TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023

48 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 generations, impacting their readiness for real-world situations like college interviews, making friends, and job competition. This lack of experience poses challenges despite crucial life decisions still predominantly occurring in person. Trend 4: Insecure—Sharp Rise in Mental Health Issues. The fourth trend is Insecure: Sharp Rise in Mental Health Issues. The next trend found by Twenge (2017) was a sharp rise in insecurity and mental health issues. Whereas happiness and positive self-views were more evident in the Millennial generation, iGen’ers are on the verge of the most severe mental health crisis in decades. College counseling center reports indicate a surge in students seeking help for depression and more severe issues (Twenge, 2017). Twenge (2017) attributes this increase not only to more students being willing to seek help but also to the potential link between technology and social media usage. Life satisfaction declined when iGen youth shifted from spending time together to focusing more on phones (Twenge, 2017). Social media contributes to heightened FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) among today’s teens, exposing them to constant comparisons and potentially leading to feelings of loneliness and rejection if not included (Twenge, 2017). Although the lives of iGen’ers on social media may show optimism and self-confidence, Twenge (2017) emphasizes that iGen’ers may be masking feelings of vulnerability, uselessness, inadequacy, and depression in real life. Trend 5: Irreligious—Decline in Religion. The fifth trend is Irreligious: Decline in Religion. With her research, Twenge (2017) discovered a notable trending decline in religion among iGen, marking them as the least religious generation in history. Factors influencing this shift include a higher likelihood of being raised in nonreligious households and a tendency for iGen’ers to disassociate from religion as they

49 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 mature, typically between eighth grade and young adulthood. Additionally, more Americans publicly challenge religion today, with many young people associating it with rigidity and intolerance, contrary to their highly individualistic and accepting generation (Twenge, 2017). Trend 6: Insulated but Not Intrinsic—Interest in Safety and the Decline in Civic Engagement. The sixth trend is Insulated but Not Intrinsic: Interest in Safety and the Decline in Civic Engagement. The next trend Twenge (2017) found was that safety is critical to iGen youth. They are the generation of the car seat, being picked up from school, and sanitized plastic playgrounds. However, their slower development trajectory could also account for this safety concern, making them less likely to take risks—whether physical, intellectual, social, or emotional (Twenge, 2017). Twenge (2017) found that iGen is also more cautious online—they realize safety goes beyond the physical and encompasses damage to one’s reputation or even emotions. One event could lead to physical as well as social and emotional harm, such as future job outlook. This heightened concern for safety has both positive and negative implications. More of today’s youth tend to drink less, fight less, wear their seatbelts, drive more safely, and are less likely to be killed in car accidents or by homicide (Twenge, 2017). However, they are more susceptible to suicide—evidence of their fragility as anxiety and depression have skyrocketed in this generation (Twenge, 2017). Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to engage in certain behaviors because it is naturally satisfying and has a deep value or meaning (Cherry, 2019). At the same time, extrinsic involves engaging in a behavior because of external rewards or avoidance of punishment (Cherry, 2019). Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have declined in iGen, affecting their

50 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 school behaviors and career choices (Twenge, 2017). The realist attitude prevalent in this generation is evident in waning interest in education, with many perceiving it as unrelated to future success (Twenge, 2017). Instead of seeking meaningful work, iGen views jobs and careers as financial necessities. Twenge (2017) also found a shift in iGen’s civic engagement. Although iGen’ers reflect a concern for society and are more likely to want to contribute to the community, their actions often do not align with their viewpoints (Twenge, 2017). Despite supporting societal issues such as racial and gender equality, iGen tends to be less civically engaged and may feel entitled to benefits, even if they did not work for them (Twenge, 2017). Trend 7: Income Insecurity—New Attitudes Toward Work. The seventh trend is Income Insecurity: New Attitudes Toward Work. Twenge (2017) notes a shift in iGen's work attitude from the optimistic "you can be anything" mindset to a more practical and forward-thinking approach. iGen is less focused on learning new skills or gaining specific social attributes in a job but prioritizes not hating their work and finding a balance with the rest of life. In the competitive workforce, fewer young people find employment, and perceived barriers such as lack of ability, limited connections, family background, excessive workload, and sexism often hinder the perception of success (Twenge, 2017). The "can do" attitude is diminishing, and many teens view success as challenging and out of reach. Trend 8: Indefinite—New Attitudes Toward Sex, Relationships, and Children. The eighth trend is Indefinite: New Attitudes Toward Sex, Relationships, and Children. Twenge (2017) identified the cautious nature of the iGen generation, extending to their

51 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 relationships. While more accept pre-marital sex, they engage less in dating and sex during high school, contributing to a decline in teen pregnancy (Twenge, 2017). Twenge (2017) attributes this shift to safety concerns with pregnancy and STDs, increased awareness due to shows like "Teen Mom" and "16 and Pregnant" coming out, and easy access to electronic information on birth control. Regarding marriage and children, Twenge (2017) found that iGen’s attitude has shifted due to concerns such as the fear of relationship dependence and heartbreak, potential long-term commitments, the prioritization of economic success over relationships, and financial challenges related to college debt and high housing costs. If this trend continues, iGen may have the highest number of single individuals and the lowest birth rate in American history (Twenge, 2017). Trend 9: Inclusive—Acceptance, Equality, and Free Speech Debates. The ninth trend is Inclusive: Acceptance, Equality, and Free Speech Debates. Twenge (2017) reveals that the iGen generation considers embracing equality a requirement and expectation, influenced by early exposure to diverse relationships through technology. They grew up with sitcoms like “Will & Grace” and “Queer Eye for the Straight Guy,” making LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer or Questioning) issues mainstream and fashionable. Twenge (2017) found that even among those with conservative viewpoints, many now support LGBTQ issues such as same-sex marriage and reject labeling based on sexual orientation. Twenge (2017) also discovered that this generation values gender equality. Although many believe it would be beneficial for a mother to be able to stay at home with her children, most do not see this as a feasible option (Twenge, 2017). Their childhood experiences, where

52 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 most had mothers who worked all or most of the time while they were growing up, could be attributed to this belief. Most in the iGen generation have been surrounded by racial diversity their entire lives— in their schools, neighborhoods, and activities (Twenge, 2017). However, although the average iGen’er tolerates diversity, many surveyed do not see it as an ideal situation—as numbers on this issue have not budged much since the 1970s (Twenge, 2017). In addition, reverse racism also resonates with youth from this generation (Twenge, 2017). An example of this concept would include certain races getting college acceptances and full rides when others get nothing but have higher ACT scores. Despite embracing equality and tolerance, iGen’ers are cautious about free and public discussions on these issues. Twenge (2017) notes their tendency to support speech restrictions in cases of perceived bias. More statements seem to be deemed racist or sexist, and more speakers are considered “extreme.” As stated in her book, Twenge (2017) writes: This is the dark side of tolerance; it begins with the good intentions of including everyone and not offending anyone but ends (at best) with a reluctance to explore deep issues and (at worst) with careers destroyed by a comment someone found offensive and the silencing of all alternative viewpoints (p. 251). Trend 10: Independent—Political Views. The tenth trend is Independent: Political Views. iGen’ers exhibit individualism, as reflected in Twenge’s (2017) finding of a trend toward independent views. Many resist political party identification and, if they do choose one, align with a group based on personal views rather than family or religious influence (Twenge, 2017).

53 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Twenge (2017) characterizes iGen’s political viewpoint as more libertarian, prioritizing individual rights and opposing government regulation. According to Twenge (2017), this stance supports legal abortion and marijuana while opposing government control on issues like gun control and environmental regulations. Notably, iGen’ers favor government funding for college and childcare, deviating from typical libertarian views (Twenge, 2017). iGen'ers resist governmental control, attributing it to their widespread dissatisfaction with various aspects of the country, including education, government, news media, large corporations, and religious organizations (Twenge, 2017). Most have lost trust in the government and are cynical about whether they could impact politics or government. Although they seem more interested in what is happening globally, iGen’ers tend to be less informed than previous generations. Conclusion Through her extensive research and interviews, Twenge (2017) found overall that iGen is characterized by a sense of fear and anxiety, as they have grown up in a world where safety and the effects of income inequality are paramount concerns. They have spent their formative years glued to screens, which both prolonged their childhood and isolated them from real-life social interactions. As a result, they are physically safer but mentally more fragile than previous generations. They are also more focused on work and understand the need to work hard for success. They are socially progressive, promoting equality, mental health, and LGBTQ rights while distancing themselves from traditional structures like religion. iGen’ers have a strong foundation for success due to their practical nature and caution, but to truly flourish, they must break free from their smartphone addiction and shed their pervasive fear. Why is this knowledge

54 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 essential to those both in and outside of this generation? Because “understanding iGen means understanding the future—for all of us” (Twenge, 2017, p. 16). This review of iGen by Jean Twenge (2017) only highlights a small portion of the information included in the book. Twenge (2017) writes extensive chapters for each of the ten trends found and includes data and graphs to help readers visualize the shifts that have been happening. Although some of the trends may seem contradictory, e.g., iGen being socially progressive in some instances but not all, a more thorough analysis and description is available within the full text. References Cherry, K. (2019). Understanding intrinsic motivation. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-intrinsic-motivation-2795385 Schmitt, M. D. (2022). Family and consumer sciences teacher, parent, and student perspectives on quantity vs. quality of screen time and the effectiveness of classroom implementation of digital wellness curriculum on adolescent health [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Texas Tech University. Twenge, J. M. (2017). iGen why today’s super-connected kids are growing up less rebellious, more tolerant, less happy—and completely unprepared for adulthood: and What that means for the rest of us. New York Atria Books. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercialShareAlike 4.0 International License. Article Citation Schmitt, M. D. (2023). iGen why today’s super-connected kids are growing up less rebellious, more tolerant, less happy—and completely unprepared for adulthood: and What that means for the rest of us. By Jean M. Twenge: A book review. TAFCS Research Journal, 10(1), 41-54.

55 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Maintaining Cultural Identity in the Foster Care System: An Analysis of Policies for Transracial and Transcultural Adoptive and Foster Placements Felisha M. Burleson, M.A., CFLE Texas Woman’s University Joyce Armstrong, Ph.D., CFLE Texas Woman’s University Marcena Crawford, M.S.W. Grand Canyon University Abstract Current foster care practices require speedy permanency in reducing placements and the length of time in foster care. Despite minorities being disproportionately overrepresented in the child welfare system, minority foster and adoptive families tend to be disproportionately underrepresented. The concern is that some former foster youth have difficulty finding commonalities between themselves and members of their cultural or racial backgrounds. Issues surrounding the placement of children in non-matched racial and cultural background placements include children experiencing a lack of belongingness and a lack of social connectedness to the foster home. Short-term outcomes include children who feel culturally connected experiencing fewer disruptions in their foster or adoptive placement. Long-term outcomes for children who feel culturally connected include the ability to navigate spaces with people with whom they share a cultural identity. The purpose of this literature review was to explore the literature related to the outcomes of children who experienced transcultural and transracial out-of-home placements and adoptive homes, as well as the policies that guide placement decisions. Keywords: Adoptive placements, foster care, cultural identity, cultural competencies, child welfare policies

56 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Introduction Personal cultural identity can provide a sense of belonging (Vonk et al., 2010). Having a well-established cultural and racial identity during adolescence has been linked to developing positive coping skills, establishing high self-esteem, and engaging in fewer risk-taking activities (Meca et al., 2017). Cultural competence theory emphasizes the importance of understanding and respecting the cultural backgrounds of individuals and communities. This theory acknowledges that people have distinct cultural identities, so services should be offered in a way that respects their cultural values, beliefs, and customs (Cross et al., 1989). When applied to foster and adoptive placements, this theory emphasizes the need for policies that encourage cultural competence among caregivers and help children in care maintain their cultural identity (Vonk, 2001). To successfully navigate the complexities of identity development for children raised in transracial adoption and foster care placements, Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) professionals must understand the significance of cultural competence (Houy et al., 2023; White et al., 2022). Understanding cultural competence in this setting is essential for ensuring that families and children's distinct cultural identities and needs are acknowledged and nurtured, creating an inclusive atmosphere that supports positive growth and well-being. The stance of this paper is in alignment with the diversity, equity, and inclusion statement found on the website of the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences (AAFCS): The AAFCS celebrates, embraces, and respects the value of every person. We denounce all expressions of hate, racism, injustice, and discrimination. Our commitment to diversity, equity, inclusion, and social justice is demonstrated through our work to improve the well-being and quality of life for individuals, families, and communities (American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences, n.d.).

57 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 AAFCS’s commitment aligns with the idea that in transracial adoptive and foster placements, it is vital to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion. This commitment includes acknowledging and respecting the child’s cultural heritage, ensuring equitable access to resources and opportunities, and actively promoting social justice within the family and community context. In the United States, children from minority backgrounds are disproportionately overrepresented in the foster care system (Kalisher et al., 2020; Watt, 2019). Inversely, foster and adoptive parents from minority backgrounds are underrepresented in the foster care system. Kalisher et al. (2020) conducted research utilizing data collected over the last 25 years in the Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System (AFCARS), which revealed that adoption for Black children increased from 21% to 24%, and adoption for Hispanic children grew from 21% to 28% in the 25 years since the implementation of the Multiethnic Placement Act (MEPA) and 23 years after the amendments establishing the Interethnic Placement Act (IPA). The report also highlighted that, despite the implementation of MEPA and IPA, 90% of children of color adopted between 2017 and 2019 were adopted by people of a different racial background. The overall proportion of transracial adoptions increased from 23% to 28% during the same time frame. The push to expedite permanency outcomes or the reduction of the amount of time spent in care often means that children are not placed in homes with the same or similar cultural background if a kinship caregiver is unavailable. As a result, people who have experienced the foster care system have a more challenging time obtaining and maintaining their cultural and or racial identity due to placements in foster homes that do not share the same or similar racial and ethnic backgrounds as they do. Additionally, many youths report feeling disconnected or disinterested in exploring their culture. Once children exit the foster care system as adults, many seek information regarding their culture in search of kinship and community

58 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 (Samuels, 2009). They are often left to navigate their cultural backgrounds independently. Some people who have experienced the foster care system establish relationships with their biological families or people of similar cultural backgrounds to establish an understanding of the culture that they perceive has been lost. The purpose of this literature review was to look into the literature on the outcomes of children who had transcultural and transracial out-of-home placements and adoptive homes, highlighting the significance of implementing culturally sensitive matching strategies to promote positive experiences and optimal outcomes for children of color in foster and adoptive placements. The cultural well-being and identity formation of children of color within the foster care and adoption systems are critical considerations for ensuring their overall development. However, a persistent challenge lies in the lack of emphasis on cultural matching during placement. This paper reviewed the literature and child welfare policies in an attempt to identify the need to address the issue of culturally matched placements for children of color in the child welfare system. Additionally, we also discuss the policies that guide placement decisions. In the absence of a comprehensive protocol and policies, prioritizing cultural alignment between caregivers and children often results in detrimental outcomes, including a diminished sense of cultural belonging, disrupted ethnic and racial connections, and reduced opportunities for the development of a strong racial and ethnic identity. How Cultural Identity is Learned and Maintained Culture is a set of meanings, knowledge, and actions shared among a group of people and are learned and not innate (Nastasi et al., 2017). Easily observable aspects of culture include food, clothing, celebrations, communication, religion, and language. Other aspects of culture include norms, values, worldviews, and behaviors. Developing ethnic and cultural identities is a

59 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 normative process for children across cultures (González et al., 2017 ). Culture can also include the way groups of people preserve resources and background experiences (Puig, 2013). Culture is socially transmitted, and parents and family are the primary agents of socialization (Ruck et al., 2021). Families from different ethnic and racial backgrounds socialize their children according to their cultural beliefs and norms (Umaña‐Taylor & Hill, 2020). Cultural messages are transmitted to youth by their family members through a process that includes the messages received (Tran, 2019). Second, the youth must accept or reject the message. Lastly, the messages are endorsed or adopted by the youth. Cultural identity is developed when people internalize membership in an ethnic or racial group, acknowledge membership, and begin to internally and externally exhibit traits associated with their cultural group (Padilla et al., 2010). The challenge with transcultural and transracial foster and adoptive placements is that the youth may not receive the cultural messages that are necessary to maintain their personal culture. Loss of Culture The 1997 Adoption and Safe Families Act established a definition of permanency that emphasizes the importance of providing children and youth with meaningful connections to family or other caring adults (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2020). The act also recognized permanency as an essential outcome for the well-being of former foster youth. While permanency is the primary goal, foster care and adoptive systems often fail to recognize the importance of obtaining and maintaining culture as a developmental process (Samuels, 2009). When analyzing historical trends, Kalisher et al. (2022) observed a rise in transracial adoptions, particularly for Black children, alongside an overall increase in permanency. Youth placed in transcultural and transracial foster homes reported feeling disconnected from their racial and

60 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 ethnic backgrounds (Barn, 2018). Wade (2019), suggest that tensions may arise in placements when culture, social roles, behavioral norms and beliefs differ. Youth who were placed in transcultural and transracial foster placements reported experiencing identity stripping, meaning that they were required to adapt to the new culture as opposed to maintaining their culture of origin (Degener et al., 2022). Lastly, the literature revealed that some youth expressed disinterest in exploring their cultural backgrounds and connections (Cho, 2023). In relation to the theory of epistemic trauma, Samuels (2022) explains a perspective of transracial adoption as a process of isolation and feelings of being separate from others, as there are physical differences between caregivers in the home. Microaggression, isolation, and a lack of attachment to the community are areas of trauma that have raised concerns for researchers such as Commer (2023), which calls for child welfare to move beyond the simple acknowledgment of the trauma of transracial adoptions in social welfare circles, but to also evaluate the belief systems of foster and adoptive caregivers. Failure to recognize these beliefs may undermine the theory related to microaggressions and the effects of trauma on transracial adoptions (Commer, 2023). Transracially adopted Black youth identified the discrediting encountered during discussions with others as the most challenging aspect of transracial adoption, leading to feelings of rage, exhaustion, and profound isolation (Samuels, 2022). Importance of Maintaining Cultural Identity Understanding culture is crucial because it allows people to bond with their cultural group members. Not only is it essential to understand and have knowledge of culture, but it is also important to have a sense of belonging. Utilizing the Usborne scale, the study unveiled that youth who had experienced foster care exhibited a statistically lower cultural identity strength score compared to youth who had not experienced foster care, with foster youth scoring an

61 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 average of 4.5 points less than their peers (Stafanson, 2019). Outcomes of research by Anderson and Linares (2012) highlighted the importance of ethnic self-identification and language spoken in the foster home as indicators of a child’s psychological well-being. People who are connected to their ethnic and racial groups have a sense of identity or belonging and can resonate with the norms that nonmembers may either have no knowledge of or limited knowledge of. Mental health resilience, incorporating positive coping skills, a sense of belonging, and higher reported levels of social well-being have been reported as positive outcomes for culturally connected (Stafanson, 2019). The Transracial Placement Debate There has been an ongoing debate regarding the placement of minority children in transcultural and transracial adoptive and foster homes. As a result, minority children may experience difficulties navigating and exploring their cultural identity (Docan-Morgan, 2011; Flournoy, 2022), and they may experience shame regarding their primary culture as well as the inability to see themselves within their culture or the culture of their foster or adoptive family. Transracially adopted youth reported experiencing racial antagonism in their homes, and despite foster parents reporting that they frequently discuss race and culture, the adoptee reported that race and culture were rarely discussed (Docan-Morgan, 2011). Transracial placements fail to address the severity of discrimination in society that minority children may experience. Those in support of transcultural and transracial foster care placement and adoption state that the permanency and physical well-being of the child are essential, and race or ethnicity should not be taken into consideration. The Multiethnic Placement Act, enacted in 1994 (Multiethnic Placement Act of 1994) and later amended in 1996 (Interethnic Adoption Provisions of 1996), established that child welfare agencies that receive

62 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 federal funding could neither deny nor delay the placement or adoption of a child based on the race of the adoptive or foster parents. Additionally, states have developed their laws regarding transcultural and transracial placement and adoption of children from the foster care system. Cultural Matching in the Foster Care System The sharing of culture between caregivers and children in out-of-home placement fosters a foundation of mutual respect for both parties. Research conducted by Waniganayake et al. (2019) found that caregivers (n = 26) and caseworkers (n = 15) in Australia prefer culturally matched placements. Participants in their research stated that culturally matched placements are vital because it is easier for the caregiver to understand the children and vice versa. Placement between children and caregivers with similar backgrounds is less likely to terminate placement due to understanding the child’s behaviors based on a shared understanding of values, beliefs, and traditions (Edwards et al., 2023). LaBrenz et al. (2022) discovered that around two-thirds of children entered foster care in racially matched placements, and 67.34% (n = 25,049) experienced placement stability. When children are placed with caregivers that match their cultural backgrounds, the placement is not as disruptive to the child due to shared beliefs and values. As reported by Van Holen et al., (2020), youth in culturally matched placements feel less alone, are more likely to participate in group activities, and have fewer disruptions in placement due to behavioral concerns, whereas transracially placed youth may run away from placements more frequently and have higher reports of behavioral problems (Edwards et al., 2023). Foster parents reported that the similarities in culture allowed for a smoother transition into the placement, and the children could adapt more easily to foster parents of similar backgrounds. Cultural matching also fosters a sense of belonging, unlike children reporting feeling like “outsiders” (Wade, 2019). The same research also reported that children in out-of-

63 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 home care felt more secure when placed with a person of similar or the same racial and ethnic background. Other countries have taken the racial and ethnic background of the children into consideration when determining the most appropriate placement options. Caseworkers and caregivers in Australia’s foster care system supported the idea of cultural matching. They identified this as a positive method for children to retain their sense of belonging and cultural identity (Waniganayake et al., 2019). Similarly, adherence to international conventions, particularly The Hague Convention (1993), in Aotearoa, New Zealand, demonstrates a parallel commitment. Policies within New Zealand are explicit in favoring placements that align with a child’s race and culture, as highlighted by Connolly et al. (2014). Furthermore, New Zealand has gone a step further by enshrining in legislation the obligation to meet the cultural needs of children in formal care arrangements. This includes a clear preference for placing children with matched race and matched culture families, as Connolly et al. (2014) and Gibbs & Scherman (2013) emphasized. Maintaining Culture Cultural preservation in transcultural and transracial placements can be accomplished through the legal system, parenting resources, family-of-origin support, and community resources. For example, Australia developed legislation requiring access to tools and resources that allow children in out-of-home care to maintain community, cultural, linguistic, and religious connections. Similar policies exist in territories in Canada, such as Nova Scotia’s Child and Family Services Act (1990), which requires the child welfare system to take the child’s cultural, racial, and linguistic heritage into consideration when practical. British Columbia also developed the Child, Family and Community Service Act (1996), with a section stipulating that the child's

64 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 cultural, racial, linguistic, and religious heritage are all primary factors for determining the child’s best interests. Cultural identity preservation is only legally protected in some states in the United States, not all of them. Most laws regarding cultural identity preservation relate to the Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) (Francis et al., 2023) and do not consider other ethnic and racial cultures. While not necessarily at the state or national levels, focusing on cultural identity during case planning and court proceedings, even at the county and individual levels, could prove beneficial. This approach brings the cultural needs of children to the forefront, as highlighted by Stafanson (2019). Regardless of whether or not the child is in a culturally matched placement, the foster parents can play an essential role in developing and preserving a foster child’s cultural identity (Degener et al., 2022; Van Holen et al., 2020). Foster parents sometimes have access to classes, tools, resources, and family members to support the child’s connection to their culture. Foster parents need to encourage and support cultural identity development and provide children with opportunities to explore their cultural identity (Van Holen et al., 2019). Positive outcomes have been noted for foster children whose transracial foster parents completed cultural competence training (Akuoko-Barfi et al., 2021; Montgomery, 2020; White et al., 2022). Earlier research has shown positive outcomes when transcultural and transracial adoptive parents participated in postadoption education and received support on socialization practices (Lee et al., 2018). Though training has been listed as a source of positive outcomes, many foster parents often report an inability to locate training providers in their community and the inability to locate populationspecific topics as the reasons for not attending or participating in training initiatives (Daniel, 2011).

65 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Other avenues of cultural preservation could be to encourage interaction with the family of origin and allow the child to participate in community-based activities. Children in foster care traditionally maintain a relationship with their family of origin unless it is unsafe to do so. Encouraging visitation with the family of origin could reduce feelings of alienation and allow children to learn about their culture. Literature supports the idea that maintaining connections with the family of origin could lead to a better understanding of cultural knowledge (Degener et al., 2022). Maintaining the unique family bonds of racial and ethnic minority youth provides them a sense of familiarity; thus, children who maintain relationships with their family members or relatives have fewer adjustment problems (Bai et al., 2016). As Blakeley et al. (2017) reported, the benefits of maintaining kinship connections include longevity in relationships for youth, a reference for advice, and positive coping skills. An added benefit is that foster and adoptive parents could utilize family members as a resource for culturally appropriate activities. Policies Related to Transracial Adoptive and Foster Placements In the United States, policies regarding transracial adoption and foster care placement emphasize the importance of providing safe, nurturing, and permanent homes for children while also acknowledging the significance of maintaining a child’s cultural identity (Adoption and Safe Families Act, 1997; Indian Child Welfare Act [ICWA], 1978; Interethnic Adoption Provisions of 1996; Multiethnic Placement Act of 1994). One of the primary considerations to note is that the implementation of policies and the application of practices related to transracial adoption and foster care placement can vary across states and agencies. Caregivers and professionals must consult specific state statutes and regulations and the policies of individual adoption and foster care agencies for a more comprehensive understanding of the guidelines and practices in a particular jurisdiction. Key policies and legislation that have shaped the approach to transracial

66 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 adoption and foster care placement include the Multiethnic Placement Act and Interethnic Adoption Provisions, the Adoptions and Safe Families Act, the Indian Child Welfare Act, and the Child and Family Services Improvement and Innovation Act. Gaps in transracial adoptions and white adoptive and foster care placements consist not only of class oppression but also of social and economic status. The rates of multicultural adoption and foster care placements are generally lower than those of white children in care. With this expected trend, legislative measures must be weighed in efforts to advocate for additional opportunities for multiracial homes to be open for adoptions to relieve problems with multiethnic placements (Kalisher et al., 2020). Indian Child Welfare Act The Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) was enacted in 1978 to prevent the unlawful removal of Native children and to oversee the placement of children (Indian Child Welfare Act, 1978). This was the result of congressional investigations finding that 25% to 35% of native children had been removed from their homes and placed in the care of families and institutions that did not hold any connection to the children’s native culture (Mannes, 1995). Moreover, the law aims to protect the cultural heritage and tribal connections of the children who experience the child welfare system. The law established the preferences for the placement of Native children. First, placement of the child with their extended family. Second, members of the same tribe; and last, members of another tribe if neither of the two first options are available (Indian Child Welfare Act [ICWA], 1978). In 2023, however, Texas legislators and non-Indian adoptive parents argued that the law provided unconstitutional biases for adoption based on racial classification (Linjean & Weaver, 2022). In June 2023, the United States Supreme Court upheld the Indian Child Welfare Act. While the United States decided to uphold this law, there are still

67 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 concerns for children of other racial and ethnic backgrounds and their disproportionate representation in the child welfare system (Dettlaff & Boyd, 2020). Examples include culturally matched homes and placements for unaccompanied minors in Texas, as well as addressing the disproportionate representation and outcomes of Black or African American Children in the Foster Care System. Multiethnic Placement Act As highlighted by Brooks et al. (1999), The United States Child welfare favored culturally matched foster and adoptive placements and utilized transracial placements as a last resort (Flournoy, 2022). This stance is consistent with children’s best interests as outlined by social work practices. However, the enactment of MEPA and IAP prohibited the use of race as a reason to delay or deny them from being placed in an adoptive foster care home. MEPA was enacted in 1994 to reduce the amount of time that a child stays in the child welfare system by prioritizing permanence and prohibiting racial or ethnic discrimination in the placement of children for foster care or adoption (Multiethnic Placement Act of 1994; Williams-Butler et al., 2020.). MEPA emphasized that placement decisions should be based on the child’s best interests, considering their cultural, racial, and ethnic background. For nearly three decades, child welfare agencies have attempted to balance a child’s stability with permanence in foster and adoptive placements and the development of their racial and cultural identities. As a part of the Interethnic Adoption Provisions, an amendment to MEPA enacted in 1996, States and agencies were required to establish programs and guidelines to ensure and enhance cultural preservation (Williams-Butler et al., 2020), which included a mandate to recruit more diverse families diligently. There are still concerns regarding limited access to same-race placement options because guidelines in the IAP are not clearly defined or enforced (Brooks et al., 1999).

68 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Another concern is the insufficient cultural competence training for transracial placements. Branco (2022) encourages those who work with children in child welfare to encourage continuing education providers to provide more content-specific and relevant training options. Because race-neutral placements are prioritized, there may be a shortage of available same-race or same-ethnicity families for children who could benefit from maintaining connections to their cultural heritage (Vonk et al., 2010). Inadequate training in cultural competency can make it challenging to promote cultural preservation and identity development effectively. Adoptions and Safe Families Act The Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA), enacted in 1997, prioritizes child safety and well-being, maintaining that “reasonable efforts shall be made to preserve and reunify families prior to the placement of a child in foster care, to prevent or eliminate the need for removing the child from the child’s home” (Adoption and Safe Families Act, 1997). While not explicitly focused on transracial adoption, it established timelines for permanency planning and encouraged timely adoption for children in foster care. The Adoption and Safe Families Act also requires agencies to consider the child’s cultural background in placement decisions. The ASFA failed to define “reasonable” efforts, leaving child welfare agencies to make the determination themselves (Trivedi, 2019; Williams-Butler et al., 2020). Additionally, researchers have highlighted the unintentional preference for adoption by providing financial incentives for adoption instead of reunification or kinship placements under the ASFA (Copeland, 2022; Flournoy, 2022; Trivedi, 2019; Williams-Butler, 2022). It is suggested that children are placed in kinship or other expedited reunification efforts towards stability for children in out-of-home care (Hong et al., 2011). Placing children in kinship homes as opposed to transracial foster and

69 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 adoptive homes would provide opportunities for children to remain close to their culture. Positive trends have shown that while balancing the biological bond of keeping children connected to their culture in efforts to keep healthy relationships and acceptance of culture, along with being more closely connected to one’s cultural identity (Kalisher et al., 2020; Van Holen et al., 2020). Analysis of Literature After conducting an extensive literature review, we found that while FCS is an interdisciplinary field that produces professionals who work in foster care and adoption, there is a gap in the literature regarding culturally matched placements or cultural preservation for children in out of home care specific to FCS. Despite the growing recognition of the importance of cultural preservation in child welfare, there is a lack of research that specifically examines the role of FCS professionals in ensuring that children in out of home care are placed in culturally matched homes and that their cultural heritage is preserved. This gap in the literature highlights the need for further research in this area to understand better how FCS professionals can work towards creating a culturally responsive child welfare system that effectively supports the needs of all children in out of home care. The literature also highlights the need and lack of resources or culturally matched placements. Recurring themes in resources are the need for training and support services for transracial adoptive and foster parents. However, participation remains low due to both a lack of follow-through by child welfare staff and the inability to locate training services in their communities (Daniel, 2011). It is also important to note that there is more literature regarding transracial adoption than there is regarding the placement of children in foster care or out-ofhome care settings.

70 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Implications Policies emphasize the importance of secure homes and cultural identity preservation for children, but execution varies across states and agencies. While key legislation such as the Multiethnic Placement Act, Interethnic Adoption Provisions, Adoptions and Safe Families Act, Indian Child Welfare Act, and Child and Family Services Improvement and Innovation Act have shaped this landscape, professionals in the child welfare system must balance policies, regulations, and societal realities impacting the children served. Their collaborative efforts with foster parents and adoptive caregivers can provide children with secure, nurturing environments that value and nurture their cultural identities. This comprehensive approach ensures children’s well-being and cultural connectedness within the context of their placements. FCS professionals working in child welfare may play a vital role in advocating for and working with youth in foster care to maintain their cultural identities. One avenue is through advocating for more culturally competent training for foster parents and those involved in child welfare services. FCS professionals should undergo cultural sensitivity training to enhance their understanding of the unique challenges and needs of students in foster care. This training equips them to navigate cultural differences and create inclusive learning environments, thus emphasizing the significance of understanding and respecting diverse cultural backgrounds. Additionally, FCS professionals can collaborate with legislators to champion the prioritization of kinship care when reunification with biological families is not possible. This involves advocating for policies recognizing the importance of placing children with extended family members or individuals from the same cultural community, ensuring a seamless preservation of cultural ties.

71 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 FCS professionals can actively engage in reshaping policies and regulations within the child welfare system. FCS professionals can also advocate for the evaluation of existing policies and societal complexities that may hinder the development and maintenance of a healthy cultural identity for children in foster and adoptive placements. This evaluation process should be dynamic and consider revisions to accommodate the diverse needs of children, fostering an inclusive and informed approach within the child welfare system. FCS professionals working in child welfare, along with foster parents and adoptive caregivers, play a pivotal role in maintaining and developing a healthy cultural identity for children in these placements. Their efforts should be guided by a commitment to cultural competence, recognizing the importance of upholding individual and cultural identities within the child welfare framework. By addressing these aspects comprehensively, FCS professionals contribute significantly to creating a nurturing and culturally sensitive environment for children in foster and adoptive placements. Conclusion While other countries have enacted laws and practices encouraging cultural matches, this is not the case in the United States. The primary reasons for fewer rates of culturally matched placements are the push for permanence and the lack of available homes with minority foster and adoptive placements. Culturally matched placements for children of color generally have lower rates compared to placements for white children in care. Given this trend, it is imperative to consider reviewing and revising legislative actions to advocate for increased opportunities for culturally matched foster and adoptive placements (Kalisher et al., 2020). When examining the context of the nuclear family, disparities arise in transracial adoptions, leading to adverse effects on children placed in multiethnic environments. When looking at the nuclear family, it is evident

72 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 that there are differences when it comes to transracial adoptions, which may bring about adverse outcomes for children in transracial placements. Over the last few decades, there have been challenges in meeting a balance with transracial adoptions of children of color to White adoptive parents. This paper highlights United States policies that have failed to protect, maintain, and develop the cultural identities of children in foster and adoptive homes. As a result, many children in long-term care cannot remain closely connected to their culture of origin. If children cannot be placed in a culturally matched placement, their caregivers and service providers must be culturally competent (Montgomery, 2020). Failing to maintain this cultural link can result in unfavorable social and personal outcomes for these children (Lee et al., 2021). Transracial foster care placement is highly relevant to FCS as it intersects with the discipline’s core focus on enhancing the well-being of individuals and families. FCS professionals are tasked with addressing diverse family structures, cultural dynamics, and social issues. In the context of transracial foster care, understanding the unique needs and challenges faced by children in these placements becomes imperative. FCS professionals can contribute to creating inclusive, culturally competent support systems that promote the overall development and stability of children in foster care, particularly those in transracial placements. This involves recognizing the importance of cultural identity and advocating for policies and practices that prioritize the well-being of children from diverse backgrounds. For students pursuing an FCS degree and considering a career in child welfare, transracial foster care placement holds significant implications. These students should be equipped with a deep understanding of the cultural, social, and psychological aspects that influence the experiences of children in foster care, especially those in transracial placements. By integrating coursework and practical experiences that explore cultural competency, diversity, and family

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77 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Article Citation Burleson, F., Armstrong, J., & Crawford, M. (2023). Maintaining cultural identity in the foster care system: An analysis of policies for transracial and transcultural adoptive and foster placements. TAFCS Research Journal, 10(1), 55-77.

78 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Policy Brief: The Silent Threat of Reassigned FCS Courses Meghan Champagne, Candidate for B.S. in Family & Consumer Sciences Education Texas Tech University Cynthia L. Miller, Ph.D., CFCS, CPFFE Texas Tech University Abstract This policy brief underscores the critical role of certified Family and Consumer Science (FCS) teachers in secondary education, particularly post-COVID-19, emphasizing the negative impacts of assigning FCS courses to non-certified or alternatively-certified teachers. It argues for policies that subsidize teacher preparation and establish a structured apprenticeship pathway for professionals from FCS-related fields, highlighting the necessity of specialized knowledge in delivering a curriculum that equips students with essential life skills and career readiness. The brief advocates for a comprehensive approach to education that prepares students for real-world challenges, underscoring the importance of maintaining high-quality FCS education through specialized teacher training and certification. Keywords: Career readiness, family and consumer sciences, high-quality FCS training, practical life skills Policy Brief: The Silent Threat of Reassigned FCS Courses The need for Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) teachers in secondary education has become more pronounced, especially in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic not only shifted the educational landscape but also highlighted the importance of practical life skills (Garcia & Weiss, 2020), which are at the core of FCS education. These skills help students become self-reliant and responsible, essential qualities in the face of challenges like those presented by the pandemic. Learning to prepare meals, manage finances, and take care of

79 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 household responsibilities are invaluable life lessons that have become even more critical as families navigate the complexities of a post-pandemic world (Garcia & Weiss, 2020). The teaching of FCS supports not only the academic development of students but also their personal and social growth, preparing them for the real world beyond school. Historically, FCS (formerly known as home economics) aimed at making home life more efficient through the application of scientific principles to domestic topics (Cornell University, n.d.). This field of study has evolved to include a broad range of subjects such as culinary arts, education and training, food science and nutrition, health management and wellness, human/child development and family relations, and personal and family finance, among others (AAFCS, 2024). However, over the years, the presence of FCS in schools has declined due to the increasing shortage and lack of qualified FCS teachers (USDA-NIFA, n.d.; Bowers & Myers, 2019; Texas Education Agency, 2023b; Jones, 2020). In Texas, school districts have the flexibility to assign other certified teachers they see as the best fit for teaching FCS courses. For example, assigning biology teachers to teach Food Science courses or any academic teacher to teach Education and Training courses. The passing of the Texas House Bill 1842, also known as the District of Innovation (DOI) law, allowed public schools in Texas to have more flexibility to meet the diverse needs of their students and community by providing eligible school districts with exemptions from certain sections of the Texas Education Code (Texas Education Agency, 2023a). One exempted section is Texas Education Code §21.003, which mandates that districts hire certified teachers (Texas Classroom Teacher Association, 2017). Here is an example of the impact on teacher certification requirements: Current Statute: Texas Education Code §21.003 requires that school districts hire certified

80 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 teachers. This law ensures that educators have met specific criteria and standards for teaching proficiency. • Flexibility Under DOI Law: Districts of Innovation can exempt themselves from this requirement, allowing them to hire uncertified teachers. This change can significantly alter the qualifications of educators in the classroom, potentially impacting the quality of education. This flexibility introduces a gray area regarding the hiring of non-certified teachers, which TEA (2022) shows that nearly 1 in 5 new teachers hired last year went into the classroom without a state certification. Additionally, a Southern Regional Education Board 2022 report shows that 1 in 3 teachers are inexperienced and teaching outside their field, which means they were certified to teach English, but assigned to a middle school math class (SREB, 2022). The DOI law's impact on teacher certification requirements reflects a shift towards more local control and flexibility for districts, but it also raises concerns about the implications for educational quality and teacher protection. So, why is it more crucial to have certified FCS teachers teaching FCS courses in secondary schools? Certified FCS teachers play a crucial role in teaching FCS courses for several reasons. First, they possess specialized knowledge in areas like nutrition, personal finance, child development, and family relationships, to name a few (AAFCS, 2024; Texas Education Agency, 2023c; Handy & Turgeson, 2021; Bowers & Myers, 2019). This expertise is essential for delivering comprehensive and accurate content in these subjects. Second, FCS courses often focus on practical life skills. FCS teachers are trained to teach these skills effectively, combining theoretical knowledge with practical application (FCCLA, 2019; Palombit, 2019; Handy & Turgeson, 2021; Bowers & Myers, 2019; Moen et al., 2023). This is vital for helping students

81 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 understand and apply what they learn in real-life scenarios. Third, FCS encompasses a wide range of topics that overlap with various disciplines like science, economics, psychology, and sociology (FCCLA, 2019; Palombit, 2019; Smith, 2022; Moen et al., 2023). FCS teachers are equipped to integrate these perspectives, offering a more holistic and interdisciplinary approach to education. Fourth, FCS teachers often have a deep understanding of the curriculum and how to develop it to meet the needs of students (Poirier et al., 2017; Handy & Turgeson, 2021; Moen et al., 2023). They can create engaging and relevant course content that resonates with the everyday lives of students (FCCLA, 2019; Rehm, 2018; Duncan, 2018; Palombit, 2019). Fifth, FCS courses often include applying the practical reasoning process to contemporary issues such as financial literacy, sustainability, mental health, and affordable childcare, to name a few (LEADFCS Education, 2018; Rehm, 2018; Duncan, 2018). This involves a cycle of identifying the problem, gathering and analyzing information, making informed decisions, implementing solutions, and then reviewing and adjusting those solutions based on outcomes (LEADFCS Education, 2018; Rehm, 2018; Duncan, 2018). FCS teachers are more likely to be up-to-date on these topics and skilled in addressing them thoughtfully and effectively (Handy & Turgeson, 2021; Moen et al, 2023). In summary, the specialized training, knowledge, and skills of certified FCS teachers provided by FCS teacher education university programs (Handy & Turgeson, 2021; Bowers & Myers, 2019) make them particularly well-suited to teach FCS courses, ensuring students receive a comprehensive, practical, and relevant education in these vital areas. If certified teachers from other disciplines teach FCS courses, these are the potential risks that can occur without being adequately trained in FCS education: • Lack of Specialized Knowledge: As previously mentioned, FCS covers a broad range of topics, from nutrition and culinary arts to family dynamics and consumer

82 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 economics. A non-specialist may lack the depth of knowledge and skills required to effectively teach these subjects due to the importance of teachers being well-versed in the content areas they teach, which are the most significant determinants of student learning outcomes (Darling-Hammond & Oakes, 2019; Cook, 2020). • Inadequate Teaching Techniques: FCS often employs hands-on, teaching methods to help students engage in learning that integrates theory with practice. Teachers without a background in FCS might not be adept at these methods, which is critical for developing the skills and understanding required for complex problem-solving and application of knowledge (Darling-Hammond & Oakes, 2019; Cook, 2020). • Reduced Course Effectiveness: The effectiveness of FCS courses can be compromised if the teacher lacks the necessary skills and understanding to connect the curriculum with real-life issues affecting individuals, families, and communities (Cook, 2020; Rehm, 2018; Duncan, 2018). • Safety Concerns: In subjects like culinary arts, incorporating improper food safety and sanitation instruction can lead to safety hazards both in the culinary lab and at home (Kovell, 2021). • Diminished Student Engagement: Students may not engage as deeply with the FCS material if the instructor lacks enthusiasm and expertise in the subject matter. Research suggests that the most important determinant of student learning is what their teachers know and can do (Darling-Hammond & Oakes, 2019). Effective teaching involves not only a deep understanding of the subject matter but also the ability to apply this knowledge in ways that engage students and connect with their experiences (Darling-Hammond & Oakes, 2019; Rehm, 2018).

83 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 FCS teachers’ expertise ensures students receive a well-rounded education that prepares them not just academically, but also for the practical aspects of adult life. This is especially important in a modern context where many societal issues require practical knowledge and skills beyond traditional academic subjects. An FCS educator shared her expertise in an interview with one of the authors of this policy brief that supports the difference between a food science course taught by an FCS teacher and a science teacher, “If you’re viewing food science through a science teacher lens, for example, you might focus more on microbiology, chemical reactions, and chemistry. If I’m teaching food science through an FCS lens, my focus would be on the family, nutrition, foodborne illness prevention, and career readiness. I would be looking for ways to include the student who will be living alone in a few months and will need to feed himself, the student who wants children one day or is currently pregnant, the student who plans to go to culinary school, the student who is a picky eater, the student who has never washed a dish before because their parent does it all, the student who is looking to work in food service while they go to college or start paying their own bills. The worldview of an FCS teacher is often different from the worldview of a general education major. There is a place for both, but FCS courses belong with FCS teachers who are highly qualified in that curriculum” (J. Fisher-Hattery, personal communication, November 10, 2023). This holistic perspective of FCS encompasses preparing students for practical life situations, ensuring they are equipped to navigate challenges like independent living, parenting, and pursuing careers in FCS-related industries. A master’s student who developed a thesis on “Reestablishing the Value of FCS in Middle School Curriculum” confirmed this importance by

84 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 stating, “I would argue that the “real world” includes shopping for food and preparing meals, connecting with friends, building healthy relationships, caring for family, not infecting everyone with E. coli because you don’t know how to clean produce, etc. It is ironic, because the push for everyone to be working, to have a career outside the home, is at least partially responsible for the necessity of family and consumer science education” (Wallace, 2020, p. 51). What can be done to eliminate the silent threat of FCS courses being reassigned to other certified or non-certified teachers in secondary schools? The following are three possible solutions to addressing this problem. Possible Solutions Increasing Public and Community Awareness of FCS The primary factor contributing to this problem is the limited public and community awareness of the value and relevance of FCS in secondary schools. A university FCS faculty member shared, “When recruiting prospective students, they do not know what Family and Consumer Sciences means or what professions fall into that category. Other faculty members and departments at the University don’t know it what means or even how to say it” (Harden et al., 2018, p. 24). Another FCS faculty member stated, as it relates to relevance, “I think it is a great discipline but its importance overall is greatly undervalued by most in the academic world. I also feel that many people believe it is old-fashioned and outdated” (Harden et al., 2018, p. 24). To increase the awareness of the value and relevance of FCS in secondary and postsecondary schools, secondary and postsecondary FCS educators should partner with local businesses and community organizations to create projects or events that showcase students’ FCS

85 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 skills, such as what FCCLA provides in their Food Innovations Star Event (https://fcclainc.org/compete/competitive-events/star-events). An example would be students collaborating with the local food bank to help develop nutritious meals with recipes using basic kitchen equipment that food bank participants can recreate in their homes. Being able to create low-cost nutritious meals is fundamental to overall well-being, impacting physical health, mental health, energy levels, and long-term health outcomes, as well as reducing food insecurity in homes. Additionally, secondary and postsecondary FCS educators can establish internship or mentorship programs with local FCS-related businesses, such as restaurants, hotels, banks/financial planning firms, fashion retailers, interior design companies, or family counseling centers, so students can see the impact FCS can have in their local community. Furthermore, secondary and postsecondary FCS educators can host workshops or seminars in collaboration with community experts. Topics could range from nutrition and health to budgeting and family wellness. Lastly, secondary and postsecondary FCS educators can work with local media and community leaders to launch awareness campaigns that highlight the importance of FCS in preparing students for practical life challenges. AAFCS provides a publicity toolkit available at https://www.aafcs.org/aafcs-advocacy/ppt-resources-tools-home/mediatoolkit to help FCS educators clearly and consistently communicate the value of the family and consumer sciences field. By building these community partnerships, the value and relevance of FCS can be more effectively communicated and demonstrated to the public and local communities, as well as the importance of hiring certified FCS teachers by local school district and campus administrators. Developing an FCS Educator Alumni Network to Recruit Potential FCS Educators Another possible solution is developing an FCS educator alumni network and involving former and/or retired FCS educators, which can significantly contribute to recruiting potential

86 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 FCS educators and thereby, reduce the secondary FCS teacher shortage through the following ways: • Mentorship and Inspiration: FCS alumni can serve as mentors and role models, inspiring current students or recent graduates to consider pursuing a career in FCS education. • Networking Opportunities: Alumni networks facilitate connections, which can lead to job opportunities or partnerships for those interested in teaching FCS. • Sharing Experiences and Expertise: Alumni can share their professional experiences, showcasing the diverse career paths possible with an FCS education background, thereby attracting individuals to the field. • Advocacy and Promotion: Well-established alumni can advocate for the importance of FCS in education, helping to raise the profile and perceived value of a career in FCS teaching. Developing a strong and effective FCS educator alumni network offers several benefits that include 1) alumni sharing insights, resources, and best practices, aiding in the continual professional growth of FCS educators; 2) creating opportunities for collaboration on projects, research, and educational initiatives, fostering a sense of community and support; 3) collectively advocating for the importance of funding of FCS programs, increasing the visibility and perceived value of the field; and 4) experienced alumni can mentor new educators, providing guidance, encouragement, and support as they navigate their educational careers. Stronger Collaboration Between Postsecondary FCS Programs and Secondary FCS Programs

87 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 There is also a need to establish a stronger collaboration between postsecondary and secondary FCS programs because it can create a continuous pipeline of new FCS educators (LEADFCS Education, n.d.; Bowers & Myers, 2019; Jones, 2020). Postsecondary programs can be tailored to meet the specific needs of secondary FCS programs, showing potential students the relevance and value of FCS education in the community. Additionally, a strong link between postsecondary and secondary FCS programs can increase the visibility of the discipline (Bowers & Myers, 2019). This visibility can lead to greater advocacy for the importance of having specialized FCS educators in secondary schools, which can influence school administrators. Furthermore, collaboration can lead to shared research and resources between postsecondary and secondary educators. This synergy can enhance the quality of FCS education and provide secondary educators with access to cutting-edge information and teaching methodologies. By fostering a stronger relationship between postsecondary and secondary FCS programs, it can secure the place of FCS in secondary education by ensuring a consistent, high-quality educational pathway, led by appropriately trained and dedicated FCS educators (LEADFCS Education, n.d.; Bowers & Myers, 2019; Jones, 2020). Policy Recommendations The first policy recommendation for ensuring school districts hire certified FCS teachers would be for the Texas legislature to subsidize access to high-quality teacher preparation programs by providing financial support through service scholarships and loan forgiveness for aspiring FCS teachers, who in return, commit to serving within the profession (Bland et al., 2023). Such initiatives can make a career in FCS teaching more accessible, encourage prospective FCS educators to pursue high-quality training paths, and expand the FCS teacher candidate pool in both size and diversity (Bland et al., 2023). Additionally, these programs can

88 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 be structured to attract FCS teachers to underserved areas and high-demand subjects (Bland et al., 2023). Furthermore, ensuring non-certified or alternatively-certified teachers have an FCS teacher certification helps maintain the integrity of the FCS curriculum, preventing dilution or misinterpretation of the content by non-specialists. Lastly, certified FCS teachers are more likely to effectively engage students and provide relevant, hands-on learning experiences, leading to better education and community outcomes in these courses. An alternative policy recommendation for professionals from FCS-related industries without formal teaching certification is to introduce a pathway that recognizes relevant industry experience combined with a tailored FCS education apprenticeship program (Bland, et al., 2023). Teacher education initiatives in Texas are starting to tap into federal apprenticeship resources to bolster hands-on training for teacher candidates. The state can enhance this effort by designating a portion of its discretionary funds for such purposes and by sharing and promoting the frameworks of local programs that have proven successful (Bland, et al., 2023). This program would provide necessary pedagogical training and a bridge to full FCS teacher certification. This recommendation taps into the rich experience and practical knowledge of FCS-related industry professionals and seasoned FCS educators enhancing the quality and relevance of FCS education, as well as possibly increasing FCS teacher retention. It also provides a solution to the shortage of certified FCS teachers by creating an alternative route for qualified individuals to enter the teaching field. Furthermore, providing an apprenticeship pathway for industry professionals into FCS education reduces the likelihood of these courses being reassigned to teachers certified in other curriculum areas, thus maintaining the specialized nature of FCS instruction.

89 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Conclusion Given the critical importance of FCS in secondary education—a significance magnified in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic—it is imperative to address the current shortfall in qualified FCS teachers. The pandemic has underscored the essential nature of FCS education in fostering practical life skills such as meal preparation, financial management, and household responsibilities, which are indispensable for students as they navigate the complexities of today's world. Moreover, FCS education plays a pivotal role in the holistic development of students, equipping them with the skills necessary for personal and social success beyond the academic realm. However, the decline in FCS programming due to a shortage of qualified teachers poses a threat to the continuation of this vital education. In Texas, the flexibility afforded by the District of Innovation (DOI) law, while intended to meet diverse educational needs, has inadvertently contributed to this challenge by allowing districts to employ non-certified teachers for FCS courses. This situation risks diluting the quality of FCS education and deprives students of the comprehensive, specialized knowledge that certified FCS educators can provide. To counteract this threat, it's imperative to implement strategic measures. Increasing public and community awareness of the value and relevance of FCS is crucial. Collaborations between secondary and postsecondary FCS programs and the development of a robust FCS educator alumni network are key strategies in this regard. These initiatives not only help in recruiting and preparing a new generation of dedicated FCS educators but also elevate the status and perceived importance of FCS in the academic and broader community. Policy recommendations to subsidize teacher preparation and establish a structured apprenticeship pathway for professionals from FCS-related fields are essential steps. These

90 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 policies ensure that educators possess the requisite expertise and training, thereby maintaining the integrity of FCS education. They also provide a solution to the shortage of certified FCS teachers, while ensuring the continued delivery of high-quality, relevant FCS education that is adjusted to the contemporary needs of students and society. In conclusion, the preservation and enhancement of FCS education requires a multifaceted approach. By taking these steps, we can safeguard and enhance the role of FCS education in addressing the multifaceted challenges of our time. These steps are not just investments in education but are fundamental to preparing future generations for the complexities of modern life and contributing to the betterment of individuals, families, and communities. References American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences (AAFCS). (2024). What is FCS? https://aafcs.org/about/about-us/what-is-fcs Bland, J. A., Wojcikiewicz, S., Darling-Hammond, L., & Wei, W. (2023). Strengthening pathways into the teaching profession in Texas: Challenges and opportunities. Learning Policy Institute Report. https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/pathways-intoteaching-profession-texas-report Bowers, J. & Myers, L. A. (2019). A national collaborative approach to recruit, prepare, and support family and consumer sciences educators. Family & Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 48(2), 131-137. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12339 Cook, S. K. (2020). Understanding one’s own teaching experiences: New family and consumer sciences teachers reflect on their first-year of teaching through video-recorded classroom observations and interviews. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Arkansas]. Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/3653 Cornell University. (n.d.). What is home economics? HEARTH—Home Economics Archive: Research, Tradition, History. https://digital.library.cornell.edu/collections/hearth/about Darling-Hammond, L. & Oakes, J. (2019). Preparing teachers for deeper learning. Harvard Education Press. Duncan, J. (2018). Chapter 4: Critical science curriculum evaluation: First steps to planning an effective family & consumer sciences curriculum. In K.L. Alexander & A. Holland (Eds.), Teaching Family and Consumer Sciences in the 21st Century (3rd ed., pp. 1-16). The Curriculum Center for Family and Consumer Sciences. Family, Career and Community Leaders of America (FCCLA). (2019). Say yes to FCS. https://fcclainc.org/engage/say-yes-fcs

91 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Garcia, E. & Weiss, E. (2020). COVID-19 and student performance, equity, and U.S. education policy. Economic Policy Institute. https://www.epi.org/publication/the-consequences-ofthe-covid-19-pandemic-for-education-performance-and-equity-in-the-united-states-whatcan-we-learn-from-pre-pandemic-research-to-inform-relief-recovery-and-rebuilding/ Handy, D. & Turgeson, S. (2021). Focusing for the future—revising the national standards for teachers of family and consumer sciences. Family & Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 49(3), 205-216. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12387 Harden, A. J., Hall, S. S., & Pucciarelli, D. L. (2018). US FCS professionals’ perceptions of the current and future direction of family and consumer sciences as a discipline. International Journal of Home Economics, 11, 18. https://www.ifhe.org/fileadmin/user_upload/e_Journal/IJHE_Volume_11_Issue_1_2018.p df Jones, M. (2020). Determining the Success of Say Yes to FCS as a family and consumer sciences marketing and recruitment tool . . . is it working? [Doctoral dissertation, Texas Tech University]. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. https://hdl.handle.net/2346/86667 Kovell, H. (2021). Incorporating proper food safety and sanitation into middle schools through family and consumer science classes. [Research paper, Johnson & Wales University] Hospitality Graduate Student Scholarship. https://scholarsarchive.jwu.edu/hosp_graduate/20 LEADFCS Education. (2018). National standards for family and consumer sciences reasoning for action standards and process questions. http://www.leadfcsed.org/uploads/1/8/3/9/18396981/process_framework_overview.pdf LEADFCS Education. (n.d.). Say yes to FCS campaign. https://www.leadfcsed.org/say-yes-tofcs.html Moen, D., Olson, M., Engelstad, K., & Conlon, J. (2023). Family and consumer sciences teachers: The practice of compassion and support. Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences, 115(2), 49-52. https://doi.org/10.14307/JFCS115.2.49 Palombit, R. A. (2019). A framework for leveraging family & consumer sciences in CTE. Techniques. Association for Career & Technical Education Association. https://www.leadfcsed.org/uploads/1/8/3/9/18396981/april19_techmagazine_palombit.pdf Poirier, S., Remsen, M. A., & Sager, M. (2017). Teaching and learning in family and consumer sciences education: Thriving in challenging times. International Journal of Home Economics, 10(2), 17-29. Rehm, M. (2018). Chapter 3: The critical science approach: Perennial problems, practical reasoning, and developing critical thinking skills. In K. L. Alexander & A. Holland (Eds.), Teaching Family and Consumer Sciences in the 21st Century (3rd ed., pp. 1-19). The Curriculum Center for Family and Consumer Sciences. Smith, C. W. (2022). Factors predicting family and consumer sciences teachers’ level of selfefficacy in STEM education [Doctoral dissertation, Old Dominion University]. STEM Education and Professional Studies. https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/stemps_etds/133 Southern Regional Education Board (SREB). (2022). Teacher workforce data by state. https://www.sreb.org/teacher-workforce-datasnapshots#:~:text=Department%20of%20Education%2C%20Teacher%20Shortage%20A rea%20report&text=One%20in%20three%20teachers%20in%20the%20SREB%20region %20are%20inexperienced%2C%20teaching%20out%2Dof%2Dfield%20or

92 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Texas Classroom Teachers Association. (2017). Districts of innovation complicate legal matters for Texas teachers. https://www.tcta.org/districts-of-innovation-complicate-legal-mattersfor-texas-teachers Texas Education Agency. (2023a). Districts of innovation. https://tea.texas.gov/texasschools/district-initiatives/districts-ofinnovation#:~:text=H,adoption%20as%20outlined%20in%20Statute Texas Education Agency. (2023b). Teacher shortage areas 2023-2024. https://tea.texas.gov/texas-educators/educator-initiatives-and-performance/teachershortage-areas-2023-2024 Texas Education Agency. (2023c). Family and consumer sciences standards. https://tea.texas.gov/system/files/8-12fcs_0.pdf Texas Education Agency. (2022). Employed teacher attrition and new hires 2-7-2008 through 2021-22. https://tea.texas.gov/reports-and-data/employed-teacher-attrition-and-new-hiresjbl220825.pdf U.S. Department of Agriculture—National Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDA-NIFA). (n.d.). Family & consumer sciences. https://www.nifa.usda.gov/family-consumersciences-education Wallace, C. (2020). Re-establishing the value of family and consumer science in the general middle school curriculum. West Chester University Master’s Theses. 182. https://digitalcommons.wcupa.edu/all_theses/182 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Article Citation Champagne, M., & Miller, C. L. (2023). Policy brief: The silent threat of reassigned FCS courses. TAFCS Research Journal, 10(1), 78-92.

93 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Preparation for Careers with Young Children: An Exploratory Case Study with High School Students in Child Development Courses Bethany N. Ringer, M.S. Montana State University Nicole C. Wanago, Ph.D. Montana State University Kalli Decker, Ph.D. Montana State University J. Mitchell Vaterlaus, Ph.D., LMFT, CFLE Montana State University Abstract Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) Child Development courses are designed to increase student knowledge of how children develop while preparing them for future job opportunities in Early Childhood Education (ECE). This exploratory case study recruited high school students (n=9) to complete beginning and end of semester surveys related to a FCS Child Development course in which they were enrolled. Two themes were identified: (a) increase in knowledge about children, and (b) clarity regarding career relevance. Implications for FCS education and future research are discussed. Keywords: Family and consumer sciences, child development, career and technical education, early childhood education, high school Preparation for Careers with Young Children: An Exploratory Case Study with High School Students in Child Development Courses In the United States in 2022, it was estimated that over fourteen million children (68%) under the age of six had both available parents in the labor force (The Annie E Casey

94 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 Foundation, 2023). According to the United States Department of Labor (2022), there were 945,900 childcare jobs available nationwide, with the typical entry-level education required being a high school diploma. Taken together, this indicates a pressing need to prepare and encourage high school students to explore careers in Early Childhood Education (ECE). This exploratory study focused on high school students' child development knowledge and career interests in ECE before and after completing a Child Development course. Role of Child Development Courses High school FCS Child Development courses provide an opportunity to support students' skills associated with understanding and working with children using developmentally supportive interactions (American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences [AAFCS], 2021). In addition, FCS Child Development courses can provide realistic expectations for potential careers in ECE, which has been shown to limit frustration and increase positive job attitudes (Yang et al., 2018). Education and training opportunities influence individuals’ decisions about applying for and remaining in ECE; this is important given the high turnover rates (26% - 40%) that exist within the field of ECE (Totenhagen et al., 2016). Quality ECE programs reflect the Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) Body of Knowledge, which considers the interrelationships between families and communities as they work to meet the basic human needs of young children while providing a foundation for them to develop into capable and responsible citizens (Nickols et al., 2009). Integrated Learning Theory Integrated Learning Theory focuses on students’ ability to intentionally integrate course content across context and over time with real-world experiences (Huber & Hutchings, 2004). FCS is an action-oriented discipline that focuses on applying the content and skills fostered

95 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 within coursework to address the ongoing concerns of families and communities (Laster & Johnson, 2001). Integrated Learning Theory provides a model for FCS educators to evaluate the real-world impact of Child Development course content and pedagogy focused on developing a learner’s ability to make ethical judgments when building an Early Childhood Education workforce and enhancing family well-being. Purpose of the Current Study Little is known about how high school FCS Child Development courses impact students' knowledge of child development or attitudes toward pursuing ECE careers. Findings from a nationwide study of college students include specific student characteristics that predict students' knowledge of child development (Brophy-Herb et al., 2019; Lippard et al., 2019; Virmani et al., 2020) and/or their interest in working with young children (Peterson et al., 2016; Vallotton et al., 2016). However, there are no studies that focus on high school-aged students. The purpose of this exploratory case study was to understand how and why high school FCS Child Development courses influence students' knowledge of child development and their attitudes towards working in ECE. Methods Participants A total of nine students participated; all participants identified as White and female. Ages ranged from 15 to 18 (m age = 15.89, sd = 0.93). There were five sophomores, three juniors, and one senior. Most (n=5) lived in two-parent households and had parents/guardians (n=7) who had earned a degree beyond high school. Procedures This study was approved by a university Institutional Review Board and local school

96 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 district in which sixteen-week Child Development courses were taught with integrated course content focused on the following FCS National Standards Areas of Study: #4: Education & Early Childhood, #6: Family, #12: Human Development, and #15: Parenting (National Association of State Administrators of Family and Consumer Sciences [NASAFACS], 2018). The data was collected in Montana, a state which has a demonstrated need for additional ECE professionals given that only 44% of children needing care outside home can be served by current ECE centers (Smith, 2019). This study utilized a convenience sample of sophomore through senior age students who were enrolled in FCS Child Development classes at two high schools during Fall 2020, Spring 2021, and Fall 2021 semesters. A total of 72 students aged 15-18 were invited to participate in the study, which included an online beginning and end of semester 20-minute Qualtrics (www.qualtrics.com) survey distributed to students with parental (under age 18) or personal consent. Per school district research requirements, Child Development instructors were not allowed to incentivize participation. Measures The beginning of semester survey included questions about participants’ demographics (i.e., age, race, class standing, family structure, parental educational attainment). Participants were also asked about their experience working/volunteering with children— Have you ever worked or volunteered in the following roles or settings? Mark all that apply. Response options included areas like babysitting/nannying, childcare (home- and center-based), public schools (classroom, before/after/summer programming), no experience, and other settings (open-ended response included). They also reported the length of time they spent in these efforts (i.e., Likert scale from less than six months to over 5 years) and ages of children they worked with (i.e., ages

97 TAFCS Research Journal 10(1), 2023 ranged from newborns to high school). Measures used to understand students’ knowledge of child development and interest in working with children are described below. Knowledge of Child Development MacPhee’s (1981) Knowledge of Infant Development Inventory (KIDI) was used as it is the most widely used standardized measure for investigating individuals’ knowledge of child development (Bornstein et al., 2010). The current study included 38 KIDI questions (i.e., 17 validated/used in Early Head Start Research and Evaluation (EHSRE) study [Kopack, et al. 2016] and the remaining aligned with NASAFACS [2018] national standards). Questions assessed student knowledge of typically developing infant and toddler physical, emotional, social, and cognitive development. Responses were scored as correct (1 point) or incorrect or “not sure” (0 points) based on participants’ indication of if they agreed, disagreed, or were not sure about the accuracy of each statement. Each participant’s scores were summed (scores could range from 0-38); higher scores on this measure indicate a more accurate knowledge of typical infant and toddler development while proficiency was identified as earning a 62% or higher as determined by standardization of scores based on professional and practical experience with children (MacPhee, 1981). Interest in Working with Children Open-ended questions were used to gather information about participants’ interest in working with children (i.e., “What are your thoughts about wanting or not wanting to work with children?” [asked beginning and end of semester]; “Do you feel that your interest in working with children has changed over the course of the semester? If so, why? If not, why not?” [asked end of semester]). A Likert scale (1- no desire to 5- strong desire) was also used to gather information about participants’ interest in working with specific groups of children (newborns,