Food and Agriculture in PNG

Food and Agriculture
in Papua New Guinea

edited by R. Michael Bourke and Tracy Harwood

Published by ANU E Press
The Australian National University
Canberra ACT 0200, Australia
Email: [email protected]
This title is also available online at: http://epress.anu.edu.au/food_agriculture_citation.html

This edition © 2009 ANU E Press

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the publisher.

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:

Food and agriculture in Papua New Guinea /
editors, R. Michael Bourke, Tracy Harwood.

Bibliography.
Includes index.
ISBN 9781921536601 (pbk)
ISBN 9781921536618 (pdf)
Agriculture--Papua New Guinea
Agriculture--Economic aspects--Papua New Guinea.
Agricultural productivity--Papua New Guinea.
630.9953

Suggested citation:
Bourke, R.M. and Harwood, T. (eds) (2009). Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea.
ANU E Press, The Australian National University, Canberra.

http://rspas.anu.edu.au/lmg/

Design: Sam Highley, Clarus Design
Typeface: Minion Pro
Index: Tracy Harwood

Cover: Yasisime from Asirangka village in the Aiyura basin, Eastern Highlands Province, weeds a
peanut plot. Peanut is grown for both home consumption and for sale locally. It is grown in rotation
with sweet potato to maintain soil fertility. The plot on the left contains sweet potato, the staple food in
the highlands, and other food crops. Casuarina trees in the background shade Arabica coffee, the most
important cash crop in the highlands. Photo by Mike Bourke.

Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Charles W. Lepani

Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
Acronyms and initialisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
Botanical names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
Conventions, data sources and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii
Twenty myths about Papua New Guinea agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
R. Michael Bourke and Bryant Allen

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
R. Michael Bourke and Bryant Allen

History of agriculture in Papua New Guinea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
R. Michael Bourke

Part 1 People, Land and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Bryant Allen and R. Michael Bourke
1.1 Total population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
1.2 Land use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
1.3 Population density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
1.4 Internal migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
1.5 Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
1.6 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and food supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
1.7 Temperature, cloudiness and sunshine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
1.8 Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
1.9 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

Contents iii

1.10 Landforms and altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
1.11 Agricultural environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
1.12 Land quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
1.13 Crops, people and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
1.14 Access to markets and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
1.15 Geographical information systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121

Part 2 Food Production, Consumption and Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129

R. Michael Bourke, John Gibson, Alan Quartermain, Kate Barclay, Bryant Allen and Jean Kennedy
2.1 Food in Papua New Guinea: an overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
2.2 Staple food crop production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
2.3 Genetic diversity of food crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
2.4 Food crop yields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
2.5 Rice production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
2.6 Animal production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
2.7 Rice and wheat imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
2.8 Fruit and vegetable imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
2.9 Meat imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
2.10 Fish imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188

Part 3 Village Food Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193

R. Michael Bourke and Bryant Allen
3.1 Staple food crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
3.2 Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
3.3 Fruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
3.4 Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
3.5 Stimulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
3.6 Intensification of agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
3.7 Soil fertility maintenance techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
3.8 Fallowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
3.9 Soil retention and benching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
3.10 Tree planting and legume rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245

iv Contents

3.11 Tillage, mounds, beds and green manuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
3.12 Other agricultural techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260

Part 4 The Broader Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271

Andrew McGregor and R. Michael Bourke
4.1 The macro-economic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
4.2 Consumer price index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275
4.3 Prices of selected items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
4.4 Pay fortnight food market and retail cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281

Part 5 Cash Income from Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283

Matthew Allen, R. Michael Bourke and Andrew McGregor
5.1 Rural villagers’ cash income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
5.2 Cash cropping in Papua New Guinea: an overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
5.3 Domestically marketed food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
5.4 Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306
5.5 Cocoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
5.6 Copra and copra oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
5.7 Oil palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
5.8 Forest products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
5.9 Marine resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
5.10 Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
5.11 Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
5.12 Tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .367
5.13 Balsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
5.14 Vanilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .374
5.15 Spices and flavourings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
5.16 Pyrethrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
5.17 Other income from plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389
5.18 Income from animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
5.19 Purchased inputs for agricultural production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .408
5.20 Fluctuations in village cash crop production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
5.21 Marketing agricultural exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420

Contents v















































Myth No. 5 The Australian Administration did not Myth No. 7 Imported meat, particularly lamb

promote rice production in PNG and Australians flaps from Australia and New Zealand, is increasing

are attempting to stop local production to protect rapidly in volume.

the Australian rice industry. Consumption of imported meat increased in PNG
until 1994. From 1994 the quantity of imported meat
From the 1950s to the 1970s the Australian eaten per person has fallen by almost two-thirds
Administration invested significantly in attempts to (Figure 2.9.1). When the kina fell in value relative
produce rice, with very limited success (Section 2.5). to other currencies, imported foods became more
Increased production of rice, based on the idea that expensive in PNG and people chose to reduce the
rice imports should be replaced by locally grown amount of meat eaten. Consumption of imported
rice, has been promoted by many individuals and mackerel fish has also decreased (Figure 2.10.1).
organisations from the 1950s to the present. Despite This has been replaced to some degree by increased
considerable effort and financial investment, very consumption of tuna, which is caught in PNG waters
little rice is grown in PNG, with annual production and canned onshore.
a minute fraction of the production of root crops,
banana and sago (Table 2.2.1) and a tiny proportion Myth No. 8 Lamb flaps are an unhealthy food.
of the amount of imported rice. Rice has not been
widely adopted as a cash or subsistence crop in PNG Lamb flaps have a high fat content. Consumption
for a number of reasons. The most important is that of too much animal fat, including lamb flaps, is not
growing rice for sale results in poor returns to labour good for people’s health. However, many rural people
relative to other possible activities, such as growing eat very little animal fat (and vegetable oil) and
coffee, cocoa or sweet potato (Table 5.20.1). As long consumption of a small amount of fatty food, such
as these conditions prevail, there is little potential for as lamb flaps, from time-to-time, is good for people’s
expanded rice production. health. Furthermore, most rural people do hard
physical work every day and so use the fat from lamb
Myth No. 6 During the 1997–98 food shortages, flaps as energy. Most rural diets are also very low in
protein and lamb flaps provide protein. Most urban
Australia saved many Papua New Guineans from people, on the other hand, do little physical exercise.
They would be healthier if they ate less fatty foods,
starving to death, with an emergency famine including lamb flaps. So the idea that consumption
of lamb flaps is unhealthy is basically true for most
relief program. urban people, but is not true for most rural villagers
who live an active lifestyle.
In 1997–98 a countrywide drought and repeated
frosts in the highlands completely disrupted some Myth No. 9 PNG agriculture has not changed for
food production systems and severely reduced others
(Section 1.6). In 1997, rice imports increased by thousands of years. The practices and crops that are
66 000 tonnes or about 40% more than the previous
year. Most of the additional rice (75%) was sold used today are traditional and unchanging.
through retail outlets. This rice was purchased by
rural villagers and their urban-based relatives with Agriculture in PNG has a long and diverse history
cash earned from wages, from savings, or from that is characterised by a high degree of innovation
selling export cash crops, fresh food and pork and openness to change on the part of Papua New
meat. The remainder was purchased by the PNG Guineans. New crops have been adopted and old
Government (8%), the Australian Government (4%), ones discarded or their importance has been reduced
and other donors. Rice and other food was delivered (Figures 3.1.2, 5.2.3). As well, many new techniques
by the Australian Defence Force to people in remote have been adopted or invented, such as composting,
areas. If this had not been done, many of these planting tree in fallows and crop rotations,
people would probably have died. But the majority particularly as people have intensified land use in
of rural Papua New Guineans and their urban-based response to population increase (Sections 3.6, 3.7).
wantoks saved themselves. The introduction of sweet potato into the highlands
about 300 years ago resulted in many changes in

2 Twenty myths about Papua New Guinea agriculture

production techniques and in highland societies. The Myth No. 13 Villagers have a lot of spare time and
rate of change has increased in the past 140 years
(see History of agriculture). it does not matter to them how much labour is

Myth No. 10 PNG has an abundance of high-quality needed to produce a certain crop.
land for agriculture and any tropical crop will grow
well anywhere in PNG. One of the most important determinants of whether
people will adopt a new crop or practice is the
Only a quarter of the PNG landmass is used for amount of food or money that they get in return for
agriculture (Table 1.2.1). The rest of the landmass the amount of work they have to do to produce the
is unsuitable for agricultural production because crop. This applies to both cash crops and subsistence
it is too steep, too high in altitude (too cold), crops (Section 5.20).
rainfall is very high, or the land is flooded every
year (Sections 1.5, 1.7, 1.9, 1.11). About 63% of the Myth No. 14 Agricultural production is seriously
land used for agriculture in PNG is on mountains
and hills (Section 1.10). Only 7% of the land area is constrained by customary land tenure arrangements.
classed as high or very high quality for agricultural
production, with a further 20% of moderate quality Virtually all food crops, betel nut, vanilla and most
(Section 1.12). coffee, cocoa, copra and rubber in PNG is grown on
customary land. It is difficult but not impossible to
Myth No. 11 With the exception of oil palm, access large areas of land for plantations. Since the
production of export cash crops is static mid 1990s, all increases in agricultural production
(sometimes expressed as: production is the same for both smallholders and plantations have been on
now as it was in 1975 at Independence). customary land. Internal migration is significant and
many people can access land for agriculture where
Production of most export cash crops, except copra, they settle (see Section 1.4). People are moving from
has increased over the past 30 years (Table 5.2.2). poor agricultural environments to better ones, where
Production by plantations of coffee, cocoa, copra, the population density is greater (Figure 1.12.4). Many
rubber and tea has declined and this has reduced the settlement schemes, where settlers have registered title
overall growth rate. However, production of most to their land, have been economically unsuccessful
export cash crops by villagers has increased (Table (Section 6.7). Similarly, plantation production of all
5.2.1). From 2002 to 2007 the renewable resources export cash crops, except oil palm, has declined for
sector (agriculture, forestry and fisheries) grew at the past 30 years (Table 5.2.1). There are a number of
2.9% per year, which is a little faster than the popula- reasons for this, but having a registered land title did
tion growth rate. not solve the problems of the plantation sector.

Myth No. 12 Women do most of the work in Myth No. 15 There are few roads in PNG and this
producing food in PNG.
reduces agricultural production.
Agricultural work is ‘gendered’ in PNG, that is,
there are tasks which are mostly done by women More than half of the total population live within
and those which are mostly done by men. But both 5 km of a national road and a further 10% live within
women and men contribute labour to food and cash 10 km of a national road. Considerably more also live
crop production, usually as husband and wife. As near a provincial or district road (Section 6.9). When
well, some men do tasks that are considered mainly roads were built in PNG, they usually went through
women’s work and vice versa (Section 6.2). Many the most densely populated places. This myth is
more women than men sell fresh food in markets, fuelled by the fact that Port Moresby is not connected
while more men than women sell export cash crops. by road to any province, other than Central and
For this reason men tend to earn more money from Gulf. Unfortunately it is now true that many rural
agriculture than women. roads and bridges have not been properly maintained
and many are impassable in wet weather. This is a
significant limitation on agricultural production.

Twenty myths about Papua New Guinea agriculture 3

Myth No. 16 There is little information about PNG Myth No. 19 There is no poverty in rural PNG

agriculture with which to develop sound policy, or because there is plenty of food to eat.

for planning. There is significant poverty in rural PNG where
one million people live in severe poverty (Section
A large amount of information exists on the 6.10). In PNG poverty is heavily influenced by where
environment and agriculture in PNG, significantly people live. ‘Poor places’ are overwhelmingly rural
more than for most other developing countries. (94% of poor people live in rural areas). In these
The purpose of this book is to bring much of that locations, carbohydrate food is generally sufficient,
information together in one place and to indicate but protein, fats and oils are not. Cash incomes are
where more can be found. Much more remains to very low so people cannot buy foods that could
be learned, and there are gaps in the knowledge of increase protein in their diets. Health and education
important topics, such as how many hours of labour services are poor. As a result, life expectancy is short;
are needed to grow particular crops, or which crops many infants die before they are one year old; and all
are best suited for PNG’s different environments. But measures of health, education and life outcomes are
much is already known about PNG agriculture. (Also among the worst in the Asia–Pacific region.
see Sources of information about PNG agriculture,
page xxv.) Myth No. 20 Poor governance of agricultural

Myth No. 17 There is significant potential to institutions does not matter because rural people

export fresh food to New Zealand, Australia and grow their own food and look after themselves.

South-East Asia. A number of the bodies that govern the production,
purchasing, processing and marketing of PNG’s
There is very little potential to export fresh food cash crops have seriously disadvantaged producers
from PNG because of quarantine issues (including a by interference in their management by politicians,
serious fruit fly problem), poor presentation of food, the appointment of people who do not have the
expensive and unreliable air and sea transport and skills to be effective managers and by some very bad
lack of price competitiveness (Section 5.3). Limited policy making (Section 6.4). The best outcomes for
possibilities for certain niche markets exist, but many PNG producers have occurred when government
obstacles remain. In contrast, there is significant has stayed out of marketing and exporting, and
unrealised potential for expanded sale of fresh food has regulated in favour of village producers. An
within PNG. Certain indigenous edible nuts, such as example of poor governance affecting marketing is
galip, karuka and okari, have considerable potential the collapse of chilli exports in 1982, despite a large
as export crops. increase in prices. This was caused by marketing
problems with provincial government buying
Myth No. 18 Global climate change is now causing systems (Figure 5.15.1). An example of how good
governance has a positive influence on exports is the
significant problems for many people on very increase in exports of tuna and increased revenue to
PNG in the late 1990s, following the establishment
small islands. of the National Fisheries Authority and that body’s
proper regulation of PNG fisheries (Figure 5.9.2).
Sea level rise, temperature increases, higher rainfall
and possibly a greater incidence of extreme climatic
events have the potential to cause significant
problems for people in many locations in PNG,
including those living on very small islands (Section
1.8). Some crops are now bearing at higher altitudes
in the highlands because of higher temperatures. But
overall the impact of climate change has been rela-
tively small so far. Some problems attributed to rising
sea levels are caused by overpopulation (Carteret
Islands in Bougainville Province) or sinking land
associated with geological activity (Duke of York
Islands in East New Britain Province).

4 Twenty myths about Papua New Guinea agriculture

Introduction

R. Michael Bourke and Bryant Allen

Agriculture is the most important activity carried together in a single publication where it would be
out by the vast majority of Papua New Guineans. easy to access. It began as a compendium of statistics
For most people, agriculture fills their lives, but has evolved into a comprehensive book of 72
physically, culturally, economically, socially and sections on PNG agriculture and related topics. The
nutritionally. Yet agriculture is the most undervalued number of sections alone demonstrates how agricul-
and misunderstood part of PNG life (see Twenty ture pervades almost every aspect of life in PNG.
myths about PNG agriculture, page 1). The reasons
for this are partly because mineral and oil exports Sections include information about population;
make PNG comparatively wealthy for a developing land use; climate and other aspects of the physical
country; partly because agriculture is practised in environment in which agriculture occurs; overviews
the countryside, away from towns, and is therefore of subsistence food production, with detailed
largely ‘invisible’ to urban people and international descriptions of production techniques and the most
visitors; and partly because agriculture is viewed as important food crops; descriptions of cash crop
not being ‘modern’. production for both domestic and export markets;
agriculture in the broader economy; and a series of
However, as this book shows, agriculture feeds most papers on agricultural development, policies and
Papua New Guineans, houses them, provides a governance. An overview of 50 000 years of agricul-
significant amount of food to townspeople and earns tural history in PNG follows this introduction.
a significant amount of foreign exchange. By doing
these things, agriculture provides PNG with a social, An outstanding aspect of this book is the emphasis
economic and political stability which has meant it places on village agriculture, the most important
that, despite sometimes poor economic management, part of PNG agriculture. It provides details that have
the country has been able to weather a number not been previously available on subsistence food
of economic and political crises. Furthermore, production systems; on the informal sector that
agriculture will continue in this role, long after all the provides most of the marketed fresh food, betel nut,
minerals and oil have been dug up and exported. firewood, fish and other products; and on all of the
major and minor cash crops, with new analyses
The primary purpose of this book is to demonstrate and datasets, many of which contain data runs over
how important agriculture is to PNG and to provide 40 years long.
the knowledge that will enable policy makers to
make sensible plans for it, within the PNG economy. The book has a dual focus: food production and cash
For a developing country, PNG is rich in information income. Almost every section relates to how people
for planning, but most of it is not easily accessible to manage the environment, the production and the
those who need it. This book was initially conceived marketing of the commodities they produce. The
to bring this ‘lost’ information on PNG agriculture book is dedicated to the village women, men and

Introduction 5