The Public Square The Public Square: The importance of being a multi-use space in the city ABEE3004 Urban Design Theory James Keay | 20370096
1.0 Introduction ...................................................................4 2.0 Literature Review .......................................................... 6 2.1 Characteristics of Successful Squares ........................................ 6 2.2 Top-Down Strategies ............................................................9 2.3 Bottom-Up Strategies .........................................................11 2.4 Balanced Approach ...........................................................12 3.0 Case Study: Nottingham’s Old Market Square.........13 3.1 History and Context ...........................................................13 3.2 Councils Top-Down Role ......................................................15 3.3 Community Bottom-Up Usage ...............................................16 3.4 Balanced Approach ...........................................................17 4.0 Conclusion ................................................................... 18 5.0 Bibliography ................................................................ 20 5.1 References ......................................................................20 5.2 Figures ..........................................................................23 2 Contents
"First life, then spaces, then buildings - the other way around never works." Jan Gehl 3. Jan Gehl in a busy Urban Space 3
Introduction The United Nations World Urbanisation Prospects report1 estimates that by 2050, 68% of the world’s population will live in urban areas. With such a large proportion of humanity living within our crowded towns and cities, our shared outdoor space will perform an essential role in shaping urban daily life as well as providing the stage for social interaction. City Squares can bring communities together, provide meeting places and foster social ties of a kind that have been disappearing in many urban areas2. They create much-needed venues for public events like concerts, rallies, and performances that provide a platform for artistic, cultural, and political participation. Public spaces are also important to economic development as they draw in people and can become a magnet for national talent and investment opportunities. However, there are several key challenges for public squares, and in the UK, there is a sense of dissatisfaction and pessimism with the quality of these everyday public spaces. Funding constraints for programming and maintenance is resulting in decline and neglect, as the services and activities which maintain quality of those spaces have been subject to the same constraints and pressures as public services in general3. The lack of management has also led to underutilisation, emptiness, and a lack of consistent community engagement. Contemporary public spaces are also facing challenges in terms of maintaining them as a social space so that they are accessible and functional for all users4. Different groups of people including women, the elderly, and ethnic minorities, use public spaces differently and they are not seen as inclusive and welcoming across these differing sections of society. Whatever their background, all citizens deserve to have access to these areas without fearing for their safety or feeling trapped or watched5. As Badshah explains “good public space must accommodate everyone including the marginal, the forgotten, and the silent”6. By thoughtfully activating the public square, cities leverage a powerful opportunity for community enrichment. The opportunity will be to incorporate a vision that is people-centric and focuses on the specific needs and experiences of different groups to create truly thriving and resilient public space for all7 where the foundations of culture, economy, and shared identity can thrive. As Gehl describes, “first life, then spaces, then buildings – the other way around never works”8. Figure 1.1 Population Estimates 4 1.0
Given the importance of planning and funding to grow and maintain such spaces, coupled with the need to accommodate people across socioeconomic statuses and backgrounds, a question arises over optimal engagement approaches. Should public square activation begin from the top-down via structured governmental planning or take a bottom-up community-centric route to drive participation? As there are pros, cons, and limitations within both centralised and grassroots models for generating inclusive engagement, a deeper analysis is required. On one hand, top-down measures can expedite necessary infrastructure upgrades but risk marginalising communities lacking political capital. Conversely, sole reliance on organic community efforts risks uneven access and participation across groups divided by privilege. This paper will therefore critically review the literature, first to understand how we can use criteria to assess the characteristics of successful city squares, and then to explore the different activation approaches: bottom-up and top-down. Following this, the learnings from both the success criteria and the engagement approaches will be applied to a relevant case study focussing on the Old Market Square in Nottingham city centre. Figure 1.2 Percentage Urban 5 1.0
Literature Review 2.1 Characteristics of Successful Squares Urban public squares are more than just physical spaces; they have symbolic meaning for people. They are vibrant, active, and interesting places9. Urban design increasingly recognises that well-functioning public squares should organically foster social connections and expressions of communal culture10. More than mere physical spaces, at their best they become vibrant centres, enabling diverse spontaneous activities that define city liveability11. Squares should be multi-purpose supporting both structure and spontaneity. The space should feel cohesive visually rather than chaotic when hosting diverse activities12. To categorise the elements of a successful public space more fully, Gehl13 describes twelve quality criteria for the design of good public spaces. This framework spans three vital dimensions - Comfort, Enjoyment, and Protection. Comfort factors enhancing a square's appeal and value include options for walking, standing, sitting, hearing, and seeing. Enjoyment factors include positive sensory experiences, positive aspects of climate and design that reflects human scale. Finally, Protection assesses factors such as safety, security, and shelter from unpleasant experiences. This framework provides a valuable lens to assess urban squares. However, when applying these principles through the design and planning process, two divergent approaches have emerged to activate public squares for maximum inclusiveness - top-down policy-driven revitalisation versus bottom-up community participation. Figure 1.3 Jan Gehl on ‘How to design the perfect City’ city 6 2.0
A top-down policy-driven approach led by governmental bodies and developers focuses square construction around concrete ideas of usage, functionality, and economic impacts. In contrast, bottom-up community participation leverages local context, social fabrics, and authentic voices to envisage the square's form and activities. Thus, while Gehl's comfort, enjoyment and protection criteria validate vital markers of thriving public spaces, actualising this vision competes between top-down revitalisation versus bottom-up activation during the creation process. As both approaches have limitations in isolation, examining where these planning processes overlap or can integrate across top-down resources and bottom-up cultural insights is key to balancing efficient construction with inclusive community-building. Figure 1.4 Twelve Quality Criteria 7 2.1
"Cultures and climates differ all over the world, but people are the same. They’ll gather in public if you give them a good place to do it.." Jan Gehl Jan Gehl in a Quiet Urban Space 8 2.1
2.2 Top-Down Strategies A top-down approach to promote usage and engagement in public squares is planned by city officials, developers, and urban planners to intentionally drive public usage of a space. It tends to involve large, organised events and programming that draw people to use the square. The goal is to revitalise and activate the public space in a structured way. A top-down approach is beneficial in several ways. It has public economic benefits, such as creating confidence in an area, thereby attracting investment, further development, and companies and talented workers14. It allows for the integration of different visions and stakeholder needs, reducing conflicts and ensuring the development of effective urban plans15. This approach to urban design seeks to enhance the life of the city and its inhabitants in socio-economic and environmental terms, and can bring efficiency, modernisation, and cohesion to urban spaces16. Figure 1.5 Top-Down Strategies 9 2.2
10 2.2 As the fundamental component of the city structure, urban squares contribute to the image and prestige of the city17, and therefore it makes sense to leverage the authority, resources, and stability of institutional management. Governments have greater budget capacity and access to funding streams for sponsored events, landscaping upgrades and infrastructure maintenance through taxes and partnerships. A centralised city planning authority can coordinate and allocate appropriate resources for improvements and programming for the public space. Top-down policy can also mandate design choices, building codes, zoning laws to enable physical accessibility for the elderly or disabled. However, there are serious criticisms of this approach as it may not touch the “ground” community level, and that the experts in development simply comply with requirements of funding agencies in the development and this top-down process may alienate local community members and fail to capture locally significant factors18. Experts with narrow development and design agendas or bureaucrats beholden to funding agencies, may pay only lip service to revitalisation. Carmona19 further criticises designers and authorities for undermining "publicness" of public spaces through commodification and homogenisation. Figure 1.6 Chain of Command Figure 1.7 Divide Figure 1.8 Miscommunication
2.3 Bottom-Up Strategies Conversely, a bottom-up approach happens when local community groups, small businesses, residents, and artists leverage the space creatively. Bottom-up, community driven approaches to activating public squares allow for a more comprehensive understanding of local needs and values, leading to more successful outcomes20. Grassroots efforts in community revitalisation are reshaping the public processes and institutional framework involving the design and development of public space21. This provides a comprehensive assessment of local social, environmental, and economic issues which help to diagnose the local context in a detailed manner rather than relying only on quantitative facts and figures. A bottom-up approach increases a community's capacity to manage their environment, and therefore, the community is empowered22. Grassroots efforts reflect the authentic needs and cultural contexts of local residents, rather than top-down agendas. This creates more organic buy-in and a sense of ownership. Involvement of marginalised groups ensures accessibility issues get surfaced proactively, with traditionally disenfranchised groups gaining greater influence. The growing success of “Lighter, Quicker, Cheaper” (LQC) projects all over the world demonstrates that expensive, labour-intensive initiatives are not he only, or even the most effective ways to bring energy and life to community public spaces23. A term first described by Reynolds in 1970, lighter, quicker, cheaper describes a placemaking strategy that empowers communities to generate projects and create spaces in their communities collaboratively. It utilises the core principles of community vision, cost-effectiveness, collaboration, and citizen-led change24. The critical success factors of a bottom-up urban design process include effective participation from stakeholders and a strong understanding of the local context. However, this approach also has its limitations, such as the need for more time and commitment from all parties involved25. There is also some argument on the abilities of unqualified residents to be able to contribute successfully, as Le Corbusier said, “city planning is an activity too important to leave to city inhabitants”26. Figure 1.9 Bottom-Up Community 11 2.3
12 2.4 2.4 Balanced Approach So perhaps, rather than considering these two approaches separately, there are opportunities for collaborative partnerships that harness the strengths of both and mitigate their weaknesses. Urban space activation processes can contrast between top-down planning strategies led by influential entities and governing bodies, and the bottom-up initiatives driven by local communities27 In this way, the top-down approach can be complemented by a bottom-up approach to ensure that the needs of the community are addressed, and sustainable, accessible environments are created28. Governments can lend their budgets, accessibility mandates and coordination capacities to help surface communityled programming that reflects authentic cultural contexts. By collaborating and sharing decision-making with non-profits, social enterprises, and grassroots coalitions more representative of everyday public space users, the events programme and spatial design can become more inclusive and grounded. Fredericks agrees, stating that “drawing on the collective knowledge, skills, and creativity from a variety of top-down and bottom-up stakeholders is required to address the needs, wants and aspirations of people in the 21st century city”29. Figure 2.0 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Strategies
Case Study: Nottingham’s Old Market Square 3.1 History and Context With a history going back to Norman times, Old Market Square in Nottingham is one of the oldest public squares in the UK with an 800-year history as a marketplace. At 11,500 meters squared, it is the second largest City Square in Britain after London’s Trafalgar Square. Historically the Square has long formed a meeting place for the people of Nottingham, and has been the location for local events, civic protests, royal visits, celebrations, and public mourning30 with several of Nottingham’s defining moments having taken place in the Square over the last 1000 years. The ‘life’ of a Square evolves and changes according to the contemporary demands of the people31. Analysing the evolution of Old Market Square in Nottingham, we see how its design has changed over the years to accommodate city life. The earliest detailed map of 1609 shows the shape of the square as it is today32, however, it has gone through several incarnations. While the Square's central location made it the heart of civic activity for centuries, by the early 2000s, the outdated 1929 design was restricting access and failing to support community events. After extensive public input, an ambitious 2004 redevelopment initiative sought to transform the site into an inclusive, flexible community asset33. The contemporary redesign by Gustafson Porter opened in 2007, featuring new water features, greenery, and tiered granite seating flowing with the Square's original topography to enable barrierfree access. The revitalised Old Market Square has since hosted major concerts, festivals, markets, and sporting events that attract locals and tourists alike. The multi-functional space also encourages everyday use with its inviting design. The redevelopment has catalysed the area's economy and reinforced Nottingham's identity. While Mehan34 argues that in many modern cities, the public squares that have been more recently designed and constructed aren’t responsive for social needs, improvement of communications and the social relations of citizens, this doesn’t appear to be the case for Old Market Square. Figure 2.1 Old Market Square 1820 - 1975 13 3.0
Figure 2.3 Old Market Square Water features Applying Gehl's public space criteria35, Nottingham's redeveloped Old Market Square strongly prioritised human ‘Comfort’ through its ample tiered seating options, integration of greenery and availability of food and retail to encourage extended time spent in the environment. It shows consideration for accessibility through incorporation of ramps and gradual level changes for wheelchair users. Landscaping for aesthetic enhancement and intimacy also demonstrates comfort values. In consideration for community ‘Enjoyment’, the enhancement of infrastructure for major events expands enjoyment opportunities through programmed arts and cultural activities. Interactive water features also enable enjoyment and serve multiple uses with a reflecting pool, 1.8m waterfall, rills and 53 jets. This multi-function area can also serve as a performance space. ‘Protection’ considerations like night lighting, with reflectors and masts enhances perceived safety and protection with Steve Hunt of Nottingham City Council stating “previous issues associated with antisocial behaviour have effectively disappeared with the new design.36” Figure 2.2 Interactive Water Features 14 3.1
3.2 Councils Top-Down Role Nottingham City Council took a leading topdown role in transforming the outdated Old Market Square site into a vibrant and flexible community space. As owner of the Square, the Council initiated the 2004 design competition for regeneration concepts from architecture firms32 and directly funded and managed the multimillion-dollar demolition and rebuilding project upon appointment of architects Gustafson Porter. The subsequent design incorporated key features like tiered granite seating and a water feature specifically to accommodate large festivals, markets, and concert events in the new footprint. Following reconstruction in 2007, the Council Events Team continues to coordinate major programmed activations of the site annually - spearheading permission, logistics, vendor solicitation and sponsorship of attractions like the Goose Fair, Winter Wonderland holiday theme park, food festivals and open-air cinema nights which draw thousands of tourists and locals. While enabling community access, the strategic overhaul and ongoing spotlight event curation reflect the Council's institutional authority over Nottingham's core public space. However, not all the Councils initiatives have had the desired effects of attracting new investment to the city – in their Time and Place Plan it's noted that “around some parts of Old Market Square, investment in public spaces has not resulted in improved surrounding buildings or uses”37. Figure 2.4 Nottingham Top-Down Events 15 3.2
3.3 Community Bottom-Up Usage In addition to the large set piece events administered by the Council, smaller-scale grassroots usage leveraging Old Market Square’s amenities occur year-round. The bordering Creative Quarter of artistic residents, independent studios, and galleries, utilise the space for exhibits, informal gatherings, and classes. Street performers, markets and a variety of cafés and restaurants also add local grassroots activity. Student groups from nearby Universities similarly gather in the flexible space and utilise it for awareness drives, recruitment events and fundraisers. Activism and advocacy marches also access the Square, such as Palestine protests from the ‘Stop The War Coalition’. Sustainability groups like Save Nottingham Green Spaces, SOS Nottingham, and Green Hustle further utilise the space as a gathering and event destination. One such event, the Green Hustle Festival, saw a ten thousand person turn out for their free event celebrating life, nature, community action, and creativity in 2023 according to Nottingham Business Improvement District (BID)38. In addition to programmes and events, Old Market Square is used informally everyday by the community. Students and office workers routinely use the ample seating and steps for lunches and breaks, friends and families meet and socialise over food and drinks and children have space to play. These everyday community habits of socialising and unwinding instinctively build cultural memory and sense of collective place around Nottingham's signature public square. The welcoming design and accessibility enable Old Market Square to organically become not just an event showpiece but also backdrop for daily living. So, while the city council's events bring in lots of visitors, local residents also use the square frequently in everyday ways, which allows for a sense of ownership over the square as the heart of their community. Figure 2.5 Nottingham Green Hustle 16 3.3
Figure 2.6 Nottingham Top-Down Events 17 3.4 3.4 Balanced Approach Nottingham has delivered a thoughtfully balanced approach in redeveloping and managing its public site to meet modern demands without sacrificing heritage or community ownership. Whilst the substantial physical and infrastructural overhaul relied on the City Council’s institutional authority and resources to re-imagine accessibility, flexibility and technology, officials did seek public input, and constructed an inclusive tiered plaza specifically to enable daily use as well as high-capacity festivals that bolster tourism. Rather than monopolise the events programming, the Council has given autonomy for smaller-scale activations to permeate around monuments preserved to retain cultural memory and an encircling Creative Quarter. This allows for authentic grassroots expressions through informal gatherings, public arts, classes, and student group engagements that organically leverage the site’s modernised assets. Nottingham provides community grant funding as well as planning and coordination assistance to further facilitate local culture and arts projects in public spaces. The City Council continues to encourage and enable citizen participation and contribution frequently holding public consultations on major new projects and initiatives to gather input and feedback. For example, it conducted extensive public consultations through surveys, meetings and voting prior to redeveloping the Old Market Square. There is a dedicated Nottingham City Council Volunteer Hub which helps match citizens to local volunteer opportunities with community organizations across areas like conservation, and a Youth Council as well hosting regular forums and focus groups. In this way, and through both online and offline channels focused specifically on inclusion and empowerment, Nottingham provides pathways for citizens to actively contribute to civic life.
Conclusion This paper examined the importance of public squares in cities being multi-functional, accessible places for building community. As outlined initially, many squares face key challenges around decline, neglect, emptiness, and barriers marginalising some groups. By analysing the characteristics of successful spaces and criteria that can be used to assess fitness for purpose, we gained clarity on how to optimise public Squares. Further review of the literature revealed the differences between top-down government-driven strategies versus bottom-up community approaches to activate these sites. While both models have limitations if used exclusively, partnerships blending centralised resources with grassroots participation can optimise inclusive, vibrant spaces. By applying these learnings to the case study of Nottingham’s historic Old Market Square redevelopment, it was clear that an intentional hybrid strategy balancing top-level infrastructure upgrades with authentic grassroots activation retained the square’s identity while enhancing flexibility. The design choices uphold Gehl's core criteria - enabling greater comfort through terraced seating, enjoyment via interactive water features, and protection by incorporating lighting for perceived safety. This demonstrated a human-centric approach focusing on lived experiences. We further found that the city council took a leading yet balanced role alongside community partners - strategically enabling large events while retaining space for impromptu gatherings showcasing Nottingham's creative identity. Figure 2.7 Intentional hybrid strategy 18 4.0
In summary, realising the immense community-building potential of public squares requires proactively harmonising top-down revitalisation with bottom-up participation through an inclusive collaborative governance process. Nottingham exemplifies this model - maintaining the square’s essence as the heart of the city while intentionally upgrading accessibility, technology, and programming to better serve all people across time. The learnings provide inspiration for cities seeking to thoughtfully transform declining communal spaces into resilient, multi-use places celebrating both history and progress. 19 4.0
Bibliography 5.1 References 1. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2018). The World’s Cities in 2018—Data Booklet (ST/ESA/ SER.A/417). 2. Giddings, Bob, James Charlton and Margaret Horne. “Public squares in European city centres.” URBAN DESIGN International 16 (2011): 202-212. 3. Carmona, Matthew, Claudio de Magalhães and Leo Hammond. “Public Space: The Management Dimension.” Public Space Reader (2008): n. pag. 4. Chitrakar, Rajjan, Douglas Baker and Mirko Guaralda. “Emerging challenges in the management of contemporary public spaces in urban neighbourhoods.” (2017). 5. EFUS. 2023. “Making Urban Public Spaces Safer and More Inclusive.” European Forum for Urban Security, February, 2023. https://efus.eu/topics/public-spaces/public-spaces-safer-and-more-inclusive/ 6. Badshah, Akhtar A., and Akhtar A. Badshah. 1996. Our Urban Future, New Paradigms for Equity and Sustainability. London and New Jersey: Zed Books Ltd. 7. Valdes Cano, Laura. 2022. “Getting Public Space Right: Transforming Society From the Ground Up.” Metropolis, February 3, 2022. https://www.metropolis.org/topics/public-space/public-space-essay/. 8. Gehl, Jahn. 2011. Life between Buildings. 6th ed. Washington, D.C., DC: Island Press. 9. Memluk, Murat Z.. “Designing Urban Squares.” (2013). 10. Mossop, Elizabeth. 2001. “Public Space: Civilising the City.” In City Spaces: Art & Design, edited by Elizabeth Mossop and Patrick Walton, 10–26. Sydney: Craftsman House. 11. Francis, Mark. 2010. “Mixed-life Places.” In Companion to Urban Design, edited by Tridib Banerjee and Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris, 174–185. New York: Routledge. 12. Lynch, Kevin. 1981. A Theory of Good City Form. Cambridge: MIT Press. 13. Gehl Architects. 2004. Towards a Fine City for People – Public Spaces and Public Life – London 2004. 14. Zöllner, Ernst. “The economic value of urban design.” Australian Planner 41 (2004): 40 - 40. 15. Semeraro, Teodoro, Zaccarelli Nicola, Alejandro Lara, Francesco Sergi Cucinelli and Roberta Aretano. “A Bottom-Up and Top-Down Participatory Approach to Planning and Designing Local Urban Development: Evidence from an Urban University Center.” Land (2020): n. pag. 16. Ankitha Gattupalli. 2023. “Top-Down and Bottom-Up Urban Planning: A Synergetic Approach.” Arch daily, August 21, 2023. https://www.archdaily.com/1005567/top-down-and-bottom-up-urban-planning-asynergetic-approach 20 5.0
17. Memluk, Murat Z.. “Designing Urban Squares.” (2013). 18. Dias, Nuwan, Steve Curwell and Erik Bichard. “The Current Approach of Urban Design, its Implications for Sustainable Urban Development.” Procedia. Economics and finance 18 (2014): 497-504. 19. Carmona M. Contemporary public space, Part two: classification. Journal of UrbanDesign 2010; 15(2) 157-173. 20. Dias, Nuwan, Steve Curwell and Erik Bichard. “The Current Approach of Urban Design, its Implications for Sustainable Urban Development.” Procedia. Economics and finance 18 (2014): 497-504. 21. Hou, Jeffrey and Michael Rios. “Community-Driven Place Making.” Journal of Architectural Education 57 (2003): 19 - 27. 22. N. Dias, K. Keraminiyage, D. Amaratunga, S. Curwell. “Critical Success Factors of a Bottom Up Urban Design Process To deliver Sustainable Urban Designs.” International Journal of Strategic Property Management (2018) 23. Tina Lee, 2022. “Lighter, Quicker, Cheaper: Building Public Space From The Bottom Up.” NLC, February 2, 2022. https://www.nlc.org/article/2022/02/02/lighter-quicker-cheaper-building-public-spacefrom-the-bottom-up/ 24. Wyckoff, Mark A. 2014. “DEFINITION OF PLACEMAKING: Four Different Types.” Michigan State University Land Policy Institute. https://www.canr.msu.edu/uploads/375/65824/4typesplacemaking_pzn_ wyckoff_january2014.pdf 25. Dias, Nuwan, Steve Curwell and Erik Bichard. “The Current Approach of Urban Design, its Implications for Sustainable Urban Development.” Procedia. Economics and finance 18 (2014): 497-504. 26. Fishman, Robert. 1977. Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howar, Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier. New York: Basic Books. 27. Ankitha Gattupalli. 2023. “Top-Down and Bottom-Up Urban Planning: A Synergetic Approach.” Arch daily, August 21, 2023. https://www.archdaily.com/1005567/top-down-and-bottom-up-urban-planning-asynergetic-approach 28. Dias, Nuwan, Steve Curwell and Erik Bichard. “The Current Approach of Urban Design, its Implications for Sustainable Urban Development.” Procedia. Economics and finance 18 (2014): 497-504. 29. Fredericks, Joel. “From Smart City to Smart Engagement: Exploring Digital and Physical Interactions for Playful City-Making.” Making Smart Cities More Playable (2019): n. pag. 30. Joe Earp. 2014. “Nottingham’s Old Market Square.” Nottingham Hidden History, January 2, 2014. https://nottinghamhiddenhistoryteam.wordpress.com/2014/01/02/nottinghams-old-market-square/ 31. Zakariya, Khalilah, Nor Zalina Harun and Mazlina Mansor. “Space and sociability: mapping Melbourne’s City Square.” (2016). 32. Beckett, J. V., ed. 2006. A Centenary History of Nottingham. Chichester: Phillimore. 21 5.0
33. Gustafson Porter, 2007. “Old Market Square, Nottingham.” Architonic, 2007. https://www.architonic. com/en/project/gustafson-porter-old-market-square-nottingham/5100108 34. Mehan, Asma. “Investigating the Role of Historical Public Squares on Promotion of Citizens’ Quality of Life.” Procedia Engineering 161 (2016): 1768-1773. 35. Gehl Architects. 2004. Towards a Fine City for People – Public Spaces and Public Life – London 2004. 36. Hunt, Steve. Quoted in Gustafson Porter + Bowman, “Old Market Square,” project details, Gustafson Porter + Bowman, accessed January 21, 2024, https://www.gp-b.com/old-market-square. 37. Nottingham City Council. Nottingham City Centre Time and Place Plan. https://www.nottinghamcity.gov. uk/media/gdhnx1em/nottingham-city-centre-time-and-place-plan.pdf Accessed January 21, 2024. 38. Adam Pickering, 2023. “Green Hustle Festival – The Free Nottingham City Party Uniting Communities on Climate Action” Left Lion, June 11, 2023. https://leftlion.co.uk/features/2023/06/green-hustle-festivalthe-free-nottingham-city-party-uniting-communities-on-climate-action/ 22 5.0
5.2 Figures Figure 1.1 Population Estimates, Data From United Nations (2014) World Urbanisation Prospects, Author, 2024 Figure 1.2 Percentage Urban, United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014), Author, 2024 Figure 1.3 Jan Gehl on ‘How to design the perfect City’, Adapted from: CNN Travel 2017 Figure 1.4 Twelve Quality Criteria, Jan Gehl principles, Author, 2024 Figure 1.5 Top-Down Strategies, Author, 2024 Figure 1.6 Chain of Command, Adapted from: Istock Figure 1.7 Divide, Chain of Command, Adapted from: Istock Figure 1.8 Miscommunication, Adapted from: Istock Figure 1.9 Bottom-Up Community, Adapted from: Emberin Figure 2.0 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Strategies, Author 2024 Figure 2.1 Old Market Square 1820 - 1975, Adapted from: Adobe Stock + Istock Figure 2.2 Interactive Water Features, Adapted from: Adobe Stock Figure 2.3 Old Market Square Water features, Adapted from: Google Images Figure 2.4 Nottingham Top-Down Events, Author 2024 Figure 2.5 Nottingham Green Hustle, Adapted from: Google Images, Adobe Stock Figure 2.6 Nottingham Top-Down Events, Adapted from: Gustafson Porter + Bowman Figure 2.7 Intentional hybrid strategy, Adapted from: Istock Figure 2.8 Nottingham Old Market Square, Adapted from: Adobe Stock 23 5.1
Thank You for reading Figure 2.8 Nottingham Old Market Square 24