DEVELOPING AN EXHIBIT NARRATIVE OF GALERIA PERDANA CRYSTAL & GLASS AMAL FARAHNAZ BINTIADI SATRIA2014992
BAAD 3100 STUDIO ASSIT. PROF. TS. DR. RAJABI BINTI ADBUL RAZAK PREPARED BY AMAL FARAHNAZ BINTI ADI SATRIA 2014992 INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA KULLIYYAH OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED ARTS AND DESIGN SEMESTER 1 2022/2023 HANDBOOK OF CRYSTAL AND GLASS MATERIALS COPYRIGHT @ 2022 BY AMAL FARAHNAZ ALL RIGHTS RESERVED NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE USED OR REPRODUCED IN ANY MANNER WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN PERMISION OF THE PUBLISHER, EXCEPT FOR THE USED OF BRIEF QUOTATIONS IN A BOOK REVIEW
CON 1.0 Exhibition Background Definition of Exhibition Types of Exhibition Crystal Glass Display Techniques 2.0 Galeria Perdana, Langkawi Location And Geographical History And Background Collections ACKNOWLEDGEMENT INTRODUCTION 3.0 Background Research 3.1 Crystal Glass 3.2 Crystal Glass Collection in Galeria Perdana (Object Analysis) History And Background Timeline Motifs Materials and Techniques TENT History And Background Timeline Motifs Materials and Techniques 4-12 13-15 16-58 59-72
5.0 Proposed Display Techniques & Types of Showcase 4.0 Proposed Site/ Layout Plan 6.0 Conclusion GLOSARY REFERENCES Display Technique Support Materials Concept Colour scheme Label and Caption Lighting 73-75 76-80 81 82-85 86
Acknowledgement Deepest gratitude to the Department of Museum Malaysia especially 1. En. Zainal bin Ariffin Pengarah Sahagian Dasar dan Pembangunan 2. Pn.Roslelawati binti Abdullah Ketua Penolong Pengarah Unit Dasar dan Perancangan Strategik 3. Pn. Masni binti Adeni Pengarah Bahagian Pameran dan Pengembangan 4. En. Sangam@Musa Antok Pengarah Bahagian Pengurusan Konservasi 5. Pn. Hadijah binti Mohd Yunus Pengarah Bahagian Pengurusan Koleksi 6. Pn. Nor Jawahir bt Raduian Kurator 7. Cik Sharipah Lok Lok bt Syed ldrus Pen. Kurator 8. En. Saharuddin bin Abdullah Pembantu Muzium and everyone who involved directly and indirectly in this project. Special thanks to Dr.Rajabi Abdul Razak, lecturer in charge for BAAD3100 for her guidance and support.
Introduction The introduction of background information into a story or narrative is known as narrative exposition. This information can relate to the place, the history of the characters, earlier narrative developments, the historical setting, etc. Exposition in literature typically takes the form of expository prose that is woven into the narrative. Narratives have long been a popular form of communication at museums. As Ferguson underlines, "narratives" that use art objects as pieces in institutionalised stories that are sold to an audience are what art shows are. According to Tina Roppola (2012), "story, or narrative, is the preferred medium for channelling the content of the museum, with its absence unsettling to visitors." The potential of narrative approaches to learning have been explored more recently by museums. It is recognised that humans are natural storytellers— since ancient times humans have been using stories that represent an event or series of events as ways to learn (Abbott, 2002). Museums are ideal places where stories can be told that encourage visitors to make their own meanings. Bedford (2001) noted that: ‘Stories are the most fundamental way we learn. They have a beginning, a middle, and an end. They teach without preaching, encouraging both personal reflection and public discussion. Stories inspire wonder and awe; they allow a listener to imagine another time and place, to find the universal in the particular, and to feel empathy for others. They preserve individual and collective memory and speak to both the adult and the child’ (p.33)
1.0 EXHIBITION BACKGROUND 1
1.1 What Is An Exhibition? 2 A planned presentation and display of a selection of objects. In reality, exhibitions frequently take place in cultural or educational venues like museums (see fig 1), art galleries, parks, libraries, exhibition halls, or World's Fairs. Fig 1 : Jüdisches Museum, Berlin
Interpretive exhibitions are exhibitions that require more context to explain the items being displayed. This exhibit focus on historical and scientific themes, where text, dioramas, graphs, maps, and interactive displays may be used to explain background information and concepts. Compared to fine art exhibitions, interpretive displays typically require more text and visuals. One example is the Petrosains well known 'Geotime Diorama' in Kuala Lumpur (See figure 3) 1.2 Types of Exhibition 3 Fig 3: Petrosains (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia) one of its exhibition is the well known 'Geotime Diorama'. Fig 2 : National Art Gallery is Malaysia’s official venue for art exhibitions and workshops. It has no permanent collections. But, it preserves and conserves local artwork as well as owning over 3600 pieces of art. Art exhibitions include an array of artifacts from countless forms of human making: paintings, drawings, crafts, sculpture, video installations, sound installations, performances, interactive ar. One example is the National Art Gallery in Kuala Lumpur (See figure 2). One artist, one group, one genre, one theme, or one collection may be the focus of an exhibition of art. Curators may organise the exhibitions, juries may pick the works to be displayed, or any submitted artwork may be displayed.
Commercial exhibitions, generally called trade fairs, trade shows or expos, are usually organized so that organizations in a specific interest or industry can showcase and demonstrate their latest products, service, study activities of rivals and examine recent trends and opportunities. Some trade fairs are open to the public, while others can only be attended by company representatives (members of the trade) and members of the press. One example is Genoa International Boat Show in Italy (See figure 4). 4 Fig 4: Genoa International Boat Show (2021) held to amaze the recreational boating with over 1,000 boats on display. . Changes in scholarly communication and the rise of the Internet have led to the creation of online exhibitions or digital exhibitions. Some museums are classified as virtual museums. They are exclusively digital and offer a wide range of online exhibitions. Fig 5: Amboseli National Park, Kenya. 2018
5 1.3.1 Case study 1 : Corning Museum of Glass, New York 1.3 Crystal Glass Display Technique The Corning Museum of Glass is a not-forprofit museum dedicated to exploring a single material: glass. Over 50,000 objects representing more than 3,500 years of history are included in the Museum’s collection; items range from the portrait of an ancient Egyptian pharaoh to contemporary sculpture. About Fig 7: Exhibition display of the rise of Venetian glassmaking. Soft light installed directed from above the objects has reflected off the glass exhibits and reveals detailed features of the glass items Fig 6: Exhibition display in the 35th Centuries of glassmaking Gallery, Corning Museum of Glass, New York
Fig 9: Glass artefacts in 17th – 19th-Century Europe being displayed. Ranging from the smallest in center, to the largest at both sides of the corner. Fig 10: A temporary exhibition for the event ' Hot Glass Show' in the museum shows the tableware glass artefacts were installed on a house setting display. This sets up the view of a glass holiday feast. Fig 8: Another exhibition display about the 19th-century European Glass. With restricted colour of support materials and lighting emitted from above, revealing the glass vessles clarity and firm opaque colours, this brings an excellant focus onto the subjects. 6
About 1.3.2 Case study 2 : Sandwich Glass Museum, USA The Sandwich Glass Museum on Cape Cod commemorates the Boston & Sandwich Glass Company, which operated in Sandwich between 1825 and 1888. The Boston & Sandwich Glass Company was one of the first factories in the world to produce pressed, lead-based glass. While the factory was in operation, it was known for its brightly colored tableware, lamps, and perfume bottles. Fig 11: Interior exhibition display in Sandwich Glass Museum Fig 12: Interior exhibition display in in another section inside Sandwich Glass Museum 7
Fig 13: The highlight of this museum is seeing the sunshine from outside glance off the dozens of brightly colored glass displays, refracting multicolored lights Fig 14: Another display similar to figure . The role of arranging items based on its shapes can enhance the aestheticity of the display Fig 15: Glass wares arranges with support materials of glass shelves and plinths. Fig 16: Glass dishes arranged on the wall, along with other vessels arranged on plinths. With white background, this helps to attract the visitors attention to the colourful bright artefacts being displayed. 8
1.3.3 Case Study : The Beykoz Glass and Crystal Museum, Istanbul About The Beykoz Glass and Crystal Museum, which stands out among the alternate cultural and historic locations of Istanbul, exhibits the magnificent journey of glass in Turkish history through objects dating from 700 years ago to the final period of the Ottomans. the museum is named after the Beykoz Imperial Glass and Crystal Factory, established in the same district during the Ottoman period. The museum consists of 12 thematic sections that house 1,500 pieces representing all kinds of glasswork. Fig 17: Interior exhibition display in the Beykoz Glass and Crystal Museum 9
Fig 18: Glass display on white plinths with 2 levels of height. Fig 19: The Beykoz Glass and Crystal Museum. A display of Finest Beykoz Glassware on display on racks that are arranged with different levels to create more dept and interest. 10
Fig 20: Jugs for water used in Ottoman times, some encased in wickerwork. These are arranged in a glass box-style. Due to the glass fine clarity, the display looks less cramp and spacious. This type of arrangement has a hiearchy in terms of shapes and colours. Thus create harmony arrangment and eventually pleasing to the eye. (Selin Alemdar / TRTWorld) Fig 21: A single islamic vase on a modular case, with artificial lighting emitted from below object. 11
Fig 23: Venetian tulip vases from the 16th and 17th century, made to order for the Ottoman palace. Because light cannot travel through dark-colored glass, it emits a fascinating melancholy feeling (Courtesy of Directorate of National Palaces) Fig 22: The white base emits light from below, creating a warm aura for these extravagant looking vase. 12
2.0 GALERIA PERDANA, LANGKAWI 13
Address: Galeria Perdana, Jalan Ayer Hangat, Mukim Kilim, 07000 Langkawi Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia History And Background Galeria Perdana, seen in fig 24,25, is the inspiration of the 4th Prime Minister, Tun Dr. Mahathir Bin Mohamad and Tun Dr. Siti Hasmah Bte Mohd Ali. It aims to store, exhibit and share with the public the various awards, souvenirs and gifts received from Heads of State, domestic and foreign leaders and the Malaysian community during his administration as Prime Minister. This is in line with the understanding that every collection exhibited at Galeria Perdana belongs to the government and the people of Malaysia. There is a wide diversity of artistic and cultural heritage values being displayed inside museum. The museum was inaugurated in 3 December 1995 and officially open to public in April 1996. Fig 24: Front view of Galeria Perdana (https://nashaplaneta.net/asia/malaysia/langkawidostoprimechatelnosti-galeria-perdana_en) Location Fig 25: Exterior view of Galeria Perdana (https://nashaplaneta.net/asia/malaysia/langkawidostoprimechatelnosti-galeria-perdana_en) 14
Collections Block A -Ceramic, Trophy and Award, Islamic Art, Crystal & Glass, Cooper & Pewter, Block B - Textile, Doll, Jewellery, Silver ,Stone, Wood Block C - Cars and bicycle (See figure 26) There are 9000 exhibits collection, However, only 2000 are displayed at a time and in rotation. These type of collections include ceramic, trophy and award, Islamic art, Crystal & Glass, Copper & Pewter, Textile, Doll, Jewellery, silver, stone, wood, cars and finally bicyle. It comprises of 3 interconnected building two storey building in a sprawling campus. Each of these 3 blocks displays different types of collections. Fig 26: A section in Block C showcases a number of motor vehicles, including some Malaysian-made models such as Proton and Perodua. (Malaysia Traveller) 15
5 3.1 BAC K G R O UND RE S EARCH : CRYSTAL & G LAS S 16
The early history of glass is obscure and shrouded in mystery; however, somewhere in the Middle East around 5,000 years ago someone first made glass; either by accident or by design. It is believed by many to have been the Phoenicians from Caanan who first created glass. Caanan was a land along the Eastern Mediterranean where modern Lebanon and Israel arelocated today. The Phoenicians were merchants and seafaring people and quite possibly spread their glassmaking knowledge throughout the known world. The most popular account is told by Pliny, the Roman historian, who, according to rumor, had an explanation for everything known in the first century AD. He writes: "The tradition is that a merchantship laden with nitrum (soda and potash) being moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass". Pliny's account nonetheless gives the three principal ingredients of glass in ancient times, namely soda, silica and lime. Nitrum is a naturally occurring soda. Sand was the silica, and this probably contained lime, the third necessary element. If nothing was added to the soda/lime/silica mixture, the resulting glass was usually bluish-green because of the presence of at least some iron in nearly all sand. Coloured glass was made by the addition of specific metallic oxides. For example, Nickel and manganese produce purple. Cobalt and copper make blues, chromium and iron both make green, uranium produces a greenish yellow and cadmium can make a yellow or orange. Both cadmium and selenium make reds and so can copper. Silver produces a wide range of yellows. Gold can make reds that range from pale pink to a rich ruby red. The rare earth neodymium oxide is magic-in tungsten light it appears to be light purple, in fluorescent light it turns to an icy blue. 3.1.1 History And Background 17
Mesapotamia MESAPOTAMIA 2500-1200 BC EGYPT 1450-1100 BC 325 BC - AD400 AD100 - 400 10th - 15th century 17th - 18th century 8th -19th century AD400 - 1066 15th - 17th century 18th-19th century BYZANTIUM ISLAMIC LANDS AND CHINA EARLY MEDIEVAL EUROPE VENICE AMERICA AND EUROPE 3.1.2 TIMELINE OF GLASSMAKING HELLENISTIC PERIOD ROMAN EMPIRE BOHEMIAN 18
Before the existance of glassblowing technique, core forming technique was the first technique produced in northern Mesopotamia in order to make glass vessels (see figure 27). The shapes include contemporary pottery vessels, and bottles of several varieties with pointed bottoms or disc bases. (Fig 28) Then, polychrone vessels were then made out from mosaic glass technique. These 2 techniques produce beads, jewellery, furniture inlays, pendants and figurine of deities (fig 29) demons and animals. MMEESSAAPPOOTTAAMMIIAA 2500-1200 BC Fig 27 : Core-formed bottle in the form of a pomegranate. It has festoon patterns. Cyrus, about 1400-1200 BC. H. : 7.4 cm Fig 28 : Bottle of core-formeed glass with dark brown body and turqoise blue decoration. 13th century, Mesapotamia. H. : 11.3 cm Fig 29 : Plaque depicting a nude female figure. Ecvated at Alalakh, Syria, 1400-1200 BC. L. : 8.5cm 19
The Egyptians were foremost among ancient peoples in their mastery of manufacturing techniques, yet they did not begin to produce glass in any quantity until the New Kingdom and in particular from the reign of Amenophis Ill onwards (c.1390 BC). One of the earliest datable Egypt glass vessels came from the burial of Tuthmosis III in Thebes (Fig 30). Glass vessels in Egypt were intended for cosmetics such as kohl (fig 31), unguent vessels (fig 32) and scented oils containers (fig 33) use and for toilet materials. The remaining larger vessels were used for luxury tableware. Other than using the core forming techniques for glass, the egyptions also cast glass in moulds (See fig 34). Egypt 1450-1100 BC Fig 30: Core formed Blue glass jug. The yellow and white is probably intended to imitate gold and silver. Egypt 18th Dynasty, around 1400 BC. British Museum Fig 34: This Egypt squat vessel held the eye cosmetic kohl. Although vessels of this shape were common during the Middle Kingdom, the use of obsidian rimmed with gold identifies them as royal possessions. Probably cast in a mould. 18th Dynasty. Fig 31 : 2core-formed kohl tubes in the shape of palm columns. 18th Dysnasty. Fig 32: Unguent vessels. 18th Dysnasty. Fig 33: Egyptian fancy-shaped core formed vessel in the form of a bulti-fish. 18th dynasty, 1352-1336 BC. L. : 145 cm 20
The Hellenistic term refers to the years following Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC. Alexander's huge reign covered all of Western Asia and Egypt, in addition to Macedonia and Greece. After his death, his generals (all Macedonian Greeks) established independent kingdoms in their newly gained territories. Fig 35: Glass mosaic dish formed from sections of multicoloured canes interspersed with segments of yellow, white or gold foil. Roman Fig 36: Bowl of network mosaic glass, composed of canes of spirally twisted threads of different colours. Eastern Mediterranean, 2nd century BC. H. 6 cm. Fig 37: 2 colourless vessels : a bowl with linear cut rosette pattern on the bottom and a bowl of sandwhich gold glass. Italy. About 275-200 bc. A purely Hellenistic style of glassware was emerged. Large plates were made of multicoloured canes, usually forming spiral or star patterns and often interspersed with segments of plain-coloured or sandwich gold glass (gold leaf sandwiched between two colourless layers), (See fig 35). Morever, a new type of mosaic glass described as 'lacework' or 'network' is represented by hemispherical bowls made of canes of different colours, laid side by side (fig 36). The most common shapes are fairly large plates, dishes, hemispherical bowls, large footed bowls (kraters, for mixing wine and water), and cups with winged ringhandles. The vessels were made monochrome glass, then decolourised so that it has a pale yellowish-greenish tinge. (fig 37). The best mosaic patterns of the last phase of this period include spirals and lacework with 'striped' rims of spirally twisted coloured threads such as we have seen before, but new is a true striped effect achieved by fusing together canes of different colors laid side by side (coloured-band glass) (fig 38). Another innovation of this time was gold-band glass (fig 39) which was used to make alabastra for scented oils and perfumes. Fig 39: A perfume flask made of gold-band glass formed around a core. the stoppers are pierced to act as sprinklers. Eastern Mediterranean, 1st century. HHeelllleenniissttiicc ppeerriioodd 325 BC - AD 400 Fig 38: Mosaic glass bowl composed of single caned-coloured canes laid side by side to give a stripe effect. Eastern Mediterranean, 1st Century BC 21
Ancient Rome grew from a small town on central Italy's Tiber River into an empire that at its peak encompassed most of continental Europe, Britain, much of western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. The value of these glass objects equaled to precious stones and metals. After the first century AD, owning glass was no longer a novelty or a preserve of the rich. More innovation of glass shapes were done in Roman such as tall mould-blown square bottles and large jars. These mould blown ware in the second century were functional rather than decorative. During the 3rd century, the production of tall square bottles had ceased, converting to a smaller version. There was a new type of trailed decoration on glass vessels, which is described as 'snakethread' because of the serpentine appearance of the threads. This can be seen on glass goblet (fig 41). Until the 4th century, intentionally coloured glass became very rare for vessels. However, it continued to be used for some of the decorated mould-blown types, such as head-flask. Nonetheless, the finest or most luxurious pieces were now for the most part made of colourless material. During the 4th century, vessels decorated with applied blobs (or prunts) of coloured glass increase in its production (figure 42). Applied blur blobs remained popular particularly on simple shapes. It was also during the 4th century that glassmakers exploited it to the technique of applying gold leaf on glass. Portraits of couples, families or individuals, pagan deities, various legends, genre scenes, animals and Jewish and Christian motifs (see fig 43) were depicted in gold leaf with added painted (or enamelled) details before being sandwiched between two layers of colourless glass. After for so long, Roman empire in the west has finally collapse in the beginning of 5th century. RRoommaann EEmmppiirree AD100 - 400 Fig 41: Brown colourless Roman glass decorated with applied opaque white snake-thread trails. Alexandrian, Late 2nd century C.E. H. : 14.56 cm. Fig 42: Roman ancient colorless glass beaker; translucent cobalt blue and honey yellow blobs. 4th century A.D. Roman. Metropolitan Museum Of Art H. : 12.3 cm, Diam. : 11.1 cm Fig 43: Roman or Byzantine Bowl Base with Miracle Scenes. ca. 350–400. Metropolitan Museum Of Art Fig 40: Two-handled beaker with a greenish tint. 1st century AD, Roman Empire. H. : 8.5cm. Diam. : 6.8 cm 22
Medieval Europe was well known for creating both functional glassware and colored glass for windows. Common glass vessels in this era were flasks with exceedingly long necks (fig 44) and stemmed goblets looking more like modern wine-glasses in churches. Blue blobs remained quite popular, adding more colours than previous era. A series of glass vessels belonging to 6th century and 7th century were found in Italy, which were deep bowls (fig 45), stemmed cups or beakers, drinking horns and bottles. Majority of these vessels have polychrome appearance, which differs from Frankish glasshouses products. Some of Frankish vessels products were the cone beakers (fig 46) and the drinking horn (fig 47) and squat jar (fig 48). The best known of vessels during Dark Age (476 AD – 1000 AD) were the claw beakers (fig 49). These Late Roman cups usually had rough rims simply cracked off by the glassmaker. Until the 9th century, glass vessels had remained plentiful and faithful of Roman traditions in both types and compositions. Thus, there were little changes of glass vessels production compared to previous Roman Empire. Fig 44: Yellowish handled bottle glass; bulbous body with some small bubbles; long cylindrical neck. Early 4th century A.D. SyroPalestinian. Curtius Museum. H. : 11.9cm, Diam. : 7.3cm EEaarrllyy MMeeddiieevvaall EEuurrooppee AD400 - 1066 Fig 49: Frankish claw beaker import with a greenish tint colour, 5th century, England Fig 45 : Deep bowl with polychrome enamelled decoration. Italy. AD 600. H. : 9cm Fig 46: Cone beaker with elegant trail decoration. Imported from France, Gelgium or Germany. H. : 26.2 cm Fig 47: Drinking horn decorated with vertical looped trail patterns on the body. Frankish, 5th Century, Germany. L. : 34cm Fig 48: Squat jar decorated with thick trails nipped together to form a lattice pattern. England. 7th century AD. H. : 7.3 cm 23
Fig 50: A Sasanian pale green hemispheral bowl with wheel-cut facets. There are 4 rows of oblong-to-round facets decoration on the bowl. 6th - 7th century, Iran, Metropolitan Museum Fig 51 : A fine and rare Cut Glass Footed Bowl with a green tint. It is decorated in the so-called "bevelled" technique,, Persia, 9th-10th century IIssllaammiicc wwoorrlldd 16TH - 19TH CENTURY The art of glassmaking was kept alive by Musim artistans throughout the vast Islamic world. just as Roman glass was widely distributed in the West and the industry established in many of the provinces of the Empire, the glass produced in the central lands of the Islamic world was traded not only within the Muslim countries but also throughout the Mediterranean area, Scandinavia and Russia, East Africa, the shores of the Indian Ocean and even China. Islamic glass production may be divided into three periods, the first being from the 8th to the 11th century, when the unity of the Islamic world was maintained under the rule of Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphates. During this period, the glasshouses were focused particularly with surface manipulation. From Sasanian glasshouses, there were unique glass features such as those with characteristic of facet cutting, resembling a honeycomb. This is achieved by applying 2 or more rows of circular, diamond or oval facets forming decoration to the object (See fig 50). There is a Sasanian style of wheel cutting inherited in Persia. relief cutting glass is also another famous decoration during this era (See fig 51). Further development occured by the introduction of colour overlay of transparent green or blue glass on the colourless body of vessel (fig 52). Other than using relief cut techniques, moulded type vessels was an option as it is cheaper (fig 53). Another technique was the gold glass, in which the design was rendered in gold leaf and then 'sandwiched' between 2 layers of glass (fig 54). Another unique technique of Islamic glass was the lustre painting. Although this technique was popular on pottery, lustre painting on glass was been used since the 8th century, as seen in fig 55. 24
Fig 54: Bottle with sandwich gold decoration. The neck is facet cut and the body are double with gold and blue painted decoration in between. Syria, 9th - 10th century AD. H. : 15cm Fig 53: Mould blown Ewers with Floral Scrolls motifs. Iran. 12th century. The Metropolitan Museum Fig 55: luster‑painted glass bowl. The division of the vessel walls into panels and the stylized palmette‑tree motifs frequently appear on luster‑painted bowls made in Fatimid Egypt. The Arabic inscription around the rim, in angular kufic script, has not yet been deciphered. Egypt. Late 10th–early 11th century. Metropolitan Museum. H. : 10.7 cm, Diam. : 15.3 cm Fig 52: The technique of cameo glass was practised in both Persia and Egypt. A rabbit carved in green overlay on the flask. H. : 15cm 25
The second period is from the 12th to the 15th century, when glass production seems to have been confined to Syria and Egypt. New forms and techniques as well as new styles of decoration were introduced during this period. In particular, polychrome effects were now preferred to manipulation of surface. Thus, on present, wheel cut glass was not popular in used, except the Hedrig glass. The glass is uniformly colourless with tinges varying from smoky topaz (fig 58), to yellowish green, and a distinctive style of carving. A famous technique in Egypt and Syria during Ayyubid and mamluk period was the combing and marvering. Threads of opaque glass were wrapped around the blown bubble are usually of green, blue or purple glass and then combed to form a series of parallel festoons. From these techniques, new shapes were developed which was the sprinkler (fig 59). The dropper is a flask with a long neck, narrrowing to the tip, which acted as a dropper. Moreover, lustre painting was ceased to be practiced, replaced by gold painting in Egypt and Syria (fig 60). Moreover, enamelling combined with gliding of glass was introduced in the 12th century. From the combination technique of enamelled and gold painting, beautiful products were created such as the glass pilgrim flask (fig 61). The glass for this technique has a colour greenish or light brownish tinge. The forms include bowls with foot-rings and long stemmed bowls, vases and beakers. The most familiar form is the mosque lamp, with inscriptions of Quranic verse (fig 62). Fig 58: Hedwig glass in a bucket form. The decorative elements are either cut vertically or bevelled. Byzantine or islamic Near east, 12th century. H. : 14cm Fig 59: Combed decoration was common in Syria and Egypt in the early islamic period and Medieval period. Made in Syria, 12th - 13th century, H. : 20 cm Fig 60: The flask decoration in executed in gold applied in suspension and then fired. The style of decoration is from Seljuq Anatolia. Syria, 12th century. W. : 15.7 cm Fig 61: Pilgrim flask derived from a leather form. It has an arabesque set in a trilobed cartouche surrounded by scrolls terminating in human and animal heads. Syria (possibly Aleppo), 1250 - 1260. H. : 23cm Fig 62: The gold painting and enamels of this mosque lamp are unsually well preserved. The insription of the neck is the verse from the Chapter of Light. Syria or Egypt, about 1330 - 1345. H. : 33cm 26
In the third period, there was sporadic production of glass in Persia from the Safavid Kingdom, Turkey from the Ottomen empire. Both of them between the 17th and 19th century, and in India under Mughal empire in the 17th and 18th centuries. Starting from the 16th century, the glass Industry in the Ottoman period was largely confined to coloured window glass and wares. In 19th century in Istanbul, the glass products has a strong influence of Venetian glass on Turkish glassmakers, as seen on an ewer in figure 63. Moreover, glass was made everywhere in Persia, earlier centre at Isfahan was of poor quality because of the glass was reused. later pieces were made in Shiraz, the best glass products. The glass products are prefered to be coloured and forms varries from ewers, sprinklers (fig 64) to vases, with a touch of baroque style. In india, there are new types of vessels made such as the small square bottle, often blue glass with gilded and enamelled decoration of flowers and human figures (fig 65). Fig 64: A mould blown swan-neck glass bottle. It is unclear how bottles of this shape were used, though sometimes they are known as ashkdans and were supposedly for collecting the tears of wives whose husbands were away at war. 19th century Fig 63: An striped colour ewer with a strong influence of Venetian glass. It is made from hollow tubes of opaque and turqoise glass inset into a colourless matrix. Turkey, 19th century. H. : 25.6cm Fig 65: A square bottle decorated in coloured enamels. The quality of the glass is poor and the painting follows the Persian style as it developed in India. India, 18th century. H. : 19.1 cm 27
As for Chinese glass, glassmaking has reached China towards the Zhou period (1122-249 BC). During the Tang period (618- 906 AD), glass casting continued with objects such as animals and human figures casted in opaque glass. The vessels produced later in Song period (960-1279) are small and bottles for burial in Buddhist Pagodas. During the Qing dynasty (1644-1912), the glass industry was revived. By the time of Yongzheng (1723-35), transparent colourless glass was used rarely and glass vessels are mostly opaque in imitation of monochrome porcelain or hardstones (fig 66). Shapes are mostly those of ceramics. Some popular glass vessels are the snuff bottles in the reign of the emperor Daoguang (1821-50). Snuff bottles were used to contain tobacco powder and is an essential for every gentlemen who smokes. Snuff bottles of transparent glass are painted either on the outside or on the inside. They were made of hardstones, porcelain and glass in all its varieties, and incorperating cameo cutting and painted scenes. Some motifs include floral patterns and human figures applied to the snuff bottles (See fig 67, 68, 69, 70) Fig 70 : A sapphire blue snuff bottle with an overlay imitating a scholar in boat. Qing Dynasty, 18th century Fig 69 : A Gourd-Shaped Snuff Bottle with Trailing Vines and GourdsDate: Qing dynasty (1644–1911), 1780–1880 China Fig 67 : An inside painted glass 'minnows and landscape' snuff bottle. 1801 Fig 68 : An imperial enamelled snuff bottle glass with painting motif of prunus, bamboo and rose. Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) Fig 66: 2 opaque glass vases. Yongzheng period (1723-1736) 28
Contemporary glasshouses in other parts of Italy, France, and Germany were primarily located near large forests, but their products were incorrectly rejected until recently as crude "forest glass." In this period, the prunted beaker, originated from Iran was universally popular in Italy (fig 71). Further east in Bohemia, a high quality thin glass was made in the 14th century. Some popular glass vessels in the Rhineland area during the 15th century was the typical contemporary German 'forest glass' vessels, a distinctive double-cone flask. They are small, made of thick glass, mostly with strong yellowish-green colour (fig 72) By the beginning of 16th century, the tall cylindrical Stangenglaser, often encrusted with prunts had become de rigueur in Germany ( fig 73). Byzantium's involvement in the history of medieval glassmaking is still poorly documented and much debated. By the end of Emperor Heraclius' reign (641 AD), the eastern Roman Empire, which was already being undermined by the emerging forces of Islam, had evolved into a distinct, culturally heterogeneous form of Christian and Greekspeaking civilisation, the civilisation that became known as Byzantine. Fig 73: Tall green beaker with prunts (stangenglaser), Germany, 15th century Fig 71: Beaker with thin glass with small prunts forming a wide decorative band between the 2 trails of glass thread. Found at Ukrain. Late 13th - 14th century. H. : 9.4 cm Fig 72 : Group of 'forest' glasses from Northern Europe. It consists of a mould blown cup (from left), a bottle of double conical form, a beaker with a chequered spiral trail and a stangenglaser, with octagonal rim and milled spiral trails. Netherlands, late 16th century. H. of stangenglaser : 20.5 cm BByyzzaannttiiuumm aanndd mmeeddiieevvaall EEuurrooppee 10TH - 15TH CENTURY 29
The Renaissance glassmakers of Murano were quick to experiment with ancient Roman glass techniques. The gilded and enamelled glasses techniques of Murano on all the types of glasses is one of the successful techniques. Most Venetian enamelled glasses are richly decorated with gold leaf (fig 75). Towards the end of the 15th century, a method for making millefiori glass was invented, that is, glass in which thin slices of multicoloured canes are embedded, creating the effect of a carpet of tiny flowers (fig 76). Glassmaking was introduced to Venice during the Byzantine period by craftsmen from Constantinople. During the 11th century, all of the shops were moved to the nearby island of Murano, where glassmaking prospered and the tiny island reigned supreme as the glass center of all the known world. the Venetians made many forms of glass such as goblets (fig 74), beakers, ewers and wine glasses and tall drinking glasses. vveenniiccee 15TH - 17TH CENTURY Fig 74 : Tall goblets with 'serpent' and 'flower stems'. Left: verre à serpent using a purple glass and incorporating retorti canes of white, blue and red within the stem. Southern Netherlands, mid-17th century. Centre: vetro a serpenti incorporating white retorti canes within the stem and terminating in two serpent-heads with blue cresting and eyes. Probably Venetian, first half of the 17th century. Right: verre à fleurs incorporating yellow and red retorti canes within the ring forming the stem and enclosing the individual flower sprays. Venice, second half of the 17th century. Fig 76: Venetian millefiori glass. From left: a miniature ewer formed from a clear glass gather incorporating sliced canes and set in silver mounts, a bead of opaque blue glass, and a goblet formed from a clear glass gather and mould-blown, a bottle formed from a dark blue glass gather also incorporating gold leaf, mould-blown and with an applied lattimo trail round the rim, 17th century; and a cup, also incorporating filigrana canes, 17th century. H. of ewer is 12.6 cm. Fig 75: Goblet of enamelled glass, with a wide band of gold-leaf gilding below the rim. Northern France, mid-16th century. H. 16.2 cm. 30
Fig 77 : Venetian calcedonio (or chalcedony) glass. From left: a bowl of mould-blown with 'nipt diamond waies' and an applied trailed foot-rim, about 1500; a standing bowl of thicker, opaque glass, also about 1500; and a covered tankard incorporating 'aventurine spots' (copper powder inclusions), late 17th century. H. of tankard 18 cm. Fig 78 : The 'ring-handled' vase of Henry VIl of England (reigned 1485- 1509), in lattimo (opaque white glass) with many traces of the original gilding. Venice, about 1500. H. 19.8 cm. Fig 79: An ewer of cristallo with added details in blue glass and 2 mouldedpressed satyr-mask medallions. Venice, about 1525-50. H. : 30.2cm Fig 80 : 2 glasses with vetro a fili in relief. Left: a bootle of white and blue canes. Right: a drinking glass that has 2 horizontal bands of vetro a retorti and vetro a fili. Venice, 16th century. H. of drinking glass 15.2 cm. Fig 81: 3 Renaissance mould-blown vessels. From left: a cristallo vase with lions' heads between swags of fruit; a drinking glass of vetro a fili with grape-like bosses; and a sprinkler of vetro a retorti with a frieze of lions and double-headed eagles. Venice, 16th century. H. of sprinkler 17.5 cm. Fig 82 : Filigrana vessels. From left: a tall-necked bottle of vetro a retorti, a vase of vetro a reticello, and a sprinkler of vetro a fili, probably made for export to the eastern Mediterranean. Venice, 16th century. H. of bottle 24.1 cm. Moreover, the glassmakers in Murano Island create chalcedony glass, one with exotic chromatic effects and the look that imitated expensive semi-precious stone (fig 77) and lattimo glass (opaque white glass) as seen in figure 78. They also invented the newly perfected cristallo, a thin, almost weightless, pure and colourless material that permitted the glassmakers to blow and manipulate the most elegant and intricate of forms (fig 79). To add more, the Venetians created an even more distinctive kind of glass - vetro a filigrana. However, there were 3 main types. In the first group, known as vetro a fili (fig 80). in the second type is the vetro a retorti (fig 81). The third varition is vetro a reticello (fig 82). 31
In the 17th century, glass remained popular throughout Europe, but north of the Alps, glassmakers found new ways to produce perfectly colorless and harder glass. Since the late 17th century, and throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, English glasshouses made glass more brilliant by adding lead oxide. This experiment was carried out by George Ravenscroft in London between 1674-1676. Lead glass was ideally suited to the new taste for wheel-cut glass decoration, owing to its relatively soft properties (fig 83). While the Bohemians achieved similar effects by adding chalk, developed by Michael Muller (1639-1709). glass patterns were far more dynamic. The Bohemian glass industry was able to meet market demands while also producing cheaper and simpler items that were affordable to the middle class. Other to note during this period is that the German glasshouses excelled in producing decolorized glass like Bohemian glass and developed gold ruby, a deep red glass colored by gold chloride (fig 85). Because different glass was melted in Bohemia, it was highly expensive for Bohemian glassworks to imitate Venetian glass. The glass was typically decorated with hot-shaped ornaments. As a result, the enamel painting technique developed its own path and was converted into the new, unique style. One of the example is a goblet in figure 84. While the Venetian style was built on refinement and perfection but with little variation, Bohemian Fig 83 : 4 English clear lead glass wine-glasses of the first half 18th century. Fig 84: Goblet lavishly enamelled with foliate sprays (on the foot). Bohemian, 18th century. H. : 21.8cm Fig 85: Left: beaker and cover of wheel-engraved gold ruby glass. Southern Germany, About 1700, Centre: miniature bottle of gold-ruby glass. Saxony, 1700. Right: covered goblet, wheel engraved with the monogram. Potsdam, 1701. BBoohheemmiiaann ((CCzzeecchh RReeppuubblliicc)) 17TH - 18TH CENTURY 32
In the late 18th and early 19th century, American glass artisans sought opportunities to create products inspired by the popularity of Irish cut glass. By the 1820s, glass makers were experimenting with cutting glass style glass (fig 86, 87). Cheaply producing glass with a cut appearance made beautiful tableware available to middle-class citizens at a reasonable price. One of the most successful factories in pioneering the pressed glass technique was the Boston and Sandwich Glass Company in Sandwich, MA. In 1830, there is a new glassmaking technique called glass pressed, with the help of machines. This technique is cheap in labour, skilled blowers could be replaced by unskilled, making more glass available at lower prices to a broader buying public. Some forms were the pressed glass window panes, candlesticks and tall vases (fig 88). Moreover, lead inside the American pressed glass replaced with a soda lime- glass has decrease the cost of production. The new soda lime glass can be pressed more thinly than lead glass, thus promoting new patterns. Fig 86: A covered pot-pourri jar, in a Chinese ginger jar shape. Designed in 1926 by H. P. Sinclair. It is engraved with with flowers and foliate scrolls. Fig 87 : Brilliant cut dish by T. G. Hawkes & Co., Corning, New York. AAmmeerriiccaa aanndd EEuurrooppee 1800 CENTURY -1940 33 Fig 88: American pressed glass vases and a candlestick, about 1845-60. H. of tallest object 24.2 cm. Virginia, The Chrysler Museum
In 1830s until 1840s, millefiori (thousand flowers), a new art of decorative glass was invented. This is about incorporating slices of glass canes bearing a variety of floral designs within the thickness of the glass itself. The design of flowers and fruits incorporated was appeared in Italy, Bohemia and Silesia. and France (fig 89). In the early 19th century, engraving on a clear, colourless glass is common (see figure 90). By the mid 19th century and throughout the Victorian era, tastes changed from a preference for cut glass to colored and ornately decorated glass. Production became faster and cheaper with advances in machinery to meet the growing American population's demand for household goods. Fig 90 : Colorless blown lead glass vases engraved of human figures and mythical creatures. 1939-40. By 1933, Corning Glass Works had developed a new chemical formula for a colorless lead glass. Fig 89: Basket paperweight by Clichy, about 1850-55. D. 10.9cm. Courtesy Sotheby & Co. 34
In Mesapotamia, there are abstract floral motives and actual motives such as festoons (See page 19 ) In Egypt however consist patterns of chevrons or festoons, geometrical patterns, and floral patterns. With blue and yellow as the main usage colour on the vessel body. (See page 20) During the Hellenistic period, there are spiral and star patterns thanks to the making of mosaic bowl. There are patterns with lines of different colours laid side by side on the vessel body. Curvy patterns from gold and other 2 colours. Floral patterns are also applied in this era on colourless glass (See page 21) Functional vessels in Roman rather does not have any motifs on it. However, the luxurious items have inscriptions, animals biblical scenes and human figures. There were also dot colored patterns called blobbling, evolved in this era as a new decoration on glass. (See page 22 ) Early medieval glass vessels motifs consist mostly elegant trail decorations (spiral trails, vertical loop trails, milled trails), abstract patterns, or rather none on the simple functional wares. (See page 23) Islamic glass wares mostly have the geometrical pattern facets, linear decoration thanks to the art of cutting glass relief. Another one was animal figures in a more abstract way such as rabbit in an unusual form carved on the glass. Arabesque inscriptions and combing chevron patterns became more prominent in the second period (12th-15th century). Later period consist of a strong preference of Venetian style, wich has stripe colours on glass wares. Floral paintings are also still used. The chinese glass style are either have no motifs on the plain opaque glass vessels, or the snuff bottles, varies motifs of floral, landscape and human figures. (See page 24) The motifs during the Byzantium and medieval period has an easy identity which is applying prunts on the glass vessels as a famoues decorative technique. (See page 29 ) Venice consist of motifs such as floral and abstract, irregular colourful shapes thanks to the millefiori technique. The Filigrana technique consists sometimes colourful lines on the glass. Other motifs concsist of historic scenes on the glass, with human, religious and animal figures (See page 30) Bohemian glass patterns have pattern dar more dynamic than the Venetian glass, showing a more detailed historic scenes on the glass. Another decoration method is abstract floral patterns. (See page 32) During the 18th- late 19th century, in America and Europe, a widely copied pattern is the "Russian' pattern, depicting a 24 pointed star motif. Other than floral and foliate patterns, America and Europe continues to engrave mythical scenes and human figures. (See page 33) 3.1.3 Motifs 35
3.1.4 Materials and Technique 6 Throughout the history, glassmaking has successfully developed in terms of various shapes and colours. This is thanks to the creativity of the glassmaker. The emphasis for this part is on the glassmakers creativity at the furnace, rather than the surface decoration skills. Cold-worked decoration, that does not require heat, however impressive, is secondary art to the art of glassmaking itself. The sequence that follow were photographed in New York Experimental Glass Workshop while Mr Bill Gudenrath was demonstrating the techniques of gglassmaking, to create some of the magnificent speciments that are today the tressured possessions collections in Europe and America. 36
91 Mediterranean core-formed alabastron (perfume flask), probably made on the island of Rhodes, 6th—5th century BC. H. 8.8 cm. British Museum. 92 Making the core. A mixture of horse dung and clay is kneaded with a small amount of water to the consistency of bread dough. 93 The material is shaped around an iron rod in the form of the inside of the object to be made. The core is then thoroughly dried or fired. 94 Covering the core with glass. The core is immersed almost to its upper edge in a crucible of molten glass in the furnace. Turning the rod ensures an even coating. 95 The core is lifted out of the glass and any excess allowed to drip back into the crucible. This continues until the desired amount of glass is left on the core. 96 Applying the trailed decoration. Soft glass of a contrasting colour is attached to a spot near the bottom of the vessel, then pulled slightly to form a thread. Vessel core-forming FIGS 91-105 16th to first centuries BC; Mesopotamia, Rhodes, Western Asia, the Mediterranean world. Other techniques shown Trailing, combing (vertical), adding, manipulating. Equipment A glass-melting furnace, a lehr, a marver, metal rods, pincers. Materials Animal dung and clay (for the core), glass for coating the core, and a smaller quantity of glass of various colour of decoration. 37
97 As the rod is turned and the mass of soft glass is moved gradually towards the top of the vessel, the thread covers the vessel in spirals 98 Combing the trailed threads. After reheating to soften the glass and threads thoroughly, a pointed instrument is dragged alternately up and down across the threads. 99 Manipulating to form the shoulder, neck and rim. After reheating, the glass just below the upper edge is constncted with pincers, thus forming the neck. The glass displaced to the right forms the shoulder 100 The glass displaced to the left becomes a horizontal rim: as the vessel is slowly rotated, pincers are used to squeeze this glass flat. 101 Manipulating to form suspension loops. For each loop, a bit of soft glass from the furnace is added to the side of the vessel and then separated from its pontils 102 Using pincers, a portion of the glass is drawn down along the side of the vessel towards the bottom, 103 The remaining portion is squeezed flat, then rolled into a circle to form a closed loop. The finished vessel, With rod still attached, is placed in the lehr to cool gradually. 104 Removing the rod and core. The rod is given a few sharp blows to break up the core immediately surrounding it. Then, using a bending and twisting motion, the rod is withdrawn from the vessel. 105 A long-handled instrument with a hook at one end is used to break up and scrape out the remains of the core. 38
Bead-forming, using the core-forming FIGS 106-111 From earliest times. A particular group made this perhaps initially on the island of Rhodes and later, in the eastern Mediterranean and at Carthage dates from the late 7th to the 3rd century BC. Other techniques shown Flame-working Equipment As for coreforming (see above), and a device for flame-working, later known as a glassworker's lamp. Materials As for coreforming 106 Core-formed head pendant, BC, of a type perhaps first made on the island of Rhodes at the end of the 7th century BC. Toledo, Ohio, The Toledo Museum of Art. 107 After the bead has been made on the core, an area of the surface is heated in the flame, then pulled downwards to form the chin. Glass of a contrasting colour is applied and fused to make the face. 108 Making the eyes. A large gob of black glass is applied and heated until it becomes flat. 109 A smaller amount of opaque white glass is added in the centre of the black glass but melted and fused to a lesser extent, so that it remains in relief. Finally, a dot of black glass is added to form the pupil. 110 Adding the remaining features. Softened black glass is drawn along the bead to form the eyebrows. Two bits of black glass are added and pincered to become flat ears. 111 The lips are also formed by adding black glass which, after reheating, is divided lengthwise by pressing and squeezing with pincers. Finally, the bead, with the rod still attached, is slowly cooled 39
112 Perfume flask (alabastron) of gold-band glass. Made in the eastern Mediterranean, probably on the Syro PaIestinian coast 1st century BC. H. 11.2 cm. See Pl. 66. Cane-making FIGS 112-125 15th century BC to the present. First practised in Mesopotamia, and thereafter in the classical world; after the medieval period it was revived and greatly developed in Venice in the sixteenth century and has been in use ever since. Other techniques shown Fusing sandwich gold; combing (horizontal). Equipment A glass-melting furnace, a marver, metal rods, pincers, shears Materials Glass of different colours; gold leaf 113 Making a polychrome band. A strip of opaque white glass is attached to the side of a substantial mass of soft dark glass on the end of a pontil. 114 After reheating to fuse the two glasses thoroughly, the mass is flattened against the marver. 115 The end is held with pincers while the pontil is slowly drawn away. The mass is stretched to form a relatively narrow band. The greater the length, the narrower the band. 116 Making a gold band. While still hot from the pulling process, a band of clear glass (made in the same way as the previous one) is covered halfway down one side with gold leaf. 117 This is immediately folded in half to form a loop with the gold on the inner surface. 40
118 Following reheating, a point on the loop opposite the pontil rod is held with the pincers, then pulled firmly, thus trapping the gold as the 2 halves of the loop touch and fuse together. 119 Attaching the bands to the core. The core, having just been coated with glass (see Figs 4-5) is pressed against one end of a tightly packed row of heated bands lined up on a ceramic surface. 120 The core is rolled over the canes until it is completely surrounded by them. By reheating and marvering, the canes become fully fused and the surface completely smooth. 121 Horizontal combing. As the core is slowly turned, the glass is squeezed with rough pincers, pulling the canes out of parallel. 122 The process is repeated at intervals along the length of the vessel, the direction of rotation being reversed at each new location so that a zigzag pattern results. 123 Smoothing and finishing the vessel. Following thorough reheating, the deep furrows resulting from the horizontal combing are smoothed by further marvering. 124 Alternate reheating and marvering continues until the surface is completely smooth 125 The tip of the vessel is held with pincers while the core is turned to produce a twist at the end. After cutting off any excess glass, a final reheating and marvering of this area produces a smooth tapering end. 41
126 Mosaic glass bowl, probably made in the eastern Mediterranean. From Vulci, central Italy, c.and century BC. H. 6 cm. Fusing and slumping FIGS 126-148 First practised extensively by Hellenistic glassmakers in the third century BC and thereafter in the classical world, the technique seems not to have been revived until the 19th century Other techniques shown Mosaic cane-making; twisting canes. Equipment A glass-melting furnace or a kiln (optional), flat ceramic plates (for fusing), contoured ceramic forms (for slumping), pincers, shears, spatulas, a long-handled tool for transporting the plates and forms into and out of the furnace or kiln. Materials Glass canes 127 Making the network cane for the rim. A thick thread of opaque white glass is applied to the side of a conical mass of dark glass attached to the end of a pontil. 128 After reheating, a loop is formed at the tip of the cone and then attached to a hook. 129 As the hook is turned, the pontil is slowly pulled away, drawing out a cane. 130 Making mosaic sections. A flattened mass of soft opaque white glass thinly coated in clear glass is stretched to form a band. 131 A cane of opaque white glass thinly coated with glass of a contrasting colour is attached at right angles to the end of the band. The band is then rolled up around the cane. 42
132 The band is rolled up until it surrounds the cane in two or three layers. This is then cut free of the pontil, and turned on its end. 133 A pontil with a thick disc of hot glass on its end is attached to the centre of the roll. 134 After reheating and marvering, the roll is coated with more glass, then attached to a second pontil. 135 The roll is stretched by pulling it in opposite directions simultaneously, until a cane of the desired diameter is produced. 136 After cooling, the cane is cut into sections about ¼ in (6 mm) thick. 137 Fusing. The sections, perhaps with others of different patterns and colours, are placed side by side on a ceramic plate to form a disc. The plate is then introduced into the furnace (or kiln). 138 When the sections have softened, they are compressed inwards to fill up the tiny spaces between them. A solid disc results. 139 The disc is pressed flat to make the upper surface smooth. With additional reheating, this and the previous step are repeated several times to fuse and smooth the sections. 140 Attaching the network cane to form the rim. The cane is held in the furnace until about 6-8 inches (15- 20 cm) of its length become soft. 43
141 The hot end is quickly attached to and wrapped around part of the edge of the disc. Both are then returned to the furnace for reheating. 142 After the remainder of the disc has been wrapped with the cane, any excess is trimmed off and the two ends are united by manipulation. 143 Following reheating, further compressing of the outer edge smooths the join between the disc and the rim cane. 144 Slumping. While still hot, the disc is 'draped' over a ceramic form made in the shape of the final object, in this case a hemispherical bowl. 145 The disc and form are reintroduced into a furnace/kiln. As the glass softens, gravity causes the disc to move downwards. 146 As the glass flows downwards, the mosaic sections develop an oblique slant. In addition, the glass at the highest point of the object becomes thinner, while that at the lowest point becomes thicker. 147 Any folds which may have occurred around the lower part of the bowl during the slumping can be pressed flat with tools. 148 While still hot, the object is given a few sharp taps and prised free of the form. After cooling, the inside and sometimes the outside of the piece may be ground and polished to remove any marks. 44