190 Notes to Pages 62-66 trick, "Cognitive Theory and the SMSE Program," in Richard E. Ripple and Verne N. Rockcastle (eds.), Piaget Rediscovered (Ithaca, N.Y.: School of Education, Cornell University, 1964), pp. 129-30. 11. For an example ofthis case see J. Berko and R. Brown, "Psycholinguistic Research Methods," in P.H. Mussen (ed.), Handbook of Research Methods in Child Development (New York: Wiley, 1960), pp. 517-57. See also A.R. Luria and F. la Indovich, Speech and 'the Development of Mental Process in the Child (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1971); Susan Isaacs, Intel1ectual Growth in Young Children (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1930); Margaret Donaldson, Children's Minds (London: Croom Helm, 1978), chI 6. 12. Piaget, The Child and Reality, p. 2. 13. Jean Piaget, "Piaget's Theory," in P.H. Mussen (ed.), Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology, vol. 1 (New York: Wiley, 1970), p. 716. 14. Jean Piaget, Biology and Knowledge, trans. Beatrix Walsh (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), pp. 312-13. 15. Jean Piaget, "A Conversation with Jean Piaget," Psychology Today, vol. 3, no. 12 (1970), p. 30. 16. Piaget, "Piaget's Theory," p. 716. 17. Jean Piaget, "Need and Significance of Cross-Cultural Studies in Genetic Psychology," in D. Inhelder and H.H. Chipman (eds.), Piaget and His School (New York: Springer Verlag, 1976), p. 260. 18. See, for example, P.R. Ammon, "Cognitive Development and Early Childhood Education," in H.L. Homs and P.A. Robinson (eds.), Psychological Processes in Early Education (New York: Academic Presst 1977); C.}. Brainerd, "Learning Research and Piagetian Theory," in L.S. Siegel and C.J. Brainerd (eds.), Alternatives to Piaget: Critical Essays on the Theory (New York: Academic Press, 1978); G. Brown and C. Desforges, Piaget's Theory: A Psychological Critique (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979); D.W. Hamlyn, Experience and the Growth of Understanding (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978); D.C. Phillips and M.E. Kelly, "Hierarchical Theories of Development in Education and Psychology," Harvard Educational Review, vol. 45, no. 3 (1975), pp. 351-75; and Jean Piaget, Psychology and Epistemology, trans. Arnold Rosin (New York: Grossman, 1971). 19. P.R. Dasen, "Cross-cultural Piagetian Research: A Summary," Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, vol. 3 (1972), pp. 23-39. 20. M. Cole, "An Ethnographic Psychology of Cognition," in R.W. Brislin at al. (eds.), Cross Cultural Perspectives in Learning (New York: Sage, 1975). 21. See, for example, S. Boonsong, "The Development of Conservation of Mass, Weight, and Volume in Thai Children," master's thesis, College of Education, Bangkok, Thailand, 1968 (cited in P.T. Ashton, "Crosscultural Piagetian Research: An Experimental Perspective," Harvard Educational Review, vol. 45 [1975], pp. 475-506); M. Bovet, "Cross-
Notes to Pages 66-70 191 cultural Study of Conservation Concepts: Continuous Quantity and Length," in B. Inhelder, H. Sinclair, and M. Bovet (eds.), Learning and the Development of Cognition, trans. Susan Wedgwood (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); M.M. de Lemos, "The Development of Conservation in Aboriginal Children," International Journal of Psychology, vol. 4 (1969), pp. 255-69; P.R. Dasen, "Cognitive Development of Aborigines in Central Australia: Concrete Operations and Perceptual Activities," doctoral dissertation, Australian National University, Canberra, 1970 (cited in Brown and Desforges, Piaget's Theory); D.M. Hyde, "An Investigation of Piaget's Theory of the Development of Number," doctoral dissertation, University of London, 1959 (cited in Ashton, "Cross-cultural Piagetian Research"). 22. Ashton, "Cross-cultural Piagetian Research," p. 478. See also J.J. Goodnow, "Cultural Variations in Cognitive Skills," in D.R. Price-Williams (ed.), Cross-Cultural Studies (Harmonsworth: Penguin, 1969); S. Modgil, Piagetian Research: A Handbook of Recent Studies (Slough, England: National Foundation of Educational Research, 1974); S. Modgil and C. Modgil, Piagetian Research: Compilation and Commentary (Slough, England: National Foundation of Educational Research, 1976). 23. E.g., Jean Piaget and B. Inhelder, Le Developpement des Quantites chez 1'enfant (Neuchatel and Paris: Delachaux et Niestle, 1941). 24. Inhelder, Sinclair, and Bovet (eds.), Learning and the Development of Cognition, p. 246. 25. For example, David Elkind, "Children's Discovery of Conservation of Mass, Weight, and Volume: Piaget Replication Study II," Journal of Genetic Psychology, vol. 98 (1961), pp. 219-27. 26. Jean Piaget and B. Inhelder, The Child's Conception of Space (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1956), p. 220. 27. Donaldson, Children's Minds. 28. Inhelder, Sinclair, and Bovet, Learning and the Development of Cognition. 29. Jean Piaget, "Intellectual Evolution from Adolescence to Adulthood," Human Development, vol. 15 (1972), pp. 1-12. 30. P.C. Wason and P.N. Johnson-Laird, Psychology of Reasoning: Structure and Content (London: Batsford, 1972). 31. Goodnow, "Cultural Variations in Cognitive Skills," p. 250. 32. J.G. Wallace, "The Course of Cognitive Growth," in V.P. Varna and P. Williams (eds.), Piaget, Psychology and Education (London: Hodder and Staughton, 1976), p. 16. 33. Brown and Desforges, Piaget's Theory, p. 106. 34. Jan Smedslund, "Piaget's Psychology in Practice," British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 47 (1977), pp. 1-6. 35. See, for example, Brown and Desforges, Piaget's Theory; J.H. Flavell, The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget (Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1963); Isaacs, Intellectual Growth in Young Children; and
192 Notes to Pages 71-79 L. Vygotsky, Thought and Language (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1962). 36. Smedslund, "Piaget's Psychology in Practice," pp. 3-4. 37. Jean Piaget, "Problems of Equilibration," in C. Nodine, J. Gallagher, and R. Humphrey (eds.), Piaget and Inhelder on Equilibration (Philadelphia: Jean Piaget Society, 1972), p. 14. 38. B. Inhelder and J. Piaget, The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence (New York: Basic Books, 1958). 39. Jean Piaget, Biology and Knowledge, p. 181. 40. B. Inhelder and H. Sinclair, "Learning Cognitive Structures," in P.H. Mussen, J. Langer, and M. Covington (eds.), Trends and Issues in Developmental Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969), p.5. 41. T.E. Moore and A.E. Harris, "Language and Thought in Piagetian Theory," in Siegal and Brainerd (eds.), Alternatives to Piaget, pp. 149-50. 42. M. Donaldson, Children's Minds, p. 69. 43. For e~ample, A.R. Luria, "The Directive Function of Speech in Development and Dissolution," Word, vol. 15 (1959), pp. 341-52; and A.R. Luria, Cognitive Development: Its Cultural and Social Foundations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976). 44. S.A. Rose and M. Blank, "The Potency of Context in Children's Cognition: An Illustration Through Conservation," Child Development, vol. 45 (1974), p. 502. 45. L. Vygotsky, Thought and Language. 46. Piaget, "Piaget's Theory," p. 714. 47. Piaget, Biology and Knowledge, p. 316. 48. Inhelder, Sinclair, and Bovet, Learning and the Development of Cognition, p. 28. 49. See, for example, D.W. Brison, "Acceleration of Conservation of Substance," Journal of Genetic Psychology, vol. 109 (1966), pp. 311-22; G.E. Gruen, "Note on Conservation: Methodological and Definitional Considerations," Child Development, vol. 37 (1966), pp. 977-83; R. Kingsley and V.C. Hall, "Training Conservation of Weight and Length Through Learning Sets," Child Development, vol. 38 (1967), pp. 1111- 26; L. Wallach and R.L. Sprott, "Inducing Number Conservation in Children," Child Development, vol. 35 (1964), pp. 1057-71; and L. Wallach, A.}. Wall, and L. Anderson, "NumberConservation: The Roles of Reversibility, Addition/Subtraction, and Misleading Perceptual Cues," Child Development, vol. 38 (1967), pp. 425-42. 50. Inhelder, Sinclair, and Bovet, Learning and the Development of Cognition, p. 19. 51. Ibid., p. 24. 52. Piaget, "Piaget's Theory," p. 716. 53. Inhelder, Sinclair, and Bovet, Learning and the Development of Cognition, p. 25.
Notes to Pages 79-81 193 54. Ibid., p. 25. 55. Ibid., p. 25. 56. For more extensive reviews of this literature, see H. Beilin, "The Training and Acquisition of Logical Operations," in M.F. Rosskopf, L.P. Steffe, and S. Taback (eds.), Piagetian Cognitive Developmental Research and Mathematical Education (Washington: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1971); C.]. Brainerd, "Neo-Piagetian Training Experiments Revisited: Is There any Support for the Cognitive-Developmental Stage Hypothesis?" Cognition, vol. 2 (1973), pp. 349-70; C.]. Brainerd, "Cognitive Development and Concept Learning: An Interpretive Review," Psychological Bulletin, vol. 84 (1977), pp. 919-39; C.]. Brainerd, "Learning Research and Piagetian Theory," in Siegal and Brainerd, (eds.) Alternatives to Piaget; R. Glaser and L.B. Resnick, "Instructional Psychology," Annual Review ofPsychology, vol. 23 (1972), pp. 207-76; and B.]. Zimmerman and T.L. Rosenthal, "Observational Learning of Rule-Governed Behavior of Children," Psychological Bulletin, vol. 81 (1974), pp. 29-42. 57. Inhelder, Sinclair, and Bovet, Learning and the Development of Cognition, p. 49. 58. ].L. Sheppard, "Compensation and Combinatorial Systems in the Acquisition and Generalization of Conservation," Child Development, vol. 45 (1974), pp. 717-30. 59. R. Gelman, "Conservation Acquisition: A Problem of Learning to Attend to Relevant Attributes," Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, vol. 7 (1969), pp. 167-87. 60. F.B. Murray, "Acquisition of Conservation Through Social Interaction," Developmental Psychology, vol. 6 (1972), pp. 1-6. 61. ].A. Emrick, "The Acquisition and Transfer of Conservation Skills by Four-year-old Children," doctoral dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1968 (cited in Brainerd, "Learning Research and Piagetian Theory.") 62. ]. Smedslund, "The Acquisition of Conservation of Substance and Weight in Children. II. External Reinforcement of Conservation of Weight and Operations of Addition and Subtraction," Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, vol. 2 (1961), pp. 71-84; "The Acquisition of Conservation of Substance and Weight in Children. III. Extinction of Conservation of Weight Acquired 'normally' and by Means of Empirical Controls on a Balance Scale," Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, vol. 2 (1961), pp. 85-87; "The Acquisition of Conservation of Substance and Weight in Children. IV. An Attempt at Extinction of the Visual Components of the Weight Concept," Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, vol. 2 (1961). 63. G. Hatano, "A Developmental Approach to Concept Formation: A Review of Neo-Piagetian Learning Experiments," Kokkyo University Bulletin of Liberal Arts and Education, vol. 5 (1971), pp. 59-76.
194 Notes to Pages 81-90 64. G. Hatano and Y. Suga, "Equilibration and External Reinforcement in the Acquisition of Number Conservation," Japanese Psychological Re... search, vol. 11 (1969), pp. 17-31. 65. J.F. Wohlwill, "Un essai d'apprentissage dans Ie domaine de la CODservation du Dombre," Etudes d'Epistemologie Genetique, vol. 9 (1959), pp. 125-35; J.F. Wohlwill and R.C. Lowe, "An Experimental Analysis of the Conservation of Number," Child Development, vol. 33 (1962), pp. 153-67. 66. A. Karmiloff-Smith, "On Stage: The Importance of Being a Non-conserver," p. 159. Commentary on C.J. Brainerd's "The Stage Question in Cognitive-Developmental Theory," The Behavioral and Brain Sci... ences, vol. 2 (1978), pp. 188-90. 67. Ibid., p. 189. 68. Ibid., p. 190. 69. T. Trabasso, "Representation, Memory, and Reasoning: How Do We Make Transitive Inferences?" in A.D. Pick (ed.), Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology, vol. 9 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1975). 70. P. Tulviste, "On the Origins of Theoretic Syllogistic Reasoning in CuI... ture and the Child." The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, vol. 1, no. 4 (1979), pp. 73-80. 71. E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960). 72. Piaget, The Child and Reality, p. 30. 73. Jean Piaget, Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child, trans. Derek Coltman (New York: Orfon Press, 1970), p. 51. See also Jean Piaget, To Understand Is to Invent: The Future ofEducation, trans. George-Anne Roberts (New York: Grossman, 1973). 74. Jean Piaget, Foreword to Piaget in the Classroom, Milton Schwebel and Jane Raph (eds.) (New York: Basic Books, 1973), p. x. Some might see it as ironic that this absolute assertion follows Piagel's endorsement of the principles that "the field of experimental pedagogy must remain autonomous" and that "all hypotheses derived from psychology must be verified, through actual classroom practices and educational results, rather than merely based on simple deduction" (p. ix). 75. Piaget, "A Conversation with Jean Piaget," p. 30. 76. John Dewey, Experience and Education (1938; New York: Collier Books, reprint, 1963), pp. 62, 63. 77. Schwebel and Raph (eds.), Piaget in the Classroom, p. 14. 78. Ibid. 79. Jean Piaget, The Mechanisms of Perception (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969), p. 364. 80. See Brainerd's review of these experiments in "Learning Research and Piagetian Theory." 81. See B.J. Zimmerman and T.L. Rosenthal, "Conserving and Retaining
Notes to Pages 90-95 195 Equalities and Inequalities Through Observation and Correction," Developmental Psychology, vol. 10 (1974), pp. 369-78. 82. G.T. Botvin and F.B. Murray, "The Efficacy of Peer Modeling and Social Conflict in the Acquisition of Conservation," Child Development, vol. 46 (1975), pp. 796-99. 83. P. Gal'perin, in Brian Simon (ed.), Psychology in the Soviet Union (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1957), p. 217. 84. A.A. Williams, "Number Readiness," Educational Review, val. 11, no. 1 (1958). 85. Marilynne Adler, "Jean Piaget, School Organization, and Instruction," in Irene J. Athey and Duane O. Rubadeau (eds.), Educationallmplications of Piaget's Theory (Waltham, Mass.: Xerox, 1970), p. 12. But see Scott A. Miller, "Candy Is Dandy and Also Quicker: A Further Nonverbal Study of Conservation of Number," The Journal of Genetic Psychology, vol. 134 (1979), pp. 15-21. 86. See Brainerd, "Neo-Piagetian Training Experiments Revisited." 87. Ibid. 88. Inhelder, Sinclair, and Bovet (eds.), Learning and the Development of Cognition. 89. Ibid., p. 25. 90. Ibid., p. 26. 91. Athey and Rubadeau (eds.), Educational Implications of Piaget's Theory, p. xviii. 92. Schwebel and Raph (eds.), in Piaget in the Classroom, p. 290. 93. Deanna Kuhn, "The Application of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development to Education," Harvard Educational Review, vol. 49, no. 3 (1979). 94. Constance Kamii, in Schwebel and Raph (eds.), Piaget in the Classroom, p. 204. 95. Schwebel and Raph (eds.), Piaget in the Classroom, p. 22. 96. Ibid., p. 280. 97. Hermina Sinclair, in Schwebel and Raph (eds.), Piaget in the Classroom, p. 42. 98. John W. Renner, "What This Research Says to Schools," in John W. Renner, et a1. (eds.), Research, Teaching, and Learning with the Piaget Model (Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), p. 176. 99. Hans Aebli, Didactique psychologique: application a la didactique de 1a psych010gie de Jean Piaget (NeuchAtel: Delachaux et Niestle, 1951), p. 60. Quoted in John H. Flavell, The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget, p. 369. 100. Eleanor Duckworth, "Piaget Rediscovered," in Ripple and Rockcastle (eds.), Piaget Rediscovered, p. 2. 101. Hans G. Furth, quoted in Schwebel and Raph (eds.), Piaget in the Classroom, p. 281.
196 Notes to Pages 95-99 102. Constance Kamii, in Schwebel and Raph (eds.), Piaget in the Classroom, p. 203. 103. A rather tautological way of stating the first half of this advice: "No learning occurs when the subjects are too young for there to be a possibility of extending the zone of assimilations to the new factors introduced" (Jean Piaget, Foreword to Inhelder, Sinclair, and Bovet, Learning and the Development of Cognition). Or, as Marilynne Adler summed up the results of E. Turiel's doctoral dissertation, "An Experimental Analysis of Developmental Stages in the Child's Moral Judgment" (Yale University, 1964): "This study strongly implies that educative efforts are likeliest to lead the child to accommodate his mental structure when they are just far enough ahead of him to induce a moderate degree of mental discrepancy, but not so far ahead as to be beyond his range of understanding." Marilynne Adler, in Athey and Rubadeau (eds.), Educational Implications of Piaget's Theory, p. 9. 104. Marilynne Adler, in Athey and Rubadeau, Educational Implications of Piaget's Theory, p. 10. 105. D.H. Crawford, "The Work of Piaget as It Relates to School Mathematics," Alberta Journal of Educational Research, vol. 6 (1960), pp. 133-34. 106. 1should perhaps give greater stress to how far Piaget's theory is primarily influential on curriculum design and teaching in a restrictive way. Exemplary is the following quotation from John W. Renner, "What This Research Says to Schools" in Renner et a1. (eds.), Research, Teaching, and Learning with the Piaget Model, p. 184: '~The acceptance of the Piagetian levels concepts by the teacher can have a profound effect on the learner. To accept the Piagetian concept, we must accept his learning model, as well as his intellectual-development model. ... The acceptance of the latter gives the teacher an entirely new set of expectations with respect to what a learner can do. As one teacher told us about a second-grade child, 'I always thought that child was lazy and that that was why he did not learn to subtract. Now that I know he cannot reverse his thinking, I no longer feel he doesn't want to learn to subtract, I know he can't.' " The new set of expectations, it should be pointed out, are not about what children can do, on the whole, rather they are about what children supposedly cannot do. It perhaps does not ,need pointing out that laziness and lack of reversibility in thinking do not exhaust the range of possibilities why a particular second-grade child does not learn to subtract. 107. Marilynne Adler, in Athey and Rubadeau, Educational Implications of Piaget's Theory, p. 10. 108. To refer to only one of many studies, if Ragan J. Callaway, Jr., is right in his claims about, for example, the critical or sensitive period for
Notes to Pages 99-100 197 learning to read (see his Modes of Biological Adaptation and Their Role in Intellectual Development, Perceptual Cognitive Development Monographs, vol. 1, no. 1, The Galton Institute, 1970), then Marilynne Adler's suggestion, if implemented, could lead to an educational disaster. 109. See, for example, John W. Renner, in Renner et a1. (eds.), Research, Teaching, and Learning with the Piaget Model, ch. 1. He asks what is the purpose of the kind of "educational institution" he is advocating, and answers, "to lead children toward intellectual development" (p. 4). And how will one know that this goal of education has been achieved? "A way of determining the progress that has been made is represented by the intellectual-development model of Piaget" (p. 6). See also Hans G. Furth, Piaget for Teachers (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970), p. ix: "I suggest that the spontaneously growing intelligence of the child should be the focus of grade-school activities and that all else should be subordinated to this priority." 110. John W. Renner, in Renner et a1. (eds.), Research, Teaching, and Learning with the Piaget Model, ch. 10, advocates "acceptance by schools of the responsibility for the intellectual development of students, rather than assuming it exists and teaching accordingly" (p. 188). The former seems to be what Piaget has characterized as "completely useless," and the latter he seems to claim is precisely what must be done. 111. I have perhaps not brought out well enough the analogous confusion and ambiguity that Piaget's claims contribute to teaching methods. On the same page, for example, Furth and Wachs tell us that the teacher's task is to design activities that "are developmentally appropriate so as to challenge the child's thinking but not too difficult so as to invite failure," and also that "Each child must be left alone to work within the structure at his own level, at his own rate, and in his personal style." H.G. Furth and H. Wachs, Thinking Goes to School: Piagetian Theory in Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), p. 45. 112. H. Aebli, quoted in Edmund V. Sullivan, Piaget and the School Curriculum (Ontario: The Ontario.Institute for Studies in Education, Bulletin No.2, 1967), p. 23. 113. Piaget and Inhelder, The Child's Conception of Space. 114. "Piaget's evidence that the child of nine or ten can handle many of the basic concepts of Euclidean spatial representation and measurement is mirrored in SMSG's [School Mathematics Study Group] placement of such topics in the elementary curriculum." Jeremy Kilpatrick, "Cognitive Theory and the SMSG Program," in Ripple and Rockcastle (eds.), Piaget Rediscovered, p. 130. 115. Sullivan, Piaget and the School Curriculum, p. 20. Sullivan's analysis
198 Notes to Pages 101-120 of particular Piagetians' claims shows the "considerable amount of vagueness in interpretation" (p. 21) that follows a close look at attempts to move from Piaget's theory to recommendations for a mathematics curriculum. 116. L.S. Vygotsky, CCInteraction Between Learning and Development" (1935), in L.S. Vygotsky, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), p. 85. 117. Ibid., pp. 86, 88. 118. Ibid., p. 89. 119. One occasionally sees in Piagetian literature the claim that it is best to keep a little way ahead of the child's achieved level of development so that some motivating accommodation is activated. This brings us to a fundamental problem with the Piagetian assimilation/accommodation model, a problem raised in D.W. Hamlyn, "The Logical and Psychological Aspects of Learning," in R.S. Peters (ed.), The Concept of Education (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967), pp. 24-43. It seems to me that Piaget's theory has great difficulty accommodating to this common-sense observation that one should aim teaching somewhat ahead of a child's achieved level of development. 120. Vygotsky, Mind in Society, p. 90. 121. Hanne Sonquist, Constance Kamii, Louise Derman, in Athey and Rubadeau (eds.), Educational Implications of Piaget's Theory, p. 101. 122. J. MeV. Hunt, "The Psychological Basis for Using Preschool Enrichment as an Antidote for Cultural Deprivation," Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, vol. 10 (1964), p. 239. See also N.D. Kephart, The Slow Learner in the Classroom (Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1960). 123. Vygotsky, Mind in Society, p. 89. This, we might note, was a criticism aimed in the 1930s at a former system undermined by experience. 124. Charles J. Brainerd, Piaget's Theory of Intelligence (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1978), p. 298. 125. Ibid., p. 293. 126. Eleanor Duckworth, "Piaget Rediscovered," in Ripple and Rockcastle, Piaget Rediscovered, p. 3. 127. Piaget, Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child, p. 151. Chapter 4: Educationally Useful Theories 1. See, for example, D.J. O'Connor, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957), and "The Nature of Educational Theory" Proceedings of the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain (Oxford: Blackwell, 1972), vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 97-117. See also the responses to these two statements by Paul H. Hirst, "Philosophy and Educational Theory," in Israel Scheffler (ed.),
Notes to Pages 121-130 199 Philosophy and Education (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1966), pp. 78- 95; and pp. 110-17 of the same volume of the Proceedings of the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain as O'Connor's article. See also Ernest Nagel, "Philosophy of Science and Educational Theory," Studies in Philosophy and Education, vol. 7, no. 1 (Fall, 1969). 2. Lawrence Kohlberg and Rochelle Mayer, "Development as the Aim of Education," Harvard Educational Review, vol. 42, no. 4 (November, 1972), pp. 449-96. 3. See, for example, R.S. Peters, "Education and Human Development," in Education and the Development of Reason (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972), esp. pp. 517-18. 4. Deanna Kuhn, "The Application of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development to Education," Harvard Educational Review, vol. 49, no. 3 (1979). Chapter 5: Psychology and Education 1. Hugh G. Petrie, The Dilemma of Inquiry and Learning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982). Even casual discussion of the kind of learning that properly interests educators leads Oakeshott to conclude that "only human beings are capable of learning" in this sense. See Michael Oakeshott, "Learning and Teaching" in R.S. Peters (ed.), The Concept of Education (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967), pp. 156-57. 2. This point is made in D.C. Phillips and M.E. Kelly, "Hierarchical Theories of Development in Education and Psychology," Harvard Educational Review, vol. 45, no. 3 (August, 1975). For a discussion of epistemology and psychology, see Jean Piaget, Psychology and Epistemology, trans. Arnold Rosin (New York: Grossman, 1971); and Jean Piaget, "What Is Psychology?" American Psychologist, vol. 3, no. 1 (1978), pp. 648-49. 3. Or, as Richard C. Atkinson puts it: "The learning models that now exist are totally inadequate to explain the subtle ways by which the human organism stores, processes, and retrieves information." In "Ingredients for a Theory of Instruction," American Psychologist, vol. 21 (1972), p. 929. 4. It often seems to be taken as bad manners, or poor taste, for someone outside a field to point out what the best practitioners within the field all acknowledge-in this case the fundamental insecwity of psychological theories. This is taken as some kind of accusation or attack only if practitioners are unaware of the epistemological status of the theories they use, and fail to see that we are all in this together, trying to make sense of, and establish secure knowledge about, the bewildering complexities of human behavior and thinking.
200 Notes to Pages 132-134 5. Critics of this program have followed two lines of attack: one theoretical, the other empirical. The theoretical one argues that the reCODceptualization of human behavior made necessary by the ambition to fit such behavior to the appropriated methods has succeeded at the cost of eliminating its distinctively human features. The empirical one points out that while it is perfectly proper to base a program of research on a questionable presupposition, it needs to be remembered that the program is an empirical test of claims embedded in that presupposition. Critics' evaluations of the evidence accumulated over a half century of research tend to conclude that the presupposition is not supported: while this program has secured some laws about some behaviors near the physiology end of a continuum of human behavior, where conditions common to physical phenomena still hold with more or less reliability, it has failed to produce any laws about significant aspects of human behavior or any theories with the explanatory power of those common in the physical sciences. When workers in this program pay any attention to such critics, they either claim that they have securely established laws about significant human behaviors, or argue that, even if they have not yet, there is no a priori reason to suggest that their program will not lead to such laws in the future. 6. B.F. Skinner, Science and Human Behavior (1953; New York: Free Press, reprint, 1965), p. 20 and passim. 7. One might note here Hugh G. Petrie's observation: UIt is somewhat ironic that in one of the few cases in the history of human thought when science listened seriously to philosophy about scientific method, behaviorism was the result. For a case can be made that the main methodological features of behaviorism were drawn directly from a positivistic philosophy which, 'it was thought, represented 'rear science. And yet positivism in philosophy is all but dead, killed partly by the very fact that it did not accurately represent science, but rather tried to reconstruct it." The Dilemma of Inquiry and Learning, pp. 307-08. 8. For an account of this earlier method for finding out the truth, see E.E. Alison Peers, Ram6n Lull (London: SPCK, 1932), and Martin Gardner, Logic, Machines, and Diagrams (New York: Schocken, 1958). See also J.N. Hillgarth, Ram6n Lull and Lullism in Fourteenth-Century France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971). Lull's method seems to have been the model for a part of Swift's ULaputa" section of Gulliver's Travels. 9. Lee J. Cronbach, "Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology," American Psychologist, vol. 30, no. 2 (1975), p. 123. 10. Lee J. Cronbach, "The Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology," American Psychologist, vol. 12, no. 11 (1957), p. 671. 11. A somewhat related issue is discussed by Vygotsky: "The concept of a historically based psychology is misunderstood by most research-
Notes to Pages 135-142 201 ers.... For them, to study something historically means, by definition, to study some past event. Hence, they naively imagine an insurmountable barrier between historic study and study of present-day behavioral forms. To study something historically means to study it in the process of change ... 'it is only in movement that a body shows what it is.' Thus, the historical study of behavior is not an auxiliary aspect of theoretical study, but rather forms its very base. As P.P. Blonsky has stated, 'Behavior can be understood only as the history of behavior.' " L.S. Vygotsky, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), pp.64-65. 12. Cronbach, "Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology," p. 116. The methodological problems that scientific psychology is wrestling with overlap considerably with those faced in all the human sciences. It is odd that the methodological discussions, experiments, and innovations in historiography, in the hermeneutic tradition, in structuralism, in critical theory seem to have had so little influence in even the discussions of methodology among North American psychologists. The determined association with physical-science methods perhaps makes such innovations seem too exotic. 13. Piaget, "What Is Psychology?" pp. 648-49. 14. "There is in fact a growing feeling in the field that Piaget's stage model of cognitive development is in serious trouble." John H. Flavell, "Commentary" on Charles J. Brainerd's "The Stage Question in CognitiveDevelopmental Theory," The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, vol. 2 (1978), p. 187. 15. Jean Piaget, Psychology and Epistemology, p. 148. 16. Ibid., p. 21. 17. Cronbach, "Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology," p. 125. 18. The third condition, excessive sensitivity to questions at the expense of concern for methodology and phenomena, leads to the bottomless pit of epistemology. 19. See, for example, Roger Gehlbach, "Individual Differences: Implications for Instructional Theory, Research, and Innovation," Educational Researcher, vol. 8, no. 4 (April, 1979), pp. 8-14. 20. See, for example, Michael Duncan and Bruce Biddle, The Study of Teaching (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974). 21. N.L. Gage, The Scientific Basis of the Art of Teaching (New York: Teachers College Press, 1978), p. 18. 22. Ibid., p. 91. 23. Jerome S. Bruner, Towards a Theory of Instruction (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press, 1966). Some elaboration of his model has appeared but in general this scheme is widely accepted. 24. Ibid., p. 40.
202 Notes to Pages 142-156 25. I raise this particular question as an example because this is precisely, and explicitly, what is happening in a number of Piagetian programs. See Deanna Kuhn, "The Application of Piagel's Theory of Cognitive Development to Education," Harvard Educational Review, vol. 49, no. 3 (1979), pp. 697-706. 26. Cronbach, "The Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology," p. 681. 27. Cronbach, "Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology." See also Lee J. Cronbach and Richard E. Snow, Aptitudes and Instructional Methods: A Handbook for Research on Interactions (New York: Irvington, 1977). 28. Cronbach, "Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology," p. 119. 29. Ibid., p. 119. 30. Ibid., p. 125. 31. Ibid., p. 125. 32. Richard Snow, "Individual Differences and Instructional Theory," Educational Researcher, vol. 6, no. 10 (1977), p. 12. 33. Ibid., p. 12. 34. Roger Gehlbach, "Individual Differences," p. 10. 35. Ibid., p. 12. 36. G. Pask and B.C.E. Scott, "Learning Strategies and Individual Competence," International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, vol. 4 (1972), pp.217-53. 37. Richard C. Atkinson, "Ingredients for a Theory of Instruction," p. 923. 38. See W.}. Popham et al., Instructional Objectives (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969). 39. For a discussion of some of these problems see Hugh Sockett, "Curriculum Aims and Objectives: Taking a Means to an End," Proceedings of the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1972), pp. 30-61. 40. W.}. Popham, Criterion-Referenced Instruction (Belmont, California: Fearon, 1973), p. 13. 41. Robert Mager, Behavioral Objectives (Belmont, California: Fearon, 1962), p.13. 42. W.}. Popham and Eva L. Baker, Systematic Instruction (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1979), p. 20. 43. See for example, Phillippe C. Duchastel and Paul F. Merrill, "The Effects of Behavioral Objectives on Learning: A Review of Empirical Studies," Review of Educational Research, vol. 43 (1973), pp. 53-69; and O.K. Duell, "Effect of Type of Objective, Level of Test Questions, and the Judged Importance of Tested Materials upon Post-test Performance," Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 66 (1974), pp. 225-32. 44. This notion that education accumulates merely from the accumulation of sets of facts, concepts, and whatever is hardly new or restricted to any particular subject area. As William Hazlitt noted about the same
Notes to Pages 158-163 203 abuse: "Anyone who has passed through the regular gradations of a classical education, and is not made a fool by it, may consider himself as having had a very narrow escape." "On the Ignorance of the Learned," in W.E. Williams (ed.), A Book of English Essays (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1951), p. 147. 45. In my Educational Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), I try to show that facts, concepts, whatever, become educational aliments by being organized according to what, in chapter 1, I have called "paradigmatic forms of understanding," and which, in the earlier book, I identify as a sequence of stages called mythic, romantic, philosophic, and ironic. These form contexts of meaning in which students make sense of things at different stages of their educational development; an educational unit is anything that is organized according to the principles which determine what is meaningful at each stage. 46. Itseems fair to note that if one does not look beyond the typical practice of many schools, one may be encouraged to remain insensitive to this distinction, and may be encouraged to view education as a fact- or "concept"-accumulating activity. Particularly in North America, where the influence of psychology has been so pervasive on educational practice-which the proponents of more of such influence might doubtthere has been a massive technologizing that has, in my view, greatly perverted education into a largely mindless process of conveying disjointed bits of information, measuring retention of some of these bits, and allotting "credits"-grades or whatever-on the results of these crude and educationally irrelevant measures. Education seems to have become in many people's minds indistinguishable from what is reflected from these procedures. They seem unable to distinguish between the procedures of schooling and the process of education. There is nothing at all wrong with technologizing certain aspects ofschooling; the problems arise when no distinction is made between the central educational function ofschools and their various socializing functions. 47. Fred N. Kerlinger, "The Influence of Research on Educational Practice," Educational Researcher, vol. 6, no. 8 (September, 1977), and Robert E. Slavin, "Basic vs. Applied Research: A Response," Educational Researcher, vol. 7, no. 2 (February, 1978). 48. Slavin, "Basic vs. Applied Research," p. 16. Philosophy seems, in Slavin's account, indistinguishable from the mindless acceptance of any passing fad. 49. Ibid. 50. For an extended argument of this point, see R.S. Peters, "Education and the Educated Man," Proceedings of the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain, vol. 4 Uanuary 1970), pp. 5-20. 51. For a fuller argument of this point, and the section immediately following, see A.R. Lauch, Exploration and Human Action (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966).
204 Notes to Pages 163-176 52. E.R. Hilgard, Theories of Learning (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1956), p. 486. 53. lowe this analogy, and much more of what follows, to Jan Smedslund. See his Becoming a Psychologist (New York: Halstead Press, 1972); "Bandura's Theory of Self-Efficacy: A Set of Common-sense Theorems," Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, vol. 19 (1978), pp. 1-14; "Some Psychological Theories Are Not Empirical: Reply to Bandura," Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, vol. 19 (1978), pp. 101-02; "Between the Analytic and the Arbitrary: A Case Study of Psychological Research," Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, vol. 20, (1979). Smedslund acknowledges debts to F. Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (New York: John Wiley, 1958); K.J. Gergen, "Social Psychology as History," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 36 (1973), pp. 309-20; K.J. Gergen, "Social Psychology, Science, and History," Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, vol. 2 (1976), pp. 373-83; and U. Laucken, NaIve Verhaltenstheorie (Stuttgart: Klett, 1974). 54. B.F. Skinner, Reflections on Behaviorism and Society (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1978), p. 10. 55. J.A. Poteet, Behavior Modification: A Practical Guide for Teachers (London: University of London Press, 1974), p. 23. 56. Ibid., p. 45. 57. Ibid., p. 49. 58. Perhaps it needs to be noted here that much learning in education does not require memorization of the facts used to support or establish certain generalizations or, even, ways of seeing things. The development of a sophisticated historical consciousness, for example, does not depend on memorizing all the facts which it has been necessary to note-to "learn" in some short-term way-in the process. 59. Jan Smedslund, "A Re-examination of the Role of Theory in Psychology," paper presented to 21st International Congress of Psychology, Paris, 1976. 60. Poteet, Behavior Modification, p. 85. 61. Jack Martin, "External verSU3 Self-Reinforcement: A Review of Methodological and Theoretical Issues," forthcoming. See also his "Laboratory Studies of Self-Reinforcement (SR) Phenomena," Journal ofGeneral Psychology, vol. 101 (1979), pp. 103-49. 62. Albert Bandura, "Self-efficacy: Towards a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change," Psychology Review, vol. 84 (1977), pp. 191-215. 63. Smedslund, "Bandura's Theory of Self-efficacy." 64. Smedslund, "Some Psychological Theories Are Not Empirical." 65. See also Smedslund's devastating reduction of an article, chosen at random, to a set of common-sense theorems: "Between the Analytic and the Arbitrary." 66. Petrie, The Dilemma of Inquiry and Learning, p. 313.
Notes to Pages 176-182 205 67. R.O. Sleep, "Epistemology and Aims in Education," doctoral dissertation, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1970, p. 165. 68. H.S.H. McFarland, Psychological Theory and Educational Practice (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971), p. 300. 69. Ibid., p. 301. 70. L. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G.E.M. Anscombe (Oxford: Blackwell, 1963), p. 232. Conclusion 1. Eric Hobsbawm, "Is Science Evil?" New York Review of Books, vol. 15, no. 9 (November 19, 1970), p. 14. 2. Cesare Pavese, The Devil in the Hills, trans. D.O. Paige (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1967), p. 149.
Index Abstract thinking, 21, 31, 40, 41, 52, 53 Acceleration of development, 20, 78, 82 Acconunodation, 58,88,95 Active discovery, 23, 79, 83. 87-94, 113 Adaptation, 57, 105 Adler, Marilynne, 91, 195n. 1960 ~H,~,195n,197n Aims in education, 151, 154 Alchemy. 133 Ammon, P. R., 1900 Analytic truths. 161, 170, 173-75 Anderson. L.. 192n Anthropology in the cuniculwn, 52 Applebee, Arthur N.• 186n Applied research. See Basic research distinguished from applied research Aptitude-Treatment Interactions (ATIs). 143--49 Aristotle. 27, 54 Ashton. P. T., lOOn, 191n ~bnilation,58,95 Atkinson, Richard C., 150, 1990, 2020 Auden, W. H., 160 Autobiography in educational theorizing, 115 206 Baker, Eva L., 202n BandUDa,~bert, 130, 170,204n Bano~,Robin,188n Basic research distinguished from applied research, 128, 159-60 Behavior,hUEDan,131-35 BehavioriSrn,132-33,165,168,172,200n Behavior modification. 160, 165, 168 Beilin, H.• 193n Berko, J., lOOn Bettelheim, Brono, 34, 188n Biddle, Bmce, 201n Binet, Alfred, 57 Biology, influence of. on Piaset, 58 Blank, M., 74, 192n Blonsky, P. P., 201n Boonsong, S., 1900 Botvin. G. T., 195n Bovet, M., 79, 81, 90, 19On, 192n, 193n Brainerd, Charles J., 79, 92, 104, 1900, 193n, 194n, 195n, 198n Brison. D. W., 192n Brown, G., 1900, 191n Brown, R., lOOn
Index Bruner, Jerome S., 21, 113, 121, 126, 142,143,149,187n,201n Buhler, Karl, 186n Burke, Edmund, 54 Callaway, Ragan J., Jr., 196n Class, social, 44, 45 Class inclusion, 73-75 Cole, M., 190n Common-sense theorems, 169-72 Compulsory schooling, 44 Concept as unit of inquiry in cognitive psychology, 11 Concrete operations, 60 Conditioning, 31, 52; operant, 165 Conservations, 65-69, 74, 76, 83 Constraints: genetic, of nature, 20, 105, 113-15,123,125-35.174,180-81; logical distinguished from psychological, 16-17, 115; psychological, on educational prescriptions,S, 7, 10. 12, 62, 98-106, 122, 125-28, 136 Control theory. 150 Cornford, F. M., 30, 32, 187n Correlational psychology, 143 Crawford, D. H., 196n Creativity, 127 Criterion problem, 76-85 Criterion-referenced instruction. 153 Cronbach, L., 134. 137, 143-47. 200n. 201n,202n Cross-cultural studies, 6. 64-66. 78, 114 Culture. See Nature and culture Culture-boundedness of educational theory,9, 115, 116 Curriculum. 1, 11, 12,28-106 passim, 109,112,118 Curriculum design, 50, 51, 97-104 Dasen. P. R.• 190n, 191n LMcalages. 87-70, 75 ~entering,67, 72. 73 Deformation of education by psychol. ogy, lOS, 126, 159 Desforges, C., 190n, 191n Derman, Louise, 198n Development distinguished from learning. See Learning. distinguished from development 207 Dewey, John. 88, 113,126, 153, 194n Dialectic, 32. 48-49, 109. 110. 112 Dianoia stage of educational development,29,31. 39-42,51,53, 188n Disciplines, 15 Discovery learning. See Active discovery Discrepancy techniques, 89, 91 Disequilibrium, 88 Do~dson.~t.67,68,13-16,143. 188n, 190m, 191n, 192n Doxa, 29,31,38 Duchastel, Phillippe C., 202n Duckworth, Eleanor, 195n, 198n Duell, O. K., 202n Duncan, Michael, 201n Dynamic: of educational development, 48-49; of psychological development, 87 Educated person as end-product of educationalp~ess,8,9,43,44,117 Educational development distinguished from psychological development, 15, 43 Educational theory, 1-6, 43-44, 107- 24, 178-82; empirical testing. of, 116-20 Egocentrism, 67, 68, 72 EiJcasia stage of educational development, 29-39, 51 Elkind, David, 4, 10, 11, 22, 185n, 186n, 187n, 1910 Empiricism. 119 Emrick, J. A., 80, 193n Epistemology. 108-10, 129 Equilibration, 89 ~dition,87, 111,116 Euclidean geometry, 100 Evaluation, 119 "Expanding horizons" curriculum. 12, 51 Experimental psychoiosy. 143 Falsi6cation of theory, 118, 120 Feminism. 35 Figurative knowledge, 63, 72, 75, 16, 19, 82,84.90 Flavell, J. H., 5, 86, 185n, 201n
208 Formal operations,S, 8, 50,60, 111, 112 Forms, Platonic, 32,41, 54-55 Furth, Hans G., 195n, 197n Gage, N. L., 141, 201n Gagne, Robert M., 129-30 Gal'perin, P., 90, 195n Games, 37,52, 112, 117 Gardner, Martin, 200n Gehlbach, Roger, 145-47, 201n, 202n Gelman, R., 80, 81, 193n Genetic epistemology, 19, 59, 60, 64, 137 Genetic unfolding, 7 Glaser, R., 193n Gombrich, E. H., 194n Goodnow, J. J., 191n Gruen, G. E., 192n Guardians in the Republic, 110 Harmony in education, 36, 51 Hall, V. C., 192 Hallam, Roy, 186n Hamlyn, D. W., 186n, 190n, 198n Hamm, Cornel, 188n Hare, R. M., 189n Harris, A. E., 192n Hatano, G., 81, 193n. 194n Hazlitt, William, 202n Hilgard, E. R., 163, 204n Hillgarth, J. N., 200n Hirst, Paul, 122, 199n History in the curriculum, 12-14, 18- 20.37,52 Hobsbawn, Eric, 181, 205n Holograms as metaphor for educational aims, 154-57, 169 Homer, 34 Hughes, Martin, 67 Hunt, J. MeV., 57, 189n, 198n Hyde, D. M., 191n Ideas. See Forms, Platonic Ideology, 86, 94, 104 Implications of psychological theories for education, 110, 125, 180 Indoctrination, 105 Indovich, F. la, 190n Inhelder, B., 79, 81, 90,100, 191n, 192n, 193n, 197n Index Instruction distinguished from teaching, 126, 148, 178 Intelligence, 127, 148 Intermediate status. See Transitions between developmental stages Isaacs, Susan, 113, 190n, 191n James, William, 126 Johnson-Laird, P. N., 191n Kamii, Constance, 195n, 196n, 198n Karmiloff-Smith, A.• 82, 83, 194n Kelly, M. E., 190n, 199n Kephart. N. D., 198n Kerlinger, Fred N., 160, 203n Kilpatrick, Jeremy', 197n Kingsley, R., 192n Kohlberg, L., 121, 199n Kuhn, Deanna, 122, 185n, 195n, 199n, 202n Kuhn, Thomas S., 19, 42, 186n Language determined by operative structure, 71-72 Law of effect, 161 Laws, scientific, 41, 131-35, 145, 167, 168, 179 Learning: difference between meanings of, in education and psychology, 3, 4, 127, 175, 178; distinguished from development, 22, 60-62, 15-86, 98; theories of, 58, 126, 129-30, 143, 173 Lemos. M. M. de, 191n Line, parable of the, 29 Linguistic development, 62, 70-76 Locally applicable theories, 135, 145- 46 Logical necessity, 65, 136. See also Analytic truths Logico-mathematical structures, 21, 60- 86 passim, 93, 98, 99, 105, 115, 116 Louch, A. R., 203n Lowe, R. C., 194n Lull, Ramon, 133 Luria, A. R., 85, 190n, 192n McFarland, H. S. H., 116, 205n McGarrigle, James, 73-75 Mager, Robert, 202n
Index "Making/matching" process, 85 Manipulation of objects, 89 Martin, Jack, 171, 204n Mathematics, 19, 34, 38, 39, 49, 100 Mayer, R., 121, 199n Memorization curve, 161-68 Merrill, Paul F., 202n Metaphysics, 108, 109 Miller, Scott A., 195n Mischel, Theodore, 185n Modgil, C., 191n Modgil, 5., 191n Montessori, M., 113 Moore, T. E., 192n Moral education, 37, 51, 55 Motivation, 3-6, 58, 91, 92, 113, 130, 163 Murray, F. B., 80, 193n, 195n Music, 38, 39 Mysticism, 27, 59 Myth-stories, 34 Nagel, Ernest, 199n Naturalistic fallacy, 176 Nature and culture, problems of separating, in education, 1, 136 Neoprogressives, 88, 94 Nettleship, R. L., 35, 36, 187n, 188n Noesis stage of educational development, 29, 32-34,41,42,45,46,49, 110-12 Numerical method, 138-39 Oakeshott, Michael, 199n Objectives: behavioral, 149-61; educational, 123; instructional 149 Objectivity, 88 O'Connor, D. J., 198n Ontology, 108-10 Operant conditioning. See Conditioning Operative knowledge, 63, 72, 75, 77- 79,83,84 Outdoor education, 51 Paine, Tom, 54 Paradigms, 19, 20,42, 135,183, 186n Parapsychology, 133 Pask,Gordon, 147-49, 180, 202n Pavese, Cesare, 205n 209 Peers, E. E. Alison, 200n Perception-dominated thinking, 29-31, 49, 107, 115 Peters, R. S., 121, 185n, 186n, 199n, 203n Petrie, Hugh G., 199n, 200n, 204n Phenomena-insensitivity, 139 Phillips, D. C., 190n, 199n Philosophical fallacy, 109 Physical education, 34, 36, 39, 51 Piaget, Jean: biographical information on, 56-60; developmental theory of, 111; research methods of, 57; similarities between theory of, and Plato, 107; theory of, as distinguished from Plato's theory, 108- 12 Pistis stage of educational development,29-31,38,39,45,49 Plato: biographical information on, 25- 28; developmental theory of, 111, 121; similarities between theory of, and Piaget, 107; theory of, as distinguished from Piaget's theory, 108-12 Pluralism, 37 Poetics, 134 Political theory, 10, 115 Popham, w. J., 202n Popper, K., 118, 188n Poteet, J. A., 204n Preoperational stage, 60, 67, 73, 90, 103 Programmed learning, 168-69 Progressivism, 88, 94 Pseudo..empirical, 173, 175 Psychological development: distinguished from educational development, 5; distinguished from logical development, 20 Psychological fallacy, 12, 14, 105, 109, 137, 146, 148 Psychological theory, 4, 6,16,108,117, 120, 122, 125-82 passim Psychology: epistemological status, 3- 7,113-17,129-34; methods of research in, 2, 42, 132 Readiness, 23, 76, 95-97, 99, 144 Recapitulation hypothesis, 18-20 Reinforcement, 165 Relativity, 49
210 Religion, 10, 11, 37 Remediation. 102. 104 Renner, John W., 195n, 196n, 197n Republic, 25, 26, 32, 54, 109 Resnick, L. B., 193n Rose, S. AI, 74, 192n Rosenthal, TI L., 193n, 194n Rotman, Brian, 56, 189n Schemata, 88-89 Science in the curriculum, 41, 52, 55 Sciences, natural/physical, 117-18 Scientific methods, 131-39 Scott, B. C. E., 147-49, 180, 202n Self-reinforcement, 170-71 Semantic spaces, 13, 102 Sensorimotor, 103 Serialist thinking, 147-48 Sheppard, J. L., 89, 193n Sinclair, HI, 79, 81, 90, 192n, 193n, 195n Skinner, B. FI, 126, 153, 168-70, 200n, 204n Slavin, Robert E., 160, 161, 203n Sleep, R. 0., 205n Smedslund, Jan, 70, 71, 81, 170-74, 191n, 192n, 193n,204n Snow, Richard, 144, 145, 147, 202n Socializing, 7, 105, 123, 203n Social learning theory, 169, 170 Social studies curriculum, 12 Social theory, 10, 109 Sackett, Hugh, 202n Socrates, 25, 26, 27, 32 Sonquist, Hanne, 198n Spontaneous development, 10, 16, 22, 63,64,76,78,99,136 Sprott, RI L., 192n Stimulus-Response (S-R), 130 Stories, 13, 34, 36, 37, 52, 112,117 Structure. See Logico-mathematical structures Structures of knowledge, 21, 121, 122 Suga, YI' 81, 194n Sullivan, EI VI' 100, 197n Index Symbolic forms, 99 Syntax, 4, 122, 176 Teaching, 126, 140, 148 Teaching effectiveness, research on, 23, 138, 140-42 Theory: function of, 4, 110; testing of, 86, 116-20. See also Educational theory; Psychological theory Thorndike, A. HI, 153, 161, 162 Totalitarianism, 45-47 Toulmin, Stephen, 8, 185n, 186n Trabasso, TI, 85, 194n Training studies, 77, 82, 93 Transfer of learning, 50 Transitions between developmental stages, 68-70, 75, 79,91 Tulviste, T., 194n Turiel, E., 196n Unit of education, 153-58, 166, 168, 169, 175,177,203n Value-neutrality in psychology, 8 Value-saturation of education, 8, 9, 16, 50 Vlastos, Gregory, 27, 187n Vygotsky, L., 75, 85, 100-03, 192n, 197n, 200n,201n Wachs, HI, 197n Wall, AI JI, 192n Wallace, JI G., 191n Wallach, L., 192n Wason, PI CI' 191n Wedberg, Anders, 188n Whitehead, AI NI, 155 Wholist thinking, 147-48 Williams, A. AI, 90, 195n Wittgenstein, LI' 177, 205n Wohlwill, J. FI' 5, 81, 185n, 194n Zone of proximal development, 100-02 Zimmerman, B. JI, 193n, 194n