put you at your ease, which will cost you nothing at all.

You are going to Canterbury – May God speed you on your way and the
blessed martyr grant you your reward. And I have no doubt, that you go along the
way you intend to tell stories and entertain ourselves, since it is neither pleasure nor
fun to ride along the road in stony silence. Consequently, as I said just now, I shall
provide some fun for you and see that you are cheerful. If you are all in unanimous
agreement to stand by my decision and do what I tell you as you ride along the way
tomorrow, then, by the soul of my late father, you can have my head if I don’t succeed
in cheering you up’. Without further ado let us have a show of hands.

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We were not long about making up our minds as it was not worthwhile
making it a subject for serious discussion. We granted his request at once and asked
him to announce his plans whenever he pleased. ‘Masters, he said, Listen to me
carefully, but I pray you, do not be disdainful of what I have to say. To cut a long
story short, the point is this: to shorten the journey each member of his pilgrimage
shall tell two tales. I mean, two on the way to Centerbury, and a further two on the
homeward trip, of adventures that once actually happened. And that one who acquits
himself best of all, that is to say, the one who relates stories of the highest moral
teaching and edification on this occasion, shall be given a supper in this very tavern at
the expenses of all of us when we return from Canterbury. And, to cheer you up all
the more, I shall gladly accompany you on your trip. Pay my own expense and serve
you as your guide, And if any one disputes my decision he shall pay all our traveling
expenses. If you agree that this plan should be carried out tell me immediately
without any further discussion and I will straightway prepare myself.

The promise was made and we swore our oaths with glad hearts, requesting
him to carry on as he planned, and asking him to serve as our leader, so that he could
judge and comment on our tales and we would abide by all his decisions. We also
asked him to prepare a (return) supper at a quoted price. Thus we unanimously set
him up in judgment over us and wine was served at once. After drinking it, everyone
retired without further delay.

THE PILGRIMAGE BEGINS (lines 822 – 858)

With the coming of dawn next morning our host was up first and awoke us all
like a cock. He gathered us all together in a company and we rode forth at little more
than a walking pace to St. Thomas’s Well. There our host reined in his horse and
said, ‘Gentleman, listen if you please – although you probably recall our plan, I shall
remind you about it. If you are still in agreement with what we arranged last evening,
let us now see who shall tell the first story. As I hope to go on drinking good wine
and ale, whoever opposes my decision will pay for all our traveling expenses. Now let
us draw lots before we go any further, and he who draws the shortest straw will make
a start. Sir Knight,” he went on, “my lord and master, draw your straw, for that is

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my decision. come nearer” he said “my lady Prioress, and you Sir Clerk, don’t be shy
and come out of your day-dream; let every one show a hand.

Immediately everyone came forward for the draw, and, to be brief. whether it
was by luck, fate or chance, the truth is that the draw fell to the Knight. This pleased
everyone tremendously, for he now had to tell his story as was only right, according
to our arrangement, as you have heard. What more need I add?” When this good
man saw what had happened, he said, like one who is prudent to his freely given
promise, “Since I must begin the entertainment, in God’s name let the draw be
welcome! Let us continue our journey, and listen to what I have to say.” And with
these words we rode forth on our pilgrimage; and in right cheerful mood, be began to
tell his tale forthwith relating it as follows :

1.5 ENGLISH SOCIAL LIFE AS REFLECTED IN THE PROLOGUE

In the “Prologue to the canterbury Tales” the members of the English society
pause before us long enough for us to identify each one. Each has his own life and an
identity which is for all time, yet together they sum up a society.

All the writers of the fourteenth century reveal some aspect of contemporary
life and of prevailing feeling and thought. In poets like Wychiff Gower and hangland,
and the unknown poet of Pearl, we get a partial view of life and society in which they
lived. But Chaucer’s work reflects his century not in fragments, but completely.
More than this, he is often able to discern permanent feathers beneath the garments of
a day, to penetrate to the everlasting springs of human action. His truthful pictures of
his age and country contain a truth which is of all time and all countries. He portrays
the social and literary tendencies of the eighteenth century in his poems in the most
faithful way, and voices forth its ideals, hopes and aspirations. Chaucer, can very
well be considered they representative of the world of fourteenth century England.

There are thirty of the pilgrims, following the most diverse trades. The knight
with his son, the squire, and the Yeoman who bore the Squire’s arms, represent the
fighting class. A Doctor of Physic, a Man of Law, a Clerk of Oxford, and the poet
himself, give a glimpse of the liberal profession. The land is represented by a
Ploughman, a Miller, a Reeve and a Franklin; trade by a Merchant and a shipman; the
crafts by a Wife of Bath, a Haberdasher, a Carpenter a Wabbe or Weaves, a Dyer, and

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a Tapicer; the victuallars by a Municipal, a cook, and the Host of the Tabard. The
secular clergy provide the good Parson, and the odios summoner of an ecclesiastical
court, who are joined on the road by a Canon addicted to alchnecy. The monastic
orders supply a full contingent – a rich Benedicture. Monk, a Prioress with her chaplin
Nun, a mendicant Frias; and not far from these religious lurks a doubtfully accredited
Pardones.

Chaucer’s knight is a personification of the lofty ideals of medieval chivalry
keenly sensitive to human values. He deftly uses swift and light language consistent
with the sprightliness of the youthful squire in contrast to the stately measures used to
describe the courtly dignity of his father – the Knight. His flair for music and dance
he shared with ladies and gentlemen of his class. Following the conventions of his
society he was proficient in drawing, horsemanship and jousting.

The type of the clergy abounding in worldliness that the Monk represents
becomes the subject of Chaucer’s satire. There is no evidence to establish the
individual identity of the mark. He is a composite portrait serving as a comment on
the general deterioration in monasteries and the need for reforms in the functioning of
the church. Though the portrait of the clerk recalls many of the trades of a philosopher
there is an undercurrent of irony in Chaucer’s pun on the meaning of philosophers.

Chaucer reports inoutward praise and inward condemnation of the
characteristic of his Sergeant and renders him a man of purely material success. His
profession combined with his legal skills gives him ample scope for acquiring wealth
either by honest means of by deception. Chaucer comments on his greed to purchase
enormous landed property. The Franklin appears to be a man of substance who is an
extremely hospitable and a loyal servant of the king who discharges the duties of his
office efficiently. However, Chaucer does not totally exempt him from a few lapses
that flesh is heir to. The one weakness of the Franklin is a large capacity and desire
for self- indulgence.

Gilds were either socio-religious or trade organizations. The five gildsmen
obviously pursue different trades but belong to the same socio-religious fraternity.
Social life is largely governed and regulated by these gilds. The portraits of the five
guildsmen and their cook gives us more or less a thumb nail sketch of English social
ife and the role of the gilds in the growth and development of society. The cook is the

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most disreputable among the pilgrims. All these characters represents the secular
interests. Medicine as a science was still in its infancy when Chaucer wrote. The
influence of the stars on man’s behaviour fortune and health is deeply believed by the
people. The doctor also shares this faith.

The position of women in the medieval church differed essentially from that of
men. Chaucer’s Madame Eglentine suits the world of the elegant country club in
every respect. In this she was typical of the common patterns of nuns who ought
normally to have remained unseen and in seclusion. She is simple and coy, given to
affection. For example, she sings the service divine in a nasal voice. She does not
know the French of Paris, but can speak French of the school of Straford Att Bowe
very well. She has fine table manners, and lets no morsel fall on her dress. She is
refined and delicate and does not soil her fingers in the sauce.

The wife of Bath has evoked diverse comments. Some consider her coarse and
dissolute, while others consider her to be a refreshing extrovert. But her good humour,
warmth and outspokenness are seldom lost on the readers. Next to her love affairs,
what she relish most if traveling in gay company. Love of travel rather than religious
zeal is what prompts her to undertake a pilgrimage. The prologue to her tale is vivid
account of her varied married life.

Chaucer endows the Prioress with physical charms normally associated with
the ladies of romance and of the court. Her habits too are more those of a secular
heroine than of an officer in a convent. He remarks that the Prioress is “charitable
and piteous”, that is she has the virtue of charity and mercy, to be expected of
someone dedicated to a religious life. The illustration he then gives of her charity and
pity concern not other people, but her pets. The “smale houndes” get the roasted
meat, milk and finest bread that were regarded as delicacies in a society, in which, a
good many people never had enough to eat. It seems a misdirected kind of charity
and pity.

This good lady is sometimes condemned outright as worldly, ambitious, and
insensitive to the sufferings of others. What he does note is the Prioress’ concern with
good manners and courtly etiquette. In the fifty lines that he devotes to the Prioress,
he has shown with gentle irony his estimation of the lady and his amusement in
catching her aping of courtly manners, showing a good secular taste in clothes and

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jewellery and harbouring a love of pets rather than human beings of the less attractive
sort.

Chaucer emphasizes the prioress’ basic feminity, rather than her spiritual
qualities, “But sikerly she hadde a fair forehead “(The Prologue, 11.154). He not only
draws attention to the lady’s beauty but also reminds that as a religious her forehead
should not have been thus visible. Chaucer’s characterization of the prioress is
extremely subtle, and his satire – if it can be called satire at all – is of the gentlest and
more sympathetic sort. The closing remark about her brooch and motto has often
been misunderstood, and the whole spirit of the passage consequently misrepresented.

Chaucer’s Monk show as a great scorn for such an old- fashioned practice as
working with his hands – he is a modern! In Chaucer’s representation of the Monk
there is the same element of irony as in that of the Prioress. The Monk is also
depicted as something of a worldling. Two fundamental rules for the conduct of
monks in the Middle Ages were the obligations to work and to remain within their
cloister. For Chaucer’s Monk hunting is the favourite pastime and he indicates his
irritation with those who objected to hunting clergy in a homely and vividly phrase: It
is significant that the aristocratic sport of hunting, to which he was so addicted, was
forbidden to all monks. He might only fish in preparation for the days of abstinence
when meat was forbidden.

The Friar had little interest in penitence; his purpose was to gain a “good
pittance”. Chaucer acidly describe the Friar’s view that all the sinner needs to do is
to give money to a “poor” order to obtain divine forgiveness. The Friar knows the
taverns and barmaids of every town far better than the lepers or beggers: The foibles
of the Prioress are also treated with amused indulgences. But for the two clerics the
Summoner and the Pardoner hold offices which lend themselves to abuse, and of this
they take full advantage. The Pardoner, the Friar and the Summoner are his interest in
rogues, ecclesiastics and preachership. For the Friar and the Summoner he has
created a comody of contempt, bordering in the case of the Summoner on hatred. His
full comedy of hatred is reserved for the Pardoner, who is the centre of the ironic
rather than a satiric vision.

Both men are shown as a sick men, hysterical and a little mad, and this should
be interpreted in both the spiritual and physical senses. Had they been healthy they

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might have been included earlier in the list of ecclesiastics and their power is literary
creations might have been diminished. Like many of Chaucer’s creation they stem
from the popular evaluation of living men.

That there were many abuses in the life and work of the Church in the later
fourteenth century is also evident from the prologue. They took many forms, but
underlying them all was a desire for personal gain, whether in the shape of wealth, or
personal honour, or greater material comfort. Chaucer’s Monk enjoyed hunting a
great deal more than the studious seclusion of his cloister, and a prioress is as aware
of worldly esteem as the very worldly wife of Bath or the equally aspiring
tradesman’s wives mentioned in the lines 376 – 78. And as for the desire for gain, it
is obvious from the clothes worn by pilgrims pledged to simple and austere living and
the unscrupulous dealings to others, whether men of the church like the Friar and the
Pardoner or the Shipman or the Miller. There were quite a few among Chaucer’s
twenty nine pilgrims who were ready to ignore both the teaching and the warnings of
their church for the sake of personal profit. One can be sure that Chaucer was not
exaggerating the evils of the society of his time.

On the other hand, there were those who took their faith and observances more
seriously, like the knight ho hastened to Canterbury to give thanks after his latest
campaign, or the Parson whom Chaucer singles out as a model of righteous unselfish
living. Chaucer is always ready to give praise when he finds to do so. It so happens
that the result in both cases is the same, for whether Chaucer is criticizing or
commending people’s conduct he is drawing attention to their relationship with the
Church and stressing the latter’s importance in his time. It is because the Church was
still so much the centre of the medieval society that Chaucer includes nines
ecclesiastical pilgrims among his company and devotes more than three hundred lines
of The Prologue to the description of the seven of them.

As professional churchmen and women they would attract attention not only
as individuals, but as representatives of the Church, and Chaucer packs a good deal of
criticism in to these seven portraits. Although he makes allowances, he speaks out
boldly against corrupt institutions like the selling of pardons, for which the church
itself was primarily to blame. The contrast with the lay pilgrims is obvious, for they
are not representatives in the same way: the Miller may not be scrupulously honest,

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but there is nothing wrong with milling as a trade, and similarly with the other crafts
and professions. This is not to say, of course, that the church pilgrims are somehow
“types” and others not; far from it; Chaucer does seem to suggest that while an
irresponsible or corrupt churchman does harm to the whole church a dishonest trader
does not in the same way harm the whole of his profession.

The Parson, self-effacing, dutiful and altruistic, is a positive and unpretentious
man, presented by the poet entirely without irony, He needed the tithes, the tax of
one-tenth upon the produce of the faithful in the parish. The sketch of the parson is
an ideal portrait of a good p1arish priest. The Parson’s portrait in comparison with
those of the Monk and Friar, is like a drink of cold water after being excited and
fuddled by wine; satiric ambiguities and ironic tones vanish in favour of a simple
purity.

And with the exception of the Parson, and perhaps his brother the ploughman,
all pilgrims, especially the churchmen, have their eyes very much on things of this
world. In an age when so many members of the clergy were lax and selfish and
neglectful of their duties, he stands out as almost unbelievably righteous and
conscientious. Indeed, the only fault is his lack of patience with obstinate sinners.

Chaucer was not content to make his pilgrims typical only of their several
callings. Sometimes a classification of another kind crosses with that by traders and
enriches it. Thus the squire stands for youth and the Ploughman for the perfect
charity stands for the humble, while in the Wife of Bath there is the essence of satire
against women. Nor is this all. Chaucer, by details he was observed for himself, puts
life into conventional descriptions and generalizations made by others. He adds
individual to generic features; even when he paints a type he gives the impression that
he is painting some one person whom he hyappens to have met. He mixes these two
elements in varying proportions and with great although imperceptible skill. His
figures, a little more generated would be frozen into symbolism, mere cold
abstractions, while a few more purely individual features would cause confusion,
destroying landmarks and leading attention astray. Chaucer does not only draw frank
or delicately traced portraits which give to his character the immobility to
permanence. He also makes each pilgrim step out the frame in which he first placed
him.

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Thus English society, which to the visionary England seemed a swarming and
confused mass, a mob of men stumbling against each other in the semi-darkness of a
nightmare, was distributed by Chaucer among a group which is clearly seen, restricted
in size, and representative. Its members pause before us long enough for us to
identity each one. Each has his own life and an identity which is for all time, yet
together they sum up a society.

1.6 STYLE AND TECHNIQUE IN CHAUCER’S PROLOGUE TO THE
CANTEBURY TALES:

The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales has, ever since Dryden’s day, been
recognized as one of Chaucer’s sure master-pieces. The Prologue contains pictures
from the fourteen century England which no Medieval writer had ever attempted.
They are full of direct and personal touches. Chaucer with a universal artful talent
makes the speaker unconsciously a self – satirist. The extraordinary vividness and
precision of the presentment of images, whether complicated or simple, is remarkable.
His astonishing command of rhetoric, his “gold dewdrops of speech” is wonderful.
The inexhaustible freshness and propriety of his phrase deserve all praise and
appreciation. Chaucer is the earliest English poet who can, without reservations and
allowances, be called great and what is more, one of the greatest even to the present
day.

The Prologue describes the cavalcade of the pilgrims to the shrine of Becket
and depicts each in a series of wonderful vignettes. His catalogue opens with the
prioress and the Monk, who were fairly high in the scale; continues with the Friar and
Nun’s priest or Chaplain; turns next to the Person and the Clerk, and ends with the
Summoner and the Pardoner who are left at the tail of the list because they were in a
literal sense the dregs, and brought disgrace to the Church by their malpractices. Had
the prioress been less worldly she should have been excluded from the list, but since
she is the unique Madame Eglentine she is out in the world, and demands inclusion.

The Monk from his monastery; the prioress from her convent, her attendant
priest, the village parson, and the roaming Friar, sufficiently covered the more usual
religious categories. The courtly pretensions of the prioress and the humble origins of
the parson, the brother of Pluoghman, showed the comparative unimportance of
personal rank in the religious life. At an infinite moral and social depth below all

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these came the pardoner and the summoner. Chaucer, looking about him, sees fit to
define a large proportion of his character by where they stand with regard to the
church.

The simplicity of Chaucer’s method, its complete lack of any artifice, the sure
hand with which he traced portraits to form the prologue of his Tales, are surprising.
He made is group of pilgrims into a picture of the society of his time of which the like
is not to be found elsewhere. Except for royalty and the nobles one the one hand, and
the drugs of the people on the others, two classes whom probability excluded from
sharing a pilgrimage, he painted, in brief, almost the whole English nation.

Chaucer has collected the descriptions of the pilgrims in his general prologue,
which is a true picture – gallery. His twenty – nine traveling companions make almost
as many portraits, hung from its walls. They face us, in equidistant frames, on the
same plane, all hanging on the line. Chaucer is a primitive, aiming at exactness of
feature and correctness of emblem. He is primitive also a by a certain honest
awkwardness, the unskilled stiffness of some of his outlines, and such an insistence
one minute point as at first provokes a smile. He seems to a mass details haphazard,
alternates the particular of a costume with the points of a character, drops the one for
the other, picks either up again. Sometimes he interrupts the painting of a pilgrim’s
character to put colour on him face or his tunic. It is an endearing carelessness, which
hides his art and heightens the impression he makes of veracity. Whoever enters this
gallery is first struck by some patches of brilliant colour, dominating one or other of
the portraits, the squire’s gown :

‘Embrowded was he, as it wear a mede,

Al full of fresshe Houres, white and reede, and near him the Yeoman who
serves him ‘in coote and hood of grene.” How the Prioress’s rosary, ‘of small coral’,
with its decades, ‘guaded al with grene’, and it handing brooch’ of gold ful scheme’,
stands out against her dress! There are faces as strongly coloured as any of the fabrics
or accessories – the pustulous countenance of the sompnour, ‘a tyr-reed cherubynes
face,’

‘With skalled browes blak, and piled berd, and the Miller, whose beard ‘as any
sowe or fox was reed’ with his ward whence sprouts a tuft of red hairs, his wide and

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black nostrils, and his mouth ‘as wyde as was a great forneys. There are also duller
colours to rest the sight, and to make the cruder hues more brilliant by contrast. The
pious and modest knight was ‘nought gay’.

‘Of fustian he werede a gepoun,

All bysmotered with his habergeoun.’

The poor Clerk was ‘ful threadbare’, the Man of Law’ rood but hoomly in a
medled coote’, the Reeve wore a ‘long surcote of pers’, or blue, and the good Parson
is drawn without line or colour, so that we are free to imagine him lit only by the light
of the Gospel shining from his eyes.

Essential moral characteristics are thrown into relief with the same apparent
simplicity and the same real command of means as the colours and the significant
articles of clothing. Mere statements of fact, suggestive anecdotes, particulars relating
to calling and individual traits, lines of summing up a character – all these make up a
whole which stands out upon its canvas. The outline is strong and clear, although
sometimes a little stiff, in the steady light which is shed on it, and it is unforgettable.

A distinctive feature of the General Prologue is its method of characterization.
Each of the pilgrims who is described is revealed in such sharp and clear detail that
we feel personally acquainted with him or her as an individual, and at the same time
we recognize him as representative, not only of a social class, but of a type of
character which may be recognized in any country and in any age. Nothing like this
series of portraits had ever appeared in literature. It is the main reason for the
perennial appeal of the General Prologue. Any analysis of these portraits must be
inadequate to account for their extra ordinary charm.

Chaucer represents his times completely, not in fragments : there is also a
universal element in his poetry. He is the creator of the modern English versification.
He imported the heroic couplet from France and used it with great ease and fluency. He
experimented with a number of metres and stanza patterns. He invented the Rhyma Royal or
the Chaucerian stanza (ab a b b c c). "He found English a dialect and left it a language."
Except for Blank Verse, he left English poetry fully equipped. He also used Terza Rhyma
for his 'A Complaint unto His Lady'. He inculcated into the East Midland dialect the
refinement and courtliness of France. He imparted to his own tongue the grace and

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refinement he found in French poetry. "A Frenchman may enter Chaucer's country and be
conscious of no change" (Legouis).

Chaucer modernised grammar and vocabulary of his tongue. He coined many new
words, and imported many others. In this way, he enriched his tongue. He imparted to
English verse a rare music and melody which is learnt from France. "His claim on our
gratitude is two-fold," says Long, "first for discovering the music that is in our English
speech and second for his influence in fixing the Midland Dialect as the literary language of
England." He changed the very nature, syntax and grammar of the English tongue.

Chaucer’s poetry is characterised by clarity in expression zest for life, the
enjoyment of nature and restraint in the expression of emotion, feeling whether pathetic or
ironic. He provokes smiles rather than loud laughter. His humour is rich and varied. In
this respect, he is second only to Shakespeare. He added realism to English poetry. The
prologue to the Canterbury Tales gives us a realistic picture of the social life of the
times. He used, a stronger and richer poetical language and similies and metaphors such as
were used by the classical authors. This was mainly due to the Italian influence.

Chaucer is the supreme story teller in verse. He has greater sense of narrative
unities and can be more precise and to the point, when he likes, than any of his
contemporaries. His mastery of the art of narration has led many to call Chaucer, the
father of the English novel. His Canterbury Tales are so many novels in miniature. They
are only to be translated into prose to become so many modern novels. That is why
'Long' has called his Prologue to the Canterbury Tales as "the Prologue to the modern
fiction."

Chaucer has his own limitations. According to Matthew Arnold, he does not
have that sublimity and high seriousness which is the sign of great poetry. He
represents the growth of intelligence and the consequent weakening of passion and
imagination. Since a lyric is a compound of imagination and passion there is lack of
lyricism in his poetry. He cannot, therefore, be regarded as great as the great classics.
Limitations of his narrative art have already been noted above.

Chaucer, however, is capable of pathos and irony which sometimes blend as
tragedy. Sometimes as melodrama. As one reads Chaucer, the inescapable
conclusion comes again that the great poet was forever concerned with the essential

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irony of human existence, with the rather ludicrous mockery arising from joy and
ambition dashed unexpectedly by frustration and despair.

Chaucer’s style is characterized chiefly by simplicity. Except in those cases
where the author uses archaic form to preserve the rhyme effect, his words are
commonplaces of ordinary people in ordinary circumstances. His sentences are
simple in form and structure and noticeably free of studied balance. Indeed his
writing is singularly free of the far- fetched puns and metaphors which characterize
Shakespeare. To read Chaucer, then, is much like listening to a cultured and
accomplished story teller. The tales tell themselves without effort or delay.

The device of a springtime pilgrimage, the diverse group of persons making
up the company, and the adventures one can reasonably except on such a journey,
provided Chaucer with a wide range of characters and experiences. The setting does
not permit boredom. We are told in the Prologue that each member of the company
was to tell two stories. This would have amounted to sixty tales, plus the author’s
account of the stay in Canterbury.

Chaucer, who had composed on of the great classics of English literature in a
largely playful mood, embracing and enjoying all the foibles of human nature, closes
his great work with a grim supplication for heavenly forbearance.

1.7 LET US SUM UP

The study of prologue to Canterbury tales no doubt, proves father of
Chaucer's place as the father of English poetry. We get from him a lot of zest for life
and a refreshing enjoyment of all that is beautiful in nature and life. He is certainly among
the few greatest poets of the world.

1.8 LESSON – END ACTIVITIES:

1. Consider the prologue to the Canterbury Tales as a portrait gallery.
2. Discuss Chaucer as a satirist.
3. What are the significant aspects of Chaucer’s style in the prologue to the

Canterbury Tales.

1.9 REFERENCES

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Burrow, J.A., Geoffrey Chaucer. England : Penguin Books Ltd., 1969

Coghill. Noville The Poet Chaucer. 1949 ; rpt. London : Home University
Library, 1964.

Daiches, David A Critical History of English Lift. 1960 ; rpt. London: Martin
Secker and Warburg Ltd., 1968. I.

Howard. J. Edwin Geoffrey Chaucer. London : The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1976.

Hussey, Maurice et al., An Introduction to Chaucer. 1965 : rpt. London : Cambridge
University Press, 1968.

Lamb, Sidney. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales The Prologue. London : Coles
Skeat, W. Walter Publishing Company Ltd., 1967.

ed. Chaucer : The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, 3rd ed.
Rev. London: Oxford University Press. 1967.

Wyatt, A.J. Cd. Chaucer : The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. 1960 : rpt.
London : University Tutorial Press Ltd., 1968.

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LESSON - 2
OLIVER GOLDSMITH
THE DESERTED VILLAGE
Contents
2.0 Aims and Objectives
2.1 Introduction.
2.2 Goldsmith’s life & works.
2.3 Outline of the Poem the Deserted Village
2.4 STYLE & TECHNIQUE
2.5 Pathos in the Deserted Village
2.6 Goldsmith’s use of contrasts
2.7 Nature descriptions in the poem
2.8 The character of the village preacher
2.9 Let us Sum Up
2.10 Lesson – End Activities
2.11 References

2.0 Aims and Objectives

This lesson is devoted for making you know about the Oliver
Goldsmith’s poem entitled “The Deserted Village”. After going through
this lesson you will have clear understanding of “The Deserted
Village”.

2.1 Introduction.

In a dedication of this poem to Sir Joshua Reynolds Dr.
Goldsmith says, 'I know you will object and indeed several of our
best and wisest friends concur in the opinion that the depopulation
it deplores is no where to be seen, and the disorders it laments are
only to be found in the poet's own imagination. To this I can scarce
make any other answer than that I sincerely believe what I have
written; that I have taken all possible pains, in my country
excursions, for these four or five years past, to be certain of what
I alledge, and that all my views and enquiries have led me to believe
those miseries real, which I here attempt to display.'

In the Deserted Village, the poet a son of the village, who
remembers it in its prosperous days, and who amid all his many
wanderings, hopes to return home at last, is represented as coming
back only to find sweet Auburn deserted and in ruins. He recalls the
simple merry rustic life, the celergyman, the school-master, the

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village inn. He pictures the villages suffering the woes of exile in
an unkindly land; and he curses trade as causing the luxury that
produced this depopulation. The population of England was indeed
shifting at this time, but it was increasing. The economic aspect of
the poem, however, does not concern us. Nor yet does the precise
locality of Auburn matter much. Some maintain that it is England,
others in Ireland.

According to Macaulay, the picture in the poem “is made up of
incongruous parts. The village in its happy days is a true English
village. The village in its decay is an Irish Village. This
incongruity, if incongruity it be, was just reversed in Goldsmith’s
own mind. He distinctly says that the saw the depopulation in
England and maintains this in spite of contradiction. The Village in
its prosperity was in Ireland : it was lissoy, seen through the
medium of years of exile, and naturally appearing in a rosy light.
But it is not the topography of the poem that is important : it is
the melody of the verse, the simplicity, the natural scene-painting,
the sympathy with suffering men and women.

Goldsmith’s impersonal moralizing was in much of its
substance as conservative as his manner. His didactic
generalities were enclosed in regular couplets, and,
without being told.

Goldsmith’s dislike of commercialism is more
central in the Deserted Village. However nostalgic
fancy may have operated, his instinctive sympathy and
sentiment – not philosophic sentimentalism- gave the
picture a warmth and charm that won it immediate and
lasting popularity. In this poem the metrical
movement and the manner have exchanged much of their
gnomic stiffness and generality for a more natural
and varied ease, more concrete detail, and simpler
language.

The Deserted Village laments the onslaught of the Industrial
Revolution the village. With mills and factories arising on its farms
and fields/the natives are quitting it to seek ‘fresh woods and
pastures. The poet cannot but protest against a state of things’

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where wealth accumulates, and men decay’ As the Village that met this
fate was the poet’s birth-place Lissoy in Ireland, called Auburn in
the poem, a note of melancholy homesickness runs throughout. Gating
features of the poem is its portraits of the prominent figures of the
village.

2.2 Goldsmith’s life & works.

Oliver Goldsmith (1728-74) was the son of an Irish clergyman.
After a desultory course of studies at home and in a number of
schools, he joined Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar in 1774 and
graduated in 1749. In 1751 he presented himself for ordination as a
priest, but was rejected. He then studied medicine at Edinburgh and
at Leyden, and during 1755-56 wandered about France, Switzerland and
Italy, more or less in the manner of the Philosophic Vagabond,
described in The ViAcar of Wakefield. He returned to England in 1756,
completely destitute and started practice as a doctor in South wark,
London.

Goldsmith was an usher for a time at a scholl in Peckham, and
soon drifted into the occupation of a hack-writer. The first book
which brought him recognition was his Enquiry into the Present State
of Polite Learning, which was published in 1759. In the same year he
published his little periodical, The Bee, which contained the well-
known descriptive essay A City Night-Piece. He contributed to various
magazines. His Chinese letters, later published as The Citizen of the
World in 1762, were originally written for The Public Ledger, published
by John Newbery.

He made the acquaintance of Dr.Johnson in 1761 and one of the
original members of 'The Club'. His great novel The Vicar of Wakefield
was published in 1766, though the manuscript of the book was sold by
Dr.Johnson for Goldsmith in 1762 for £ 60. His poem The Traveller
appeared in 1764 and was welcomed by the public. He continued to do a
lot of hack-work for book-sellers, writing histories and biographies.
His first corned The Good natured Man was produced at Covent Garden
Theatre in 1768 and achieved a moderate success. His second comedy
She stoops to Conquer was played at Covent Garden in 1773 and was
tremendous success. In 1770 appeared The Deserted Village. Retaliation
was the last effort of his muse, a masterpiece of with and humour.
Because of his improvidence and unthinking generosity he remained in

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poverty and want. He died in 1744. On the monument erected to his
memory in Westminister Abbey is engraved a Latin epitaph written by
Dr.Johnson stating that he adorned whatever he touched. It is a proof
of the high respect which the Doctor had for his worth and literary
abilities.

Goldsmith made a name in all that he attempted – poetry, novel,
drama essay. In poetry his two principal works are The Traveler and
The Deserted Village but the wrote shorter poems too, which include a
series of mock-epitaphs called Retaliation: a light satirical:
epistle. The Haunch of Venison, occasioned by Lord Glare’s Present of
venison to the poet: two mock-eleies, On that Glory of her Sex Mr.
Mary Blaize and On the Death of a Mad Dog: and the song ‘When lovely
woman stoops to folly’. Last two poems are contained in his novel,
The Vicar of Wakefield. ‘The Traveller, Which grew out of his’
wanderings on the Continent, gives an account of life in the happiest
spot’ on earth he comes to ‘the conclusion that though’ the sum of
human bliss (is) so small’, ‘an equal portion (is) dealt to: all
mankind’. The poem is written in easy graceful heroic couple.

2.3 Outline of the Poem the Deserted Village

The Author writes in the character of a native of a country
village, to which he gives the name of Auburn, and which he thus
pathetically addresses: as reflected in the opening stanzas. (Lines
1-56)

Sweet Auburn i s t h e loveliest village of the plain. Where
health and plenty cheer’d the labouring swain, where spring paid its
earliest visit, and parting summer’s lingering blooms delay’d. It is
exquisitely charming.

The Poem opens with an apostrophe to its subject: S w e e t
Auburn, i s t h e loveliest village of the plain, where health and
plenty cheer ’ d t h e ‘labouring swain’; here smiling spring paid its
earliest visit, and parting summer’s lingering blooms delayed. This
place is the lovely bowers of innocence and ease, ‘Seats of my
youth’, when ‘every sport’ could please; The Poet had often loitered
in the green, Where humble happiness endear’d each scene. Many times
he had paused on every charm, such as ‘the sheltered cot’, ‘the
cultivated farm’ ‘The never-failing brook’, the busy mill, The

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decent church, that topt the neighb’ring hill.

The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, was suitable,
for the whispering lovers. How often have I blest the coming day,
All the village when free from labour ‘led up their sports beneath
the spreading tree; While many a pastime circled in the shad’,, The
young contended while the old surveyed; ‘And many a gambol frolicked
o’er the ground’, ‘There were scenes of flights of art and feats of
strength’. As e a c h repeated pleasure tired, succeeding sports
inspired the mirthful band. The dancing pair, that simply sought
renown by holding out to tire each other down; ‘The swain mistrust
less of his smutted face’.

While secret laughter tittered round the place; The matron’s
glance reproved ‘The bashful virgin’s side-long looks of love’,
These were thy charms sweet village; sports like these with sweet
succession taught e’en toil to please; These ro u n d t h y bowers thy
cheerful influence shed, These were thy charms—But all these charms
are fled.

The village diversions are insisted on with too much
prolixity. They are described first with a generality and redundance,
they are sports, and pastimes, and gambols, and flights of art, and
feats of strength; and they are represented sometimes as passive, the
‘sports are led up;’ sometimes as active, the ‘pastimes circle,’ and
the gambols ‘frolick,’ and the ‘flights and feats go round.’ But we
are perhaps fully recom-pensed for this, by the classical and
beautiful particularity and con-ciseness of the context, ‘the dancing
pair,’ ‘the swain mistmstless of his smutted face,’ the ‘bashful
virgin’s looks.

In the Sweet smiling village, loveliest of the lawn, The sports
are fled, and all its charms are with-drawn; Amidst the beowers the
tyrant’s hand is seen, And desolation saddens all thy green; One only
master grasps the whole domain, And half a tillage stints thy smiling
plain; The glassy brook no more reflects the day, but is choked with
sedges and works its weedy way. Along the glades a solitary guest,
The hollow-sounding bittern guards its nest; Amidst thy desert walks
the lapwing flies, and tires their echoes with repeated cries. Sunk
are thy bowers in shapeless ruin all, And the long grass o’er tops
the mould’ring

wall, And trembling, shrinking, from the spoiler’s

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hand, Far, far away thy children leave the land.
‘Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey’, where wealth

accumulates, and men decay; Princes and lords may flourish, or may
fade; A breath can make them, as a breath has made; But a hold
peasantry, their country’s pride, When once destroy’d can never be
supply’d.

A time there was, e’re England’s griefs
began,
When every rood of ground maintain’d its man; For him light
labour spread her wholesome store, Just gave what life requir’d but
gave no more: His best companions innocence and health, And his best
riches ignorance of wealth.
The first of these paragraphs, ‘III fares the land, with all
its merit, which is great, for the sentiment is noble. The affair of
depopulation had been more fully described, and is followed by a
concluding reflection. The second asserts what has been repeatedly
denied, that ‘there was a time in England, when every rood of ground
maintained its man.’ If however such a time ever was, it could not be
so recent as when the Deserted Village was flourishing, a
circumstance supposed to exist within the remembrance of the poet;
But now times had changed and Usurped the land, and
dispossessed the swain;
Along the lawn, where t h e r e w e r e scatter’d hamlets Unwieldy
wealth, and clumb’rous pomp rested;
And every want to opulence allied,
And every pang that folly pays to pride.
Those gentle hours that plenty bade to bloom,
Those calm desires that ask’d but little room,
Those healthful sports that grac’d the peaceful scene,
Liv’d in each look, and brighten ‘d all the green;
These far-departing, seek a kinder shore,
And rural mirth and manners are no more.

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The forlorn glades confess the tyrant’s power. In the poet’s
solitary rounds, amidst his thy tangling walks, and ruin’d grounds,
after many years he returns to view, “where once the cottage stood
the hawthorn grew,With doubtful, pensive steps he wanders and traces
every scene, and wonders at the change.

The Matron gathering water-cresses, is a fine picture; Sudden
calamity occasions violent emotions, but habitual hardship does not
produce incessant sorrow; as t i m e r e c o n c i l e s her to the most
disagreeable situations. After mentioning the general privation of
the ‘bloomy flush of life,’ the exceptionary, ‘all but,’ includes, as
part of that ‘bloomy flush,’ an ‘aged decrepid matron; that is to
say, in plain prose, ‘the bloomy flush of life is all fled but one
old woman.’

“The Poet now recurs again to the past. When Auburn is
described as flourishing, its Clergyman as a principal inhabitant, is
very properly introduced. This supposed Village Pastor, is
characterized in a manner which seems almost unexceptionable, both
for sentiment and expres-sion. His contentment, hospitality, and
piety, are pointed out with sufficient particularity”

The village preacher was, to all the country dear, And passing
rich with forty pounds a year; Remote from towns he ran his godly
race, never had chang’d, nor wish’d to change his place. T h e
benevolent mind cannot but yield its hearty assent to this beautiful
oblique reprehension of that avarice which makes the crimes and
errors of the poor, a pretence to justify the indulgence of its own
parsimony. A t church with meek and unaffected grace, His looks
adorne’d the venerable place; Truth from his lips prevaile’d with
double sway, and fools who came to scoff, remaine’d to pray . . .

Poetry attains its full purpose, when it sets its subjects
strongly and distinctly in our view. The good old man attended by his
venerating parishioners, and with a kind of dignified complacence,
even permits the familiarities of their children. As every parish has
its Clergyman, almost every parish has its School-master. T h i s
secondary character is here described with great force and precision.
The Muse, in part of her description, has descended to convey village
ideas, in village language, but has contrived to give just so much
dignity to the familiar.

The portraits of the village preacher and the village master

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have become memorable pieces and are remembered for their simplicity
and sympathy. The village preacher was dear to all the country, and
passing rich with forty pounds a year. Remote from towns he ran his
godly race. He did not fawn, or seek for power. In arguing too, the
parson owned his skill. For even though ‘ Vanquished, he could argue
still. While words of learned length and thundering sound. Amaz’d the
gazing rustics rang’d around. And still they gaz’d and still the
wonder grew. That are small head could carry all he knew.

The rest of the poem consists of the character of the village
schoolmaster, and a description of the village alehouse, both drawn
with admirable propriety and force; a descant on the mischiefs of
luxury and wealth, the variety of artificial pleasures, the miseries
of those, who, for want of employment at home, are driven to settle
new colonies abroad, and the following beautiful apostrophe to
Poetry. Having enumerated the domestic virtues which are leaving the
country with the inhabitants of his deserted village.

“Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, With
blossomed furze unprofitably gay, There, in his noisy mansion,
skill'd to rule, The village master taught his little school; A man
severe he was, and stern to view”, The Poet knew him well, and every
truant knew; the boding tremblers learned to trace th e d a y ' s
disasters in his morning face; Full well they lau g h ' d w i t h
counterfeited glee, at all his jokes, for he had many a joke. The
busy whisper went circling round, conveying the dismal tidings when
he frown'd; Yet he was kind, or if severe in anything, The love he
bore to learning was in fault; The village all declared how much he
knew; it was certain that he could write and cypher too; Lands he
could measure, terms and tides presage, And even the story ran that
he could gauge . . .1

This is a very elegant poem, written with great pains, yet
bearing every possible mark of facility; the description of a country
school-master, and a village alehouse is particularly picturesque.

This is followed by description of the Village Alehouse. Near
yonder thorn, that lifts its head on high, Where once the sign-post
caught the passing eye; Low lies that house, where nut-brown draughts
inspired, Where grey-beard mirth, and smiling toil retired . . .

Words like ‘Thither no more,’ adds a kind of pleasing regretful
pathos:

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Vain transitory splendors ! could not all Reprieve the
tottering mansion from its fall ! Obscure it sinks, nor shall it more
impart an hour’s importance to the poor man’s heart . . .

His is not poetical fiction, but historical truth. The real
country, with the men who actually drive the plough, or wield the
scythe, the sickle, the hammer, or the hedging bill are presented.
The Deserted Village, as has been hinted, is, on the whole, a
performance of great merits which has numerous excellencies.

2.4 STYLE & TECHNIQUE

Goldsmith's Deserted Village, is a performance of

distinguished merit. The general idea it inculcates is this; that

commerce, by an enormous introduction of wealth, has augmented the

number of the rich. The picturesque imagery, and the interesting

sentiment, a r e c o n v e y e d in melodious and regularly measured

language.

In this extract there is a strain of poetry very different from
the quaint phrase, and forced construction, into which our
fashionable bards are distorting prose; yet it may be remarked, that
our pity is here principally excited for what cannot suffer, for a
brook that is choked with sedges, a glade that is become the solitary
haunt of the bitter, a walk deserted to the lapwing, and a wall that
is half hidden by grass.

As the poet contemplates the ruins of the village magnificent
or beautiful ins series highlights the tender and mournful pleasure
from this fanciful association of ideas. He proceeds to contrast the
innocence and happiness of a simple and natural state, with the
miseries and vices that have been introduced by polished life in
lines 57-74. This is fine painting and fine poetry.

Commenting on repetition the word ‘bowers,’ occurs twice, the
word ‘sweet,’ thrice, and ‘charms,’ and ‘sport,’ singular or plural,
four times. We have also ‘toil remitting,’ and ‘toil taught to
please,’ ‘succeeding sports,’ and ‘sports with sweet succes-sion.’
There is a repetition which indicates intention, and maintains
regularity; and there is a repetition which discovers either
carelessness, or poverty of language. Auburn had before, been termed
‘sweet,’ and ‘The loveliest village of the plain-’ it is now termed

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‘sweet’ and ‘smiling,’ and ‘the loveliest of the lawn.’ We had been
told, in line 34. that ‘all its charms were fled and we are now told
that ‘its sports are fled, and its charms withdrawn.’ The ‘tyrant’s
hand,’ seems mentioned rather too abruptly; and ‘desolation saddening
the green’ is common place phraseology. The eight lines, ‘No more the
glassy brook’ are natural and beautiful; but the next two, ‘And
trembling, shrinking, introduce the subject of emigration.

The adjective ‘sweet,’ is frequently repeated. The obscure and
indefinite idea of a ‘Tyrant,’ also recurs. There is pathos in the
lines, ‘And many a year, we wish to hear more of the Village in its
prosperity, before we hear so much of its desolation. It abounds
with precepts of the soundest policy, the shrewdest remarks on human
character, descriptions of local scenery as rich and as appropriate
as any thing that ever came from the pen of Shakespeare or the pencil
of Claude; and, for plaintive melody of versification, and pathetic
appeals to the heart, It stands perhaps unrivalled.

It overflows with charms for every laudable variety of taste,
and for each degree of understanding. To its matter, and the
harmonious numbers in which it is conveyed, there exists something
responsive in every bosom: no preparative erudition is required to
make it intelligible, nor any comment wanting to indicate their
beauties; The construction of which, however beautiful, is scarcely
ever adverted to by the multitudes who are enraptured with the images
which they present to the mind.

Nothing of its kind can be more finished than the picture of
the village-clergyman: but the simile employed to illustrate the
poet’s account of his strict performance of the pastoral office, the
affection he feels for his people, and the persevering piety by which
he wins them to paths of holiness and peace, if not matchless, has
never been excelled:

In support of this remark, the following few passages are
cited from the Deserted Village;

‘And as a bird each fond endearment tries. To tempt its new-
fledg’d offspring to the skies, he try’d each art, reprov’d each
dull delay, Allur’d to brighter worlds, and led the way.’ If this
idea can be equalled by another, in any language, ancient or modern,
it is by that with which the portrait concludes: ‘To them his heart,
his love, his griefs were giv’n; But all his serious thoughts had

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rest in heav’n. As some tall cliff, that lifts its awful form, Swells
from the vale, and mid-way leaves the storm, Though’ round its breast
the rolling clouds are spread, Eternal sunshine settles on its head.’

The lofty idea of the function of poetry, sweet poetry, that
loveliest mind makes us ask where another poem comparable to it in
exquisitely chiseled magery, in white-heat struck out phrases, in
elegance in elegance of diction, and softness of numbers. We
reluctantly leave a poem which is so arrayed in nature’s simplest
charms as to stir the fountains of those early, deep remembrances
that turn all pur past to pain. The amotional technique of the whole
poem is explained by this couplet:

The Deserted Village ends with an address to Poetry, not only
affecting for the solemnity of its personal allusion, and pleasing to
the reader for the smooth current of its versification, but
remarkable as displaying the virtuous enthusiasm of Goldsmith, and a
generous declaration of what was his notion concerning a poet’s duty,
and the influence of his art on mankind: . . .

Goldsmith’s Deserted Village necessarily delighted every one at
that grade of cultivation, in that sphere of thought. Not as living
and active, but as a departed, vanished existence was described, all
that one so readily looked upon, that one loved, prized, sought
passionately in the present, t here is a peculiar charm about the
poetry of Goldsmith. It is due not a little to the personal quality of
his writing. With perfect justice he is described as one of the most
subjective of English writers.

2.5 Pathos in the Deserted Village

Goldsmith was always a champion of the poor and
the downtrodden. His heart overflowed with pity for
suffering humanity. There is nothing for which he
cursed himself so much as for his inability to help
the miserable people around him. In The Deserted
Village we find him in numerous places referring to
the woes that poor people have to suffer at the hands
of the woes that poor people have to suffer at the

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hands of the callous rich. The poor are no longer
wanted in the country. The humble peasants are
driven away from the soil which has sustained them
for generations, to face the horrors of a new
country.

The Deserted Village given us also a glimpse
into the poet’s heart, revealing to us his intense
passion for poetry. At the end of the poem, in a
voice quivering with emotion, he confesses that it is
poetry that has sustained him through a life of care.
More than the normal share of sorrows has fallen to
his lot. If he has not been crushed by their weight,
he owes it only to his love of the Muse. With the
solace that poetry can offer him, he knows he need
never despair.

Some may be tempted to judge of Goldsmith’s
character rather harshly because, in hid eagerness to
defend the poor, he is too stern in his condemnation
of the rich. Thoroughly ignorant of the economic
conditions of the times, he ascribes the depopulation
of the village, to the accumulation of wealth and the
baneful passion for luxury among the rich. It has
been pointed out that the misery and depopulation he
laments are more imaginary than real. Goldsmith,
however, should not be misunderstood on this point.
He sincerely believed in what he wrote and was quite
convinced that the reasons for the misery of the
people were what he represented them to be.

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Whatever his faults, Goldsmith is seen in this

poem as an extraordinarily lovable character. We see

him here in all the pathos of his life. His

sufferings have lent a sweetness and grandeur to his

personality. His infinite love for humanity

enshrines him in the hearts of all readers. No one

can read through the poem without knowing the author

and loving him.

2.6 Goldsmith’s use of contrasts

It is well recognized that an effective us of

contrast always contributes to the fascination of a

poem. Goldsmith realised this very well, and has

abundantly used this device in many of his poems.

That Deserted Village stands out prominently among

his works in this respect because Goldsmith has

exploited to the fullest extent all the beauty that

the use of contrasts can confer on a poem.

Though the main contract in the poem is between
Anburn in the days of its glory and Anburn in
desolation there are a number of other picturesque
and beautifully contrasted details. Goldsmith speaks
of a time in England when every man in the land had a
small estate which he could cultivate for his own
sustenance. Those times are gone and the rich
landlords with the passion for grabbing everything
they can lay their hands on, buy up all the land in

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order to convert it into a beautiful park or pleasure
garden.

Another interesting contrast which is suggested
and maintained throughout the poem, is the
conventional antithesis between city and rural life.
In the case of Goldsmith, this was not a mere poetic
convention. The earlier years of his life had been
spent in a beautiful little village, and long absence
from it had idealised it and enshrined it in his
heart. From personal experience in later life, he
knew the misery and the sickening horrors of city
life.

The contrast therefore is remarkably vivid.
Goldsmith paints all the charms of rural life and
contrasts these with the loathsomeness and ugliness
of existence in a city. In a passage which burns
with earnestness and overflows with the very essence
of poetry, he tells us that many of the adventurers
from the village would have been far more happy, if
they had never left their homes in search of fortunes
in the city. He speaks of the misery of young women,
who were tempted out of their homes to enter the
wickedness of life in a city. He pictures their
misery after they have been betrayed, and contrasts
this with the joyous and beautiful life they might
have led, if they had stayed on in their own homes.

Many more instances of the effective use of
contrasts can be cited, for the poem is filled to

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repletion with them. These, however, are the more
important of the contrasted pictures, and they can
serve to illustrate the excellent use to which the
poet has put them.

2.7 Nature descriptions in the poem
The eighteenth century in English poetry has

acquired a sort of notoriety for the poverty of its
Nature description. No neo-classic poet seemed
capable of drinking in the pure and fresh joy of
Nature. All the poets of the time contented
themselves with descriptions of urban beauties and
amenities. Poetry seened to have left the meadows and
the hills and taken shelter in the stuffy atmosphere
of a drawing room or coffee house. Where Nature
poetry was attempted on rare occasions, it was an
extremely conventional kind. There was no joyous
impulse emanating from a genuine passion for what is
beautiful and fascinating a Nature. The greatest
poets of the time were content to sing the pleasures
of city life. If Nature description became necessary,
they just employed a few conventional poetic phrases
to picture a lovely but artificial Arcadia, entirely
remote from ordinary life.

Goldsmith, though he belongs to this school of
poets, often strikes out a new path for himself. In
the main his Nature descriptions too are
conventional. Oftentimes, one may be inclined to
accuse him of employing cold and conventional phrases

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to describe the ever-changing beauty of Nature. In
The Deserted Village, however, the poet has largely
succeeded in giving us pictures which are real and
living. The rural paradise that he portrays in sweet
Auburn, is not at all like the conventional Arcadia
described by the poets of the time. It is a picture
of a real village, though it has been considerably
idealized. For purposes of poetic effect, the beauty
has been willfully exaggerated, but there is nothing
fundamentally false about it. In spite of the
exaggerations, it rings true.

The descriptions of Nature in this poem, though
conventional in the main are oftentimes remarkably
beautiful. Goldsmith felt all that he said, and if
sometimes he is wrong, he has at least the excuse
that he is never insincere. Nature of course is not
presented on its awful and impressive moods. Nature,
as it might be seen in a real village, is described
vividly enough. Goldsmith must have been a shrewd
observer, for he is often able to give a beautiful
and complete picture. In may be said that no other
poem of the age, with the exception of Gray’s Elegy
in a County Churchyard, has given such a lovely and
realistic account of Nature in the countryside.

2.8 The character of the village preacher

The description of the parish priest would have done honour to
any poet of any age: . [lines 137-92]. The preacher is a composite
portrait based on the poet’s father brother Henry Uncle. The death of
Goldsmith’s beloved brother stirring him to the depths of his being,
urged him to compose the poem.

The village preacher is a compound of manifold virtues. The

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preacher makes Christian virtue appear worth striving for. He is a
portrait of complete humanitarianism. He was dear to all the country
and reasonably well -off by contemporary standards his life style was
austere. Remote from towns he ran his godly race and never had
changed nor wished to change his place. He was not used to fawn or
seek power . His doctrines were most suitable for his time.

The preacher’s teachings were so shaped as not to offend
influential church- goers by drawing attention to the abuses
prevailing among them. He held other aims as precious and skilled to
“raise the wretched”. His house was known to all the ‘vagrant train’
the endless procession of beggars whom he checked from aimless
wanderings and relieved their pain “the long remembered beggar was is
guest. “The ruined spendthrift” now no long a proud was one among his
kindred. The broken soldier disabled by wounds and therefore
condemned to penury, was bid to stay and sit by his fire and talk all
through the night about his wounds are tales of sorrow, and the
battles that were won.

The village preacher was pleased with his guests and was
thrilled listening indulgently to them.

“He quite forgot their vices in their woe,
Careless their merits or their faults to scan,
His pitty gave ere charity began”
The parson’s heart went out to the poor man at once and then
his hand went into his pocket, “thus to relieve the wretched was his
pride” . By helping all indiscriminately he may have been unwittingly
encouraging laziness, imposture. This would be a defect Another would
be his conniving at the spendthrift’s lie and his giving away more
than his income. But these foibles were misguided virtue and hardly
blameworthy.

The parson is compared to a knight fighting stoutly on the
dying man’s side. When the church service was over. The villagers
eagerly danced attendance on him. The children used to pluck his
sleeve to make him turn round and to catch his eye. The parson was
not so occupied with spiritual contemplation as to forget the earthly
needs and hardships of men; nor was he worldly and forgetful of
ultimate spiritual ends. His feet were firmly planted firmly among-
practical concerns, while he was basking in the sunshine and serenity
of celestial visions. The broad-based mountain is so high that the

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rough winds of the upper atmosphere sweep round the middle of it and
the parson’s piety was equally lofty. Trembling pupils filled with
anticipations of punishment, when they did something wrong from his
cheerful or sullen look when school assembled, the pupils could
predict whether the day would be full of misfortunes or without them
a very natural touch like the others in this portrait. A
schoolmaster’s jokes are often dull, but his pupils laugh just to
please him. His warning was slyly and quickly circulated. The simile
of the bird teaching her young to fly, and of the mountain that rises
above the storm, are not easily to be paralleled, and yet the
construction of the last is not perfect. As, in the first verse,
requires so, in the third, either expressed or implied: at present
the construction is, 'As some cliff swells from, the vale, sunshine
settles upon its head, though clouds obscure its breast.'

2.9 Let us Sum Up

The objects of a village-evening, which affect the mind of a
susceptible observer, are very warmly and beautifully described. The
character of the worthy parish priest of the village is a master-
piece; it makes a sacred and most forcible appeal to the best
feelings of the human heart. Goldsmith deserves the highest applause
for employing his poetical talents in the support of humanity and
virtue, in an age when sentimental instruction will have more
powerful influence upon our conduct than any other; when abstruse
systems of morality, and dry exhortations from the pulpit, if
attended to for a while, make no durable impression.

2.10 Lesson – End Activities:-

1. Comment on the style and technique of the Deserted Village.

2. What is the role of the Village’s School Master?

3. What are the memorable features of the Auburn Village?

2.11 References

· Baugh, Albert C. ed. A Literary History of England Vol. II.
London : Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1967.

· Legouis, Emile et. al., A History of English Literature.
London : J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1926 rpt., 1965.

· Hudson, William Henry Outline History of English
Literature. 1961 : rpt. Bell & Hyman Ltd., 1988.

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· Saintsbury, George A short History of English
Literature. 1898; rpt. London : Macmillan & Co.
Ltd., 1960.

· Rpissaeau, G.S. Goldsmith: The Critical Heritage London,
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974.

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LESSON 3

JOHN MILTON

PARADISE LOST

Contents
3.0 Aims and Objectives
3.1 Introduction.
3.2 Milton’s life and works
3.3 The theme of paradise lost
3.4 out line of paradise lost
3.5 general characteristics of milton’s poetry
3.6 style and versification
3.7 Characteristic features of an epic
3.8 Paradises lost as an epic
3.9 Character of satan
3.10 Let us sum up
3.11 Lesson – end activities

3.12 References

3.0 Aims and Objectives

This lesson will through a light on John Milton’s Paradise Lost
besides explaining the life and various works of Milton. You will
acquire, after reading this lesson the theme and outline of Paradise
Lost, General Characteristics, Style and Verification of Milton
Poetry.

3.1 Introduction.

The England of Milton and Bunyan was born on
December 9, 1608, at Black Spread Eagle Court, in
Bread Street. Thus was Puritanism nourished in the
very bosom of the Renaissance. Puritanism began with
Ben Johnson, though it found its greatest poetical

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exponent in Milton, its greatest; prose exponent in
Bunyan.

Two influences contributed especially to the
moulding of the England now under consideration. The
first is the influence of the great dramatists and
the second influence is that of the Bible. The
Scriptures, hitherto reserved for the select few, are
now spread broadcast for men and women to con-sider
_and expound for themselves. Anyone who wished to “
purify “ the usages of the church was called a
Puritan.

Puritanism turned Mil-ton’s thoughts from such
subjects as the Arthurian Legend. His epic genius
found perfect expression in the Biblical story of the
Fall of Man. Nothing is more char-acteristic of the
poet than the arduous mental development he
deliberately set before himself in order to grapple
with his task. The earlier years of his life were
spent in hard study and preparation ; then for a
while he plunged into fierce political con-troversy
in the cause of civil and religious liberty ;
finally, in the last years of his life he gave us, as
the fruit of his mature genius, Paradise Lost,
Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes.

Possessing a sense of beauty, as keen though
less unrestrained than that possessed by the
Elizabethans, Milton’s devotion to form and coherence
separates him from the great Romantics, and gives to
the beauty of his verse a delicacy and gravity all
its own. Nowhere is this quality of beauty better

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