Human Development Report-Chapter 3

Chapter 3

Sustainable consumption and
production of woodfuel

Photo credit: GERES.

57 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 58

3. Sustainable consumption and production of woodfuel Growing demand ​​

In Cambodia, woodfuel such It is fundamental to human development for poor management. To meet energy and development Woodfuel demand has grown rapidly in recent Demand for woodfuel is shaped by factors Woodfuel demand has grown
as fuelwood and charcoal households and small businesses to have energy to needs in the near term and into the future, Cambodia years, with annual consumption now reaching that also act as barriers to more sustainable rapidly in recent years, with
play major roles in meeting cook, run machines and light homes and shops. needs to sustain vital forest resources, giving careful over 6 million tons, equivalent to clearing 71,600 use. There is limited awareness of the benefits annual consumption now
energy needs, and In Cambodia, woodfuel such as fuelwood and consideration to woodfuel demand and supply, hectares of deciduous forests each year. In 2014, of more efficient technologies and alternative reaching over 6 million tons
generating income for charcoal play major roles in meeting these and and to management strategies for consumption, woodfuel accounted for more than 64 percent energy sources, and concern around safety
many rural communities other energy needs, while charcoal production production and alternatives. Achieving sustainable of Cambodia’s total energy mix, followed by oil and convenient access to alternatives. Both
is an essential source of income for many rural production and consumption would maintain products (30 percent) and electricity (6 percent).67 households and industries maintain customs
communities. These uses persist despite serious forests, contribute to climate change mitigation, Firewood is used for industries (0.8 million tons) and preferences for conventional uses of charcoal
health risks from the burning of biomass, which support better public health outcomes and provide and for household cooking (1.8 million tons). and fuelwood. With most wood sourced almost
releases significant amounts of particulate matter energy security.65,66 Charcoal is used for cooking in households and free of cost, wood collectors and consumers have
and carbon monoxide. Deforestation and forest restaurants (3.5 million tons)68. See Figure 3.1. few incentives to invest in alternatives.
degradation are other concerns, resulting in losses In the longer term, an energy transition will be
to ecosystems and contributing to the greenhouse essential, drawing on alternative energy sources Figure 3.1.
gas emissions that feed climate change. that are cleaner and more reliable, such as
solar and wind power. For now, the sustainable Both businesses and households depend on woodfuel
In some sense, woodfuel rests at the nexus between management of woodfuel is an important step in
human development and sustainable ecosystem this transition.

Charcoal production in rural Cambodia.
Photo credit: GERES.

59 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 60

Business use Domestic cooking Box 3.1.

Factors affecting households’ choice of types of energy

Around 80 percent of The garment sector consumes 0.4 million tons Around 80 percent of households still rely on Price: A comparison of three types of cooking devices Health: Households are generally aware of the adverse impacts
households still rely on of firewood annually. Factories generally use woodfuel as the main fuel for cooking (Figure showed that 15 kilogrammes of LPG is the cheapest cooking of cooking pollutants on health. Reducing exposure to smoke
it to generate steam for ironing and washing 3.2). About 2.1 million use firewood and 0.5 option, in addition to providing other benefits such as safety and creating a cleaner cooking environment are important
woodfuel as the main processes, whereas electricity provides energy million use charcoal as the main fuel, consuming and a lack of particulate matter or carbon emissions. Double elements driving cooking strategies.
fuel for cooking for lighting or sewing equipment. Some factories 1.8 million tons of firewood and 0.4 million tons burners produce little emissions and are safer than portable
use up to 30,000 square metres of firewood per of charcoal (equivalent to 3.5 million tons of LPG. The initial cost is US$80 plus other costs for renewing Convenience and cooking traditions: Households use different
Figure 3.2. year. In factories surveyed, firewood represented fuelwood) per year.73 the tank, which can be a barrier for poor households. fuel for different types of dishes. A typical Cambodian meal
the main source of primary energy, at up to 80 comprises several dishes, including rice as well as a fried dish, soup
percent of the final energy consumed, but only Urbanization has increased the use of more Safety: Many households have safety concerns about LPG, and a grilled dish. In urban areas, LPG is preferred to cook fried
12 percent of the costs. Considering an average advanced types of energy for cooking, such as another major barrier for use. Past accidents related to the dishes, while an electric rice cooker is used to cook rice. Charcoal
total energy cost of 16 percent of total costs, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity. use of small canisters that are refilled many times without might be the preferred fuel for grilling or cooking soups in big pots
firewood would represent 2 percent of overall Even so, LPG is generally a secondary fuel, as any control have resulted in some households’ reluctance that require a long simmering time, however. Installing LPG and a
garment production costs.70 many households still rely on woodfuel as their to use LPG. Originally used in China and the Republic of rice cooker, therefore, may not automatically result in a complete
main fuel for cooking. Electricity is mainly used Korea, mostly for picnics, these canisters are then imported switch from using wood or charcoal.
Brick-making consumes 0.4 million tons of for rice cookers, making it a significant but not to Cambodia to be refilled several times.
firewood annually as part of producing more the main source of energy for cooking. Phnom
than 500 million bricks for construction, a Penh and Sihanoukville likely have higher rates Sources: Kong and Handley 2017, Biney et al. 2015.
rapidly growing industry.71 The production of use of LPG and electricity than other urban
process, requiring a temperature of more than areas, as they are well supplied with both. A mix of sustainable and non-sustainable supplies
850°C, entails significant energy consumption.72
Rising household income does not automatically Woodfuel comes from sustainable and non- amount of wood supplied from community
Restaurants in homes and traditional markets lead to a switch to more advanced fuels. Choices are sustainable sources across Cambodia. The former forestry is limited, however, as many community
and street food vendors are major consumers of influenced by factors including price, safety, health, include firewood supplied from areas with forests are highly degraded with limited
charcoal; there are more than 63,000 restaurants convenience and cooking traditions (Box 3.1). managementplans,whichensuresthesustainability productivity. Community forestry also faces the
around the country. Fuel choice is linked to the of biomass stock and long-term availability. challenge of competing against illegal woodfuel
type of dish that is cooked, as well as the quantity Unsustainable sources include by-products of suppliers, whose prices are low. Moreover, despite Woodfuel comes
cooked; charcoal is preferred to keep food warm forest clearing for agricultural production, such as official registration and the use of community from sustainable and
for a long time. economic land concessions, and direct harvesting forestry management plans, many community non-sustainable sources
of firewood. Non-sustainable sourcing can be legal, forestry initiatives lack necessary permits to across Cambodia
especially in the case of concessions, if all necessary produce and distribute charcoal legally.
Share of households using firewood, charcoal, LPG and electricity permits are obtained.
Woodfuel also comes from replacing rubber
Source: GERES 2015. An estimated 77 percent of woodfuel consumed or cashew plantations (Figure 3.3). While
in Cambodia emanates from unsustainable roundwood such as sawnwood from old rubber
sources, with 48 percent from forest conversion plantation replacement is mainly exported,
for agriculture, including economic land residues have value as firewood and are sold to
concession conversion, and 29 percent from local distributors.75 But currently, few plantations
overharvesting of firewood in forest areas.74 are old enough to be harvested. Most existing
rubber plantations were planted after 2000 and
Among sustainable sources, one example likely will not be ready for use within the next
is community forestry, a legally approved 10 to 15 years. Further, the charcoal from rubber
management arrangement allowing forest- and cashew plantations is of a significantly lower
dependent communities to participate in the quality than charcoal currently sold on the
sustainable management and use of forests. The market.

61 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 62

Figure 3.3. Figure 3.4.

Woodfuel, mainly residues, comes from replacing plantations Pressure from household firewood collection for domestic cooking is relatively limited

Source: GERES.

In general, fuelwood Unstainable sources include natural forests, Limited impacts of fuelwood
collection by households protected areas and economic land concessions. collection by households
Some woodfuel comes from natural forests
have limited impacts on and protected areas reserved for conservation, In general, households collect firewood for
forests and ecosystems although extracting wood from these areas is cooking from within 5 kilometres of their homes
illegal. in varying locations . Households in the Tonle Sap
and coastal regions source more than 50 percent Source: GERES 2015
After the introduction of economic land of firewood from flooded forests or forests, while
concessions in 2005, many previously forested households in the plains, plateau and mountains A proliferation of charcoal production and impacts of concern
areas were converted to large-scale agriculture. source their firewood mainly from around their
As a result, ample wood became available. But own homes and agricultural lands.76 Firewood Charcoal production businesses have recently provinces showed that charcoal represented the Charcoal production businesses
this situation is gradually changing due to the collection for household cooking is generally proliferated in rural areas as a key income majority of household income, ranging from 34 have recently proliferated in
moratorium on concessions introduced in 2012 not a major threat to the forest ecosystem, except generation activity. More than 80,000 households percent to 57 percent of the total. Charcoal is rural areas as a key income
to conserve the remaining forests. As concession in the Tonle Sap and coastal areas (Figure 3.4). produce charcoal for income. With a national mostly a dry season activity to gain supplemental generation activity and have
areas no longer supply wood products in high There it is likely to have negative environmental average retail price of 1,000 riels per kilogramme, income, although some producers in Kampong concerning impacts on forests
demand, there could be a shift in sourcing, impacts due to overharvesting and the presence the sector is worth more than $100 million. Thom produce charcoal all year long as a main
resulting in mounting pressure on surrounding of important ecosystems for fish reproduction. source of income.
natural forests. While many charcoal producers in Kampong Speu
initiated their businesses after the late 1990s, most Producers source different wood species for
producers in other provinces, such as Kampong charcoal of high and normal quality. Common
Chhnang, Banteay Meanchey, Battambang and sources are natural forests, where wood is
Kampong Thom, have started their businesses typically collected for free. In Kampong Speu,
within the last five years (Figure 3.5). producers source most of their wood from
Phnom Aural, which is under high pressure from
A field survey in the five main charcoal production their activities. In Kampong Thom and Kratie,

63 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 64

large-scale conversions of forest for agriculture, care to improve charcoal quality. On average, Figure 3.6.
especially through economic land concessions, they produce 25 tons of charcoal per year, but it
have made wood readily available. Most producers is possible to produce more than 140 tons using Value chain of charcoal from Phnom Aural supplying Phnom Penh
purchase wood from traders who supply specific multiple kilns in constant operation.77
wood species. A few charcoal producers harvest Figure 3.7.
wood in the forest. In Battambang and Banteay Charcoal producers generally sell to distributors,
Meanchey, most wood originates from non-forest who provide charcoal to households, restaurants Value chain of charcoal from Chambok from ELC
areas. Trees are cleared from small degraded areas and retailers. Among all actors in the supply
to expand existing fields or roads for agriculture. chain for charcoal, distributors derive the most
significant part of added value. Figures 3.6 and
On average, charcoal producers have two 3.7 show value chains for charcoal supplies that
fixed kilns made of mud and clay; some have a reach Phnom Penh from Phnom Aural and
metal chimney. The kilns normally require low Kampong Thom.
investment and limited maintenance, and have
a long life span. Very few producers take extra

Figure 3.5.

Location of charcoal producers

Sources: GERES 2015, Agricultural Census 2013, National Institute of Statistics 2015. Source: VANDYROS

65 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 66

Many options to move towards sustainable energy Improving energy efficiency for the garment and brick sectors

Cambodia has many options Cambodia has many options in improving of charcoal. Production efficiency can increase, Improved energy efficiency is critical in the water condensation and energy consumption.
in improving the efficiency the efficiency of woodfuel production and however, through improvements in wood drying, garment and brick sectors as the main consumers Regular monitoring through thermal cameras
of woodfuel production and consumption, and switching to alternative energy kiln construction and kiln operations. of 0.8 million tons of fuelwood used by industries could help identify pipes with high-temperatures
as part of moving towards more sustainable each year. In garment businesses, existing boilers for rapid reinsulation. Further, by recovering
consumption, and switching production and consumption. Improved charcoal kilns can raise efficiency could be replaced with energy-efficient ones, condensate water, the temperature of boiler feed
to alternative energy as through internal and external heating, and but given the cost of a new boiler, which is more water could be significantly increased.
part of moving towards Improving production efficiency for heating with recirculated gas. One example than $60,000, and a cheap supply of woodfuel,
sustainable energy charcoal production is the Adam Retort, which achieves yields many garment businesses do not prioritize such Among brick businesses, rising wood prices pose
closer to more highly efficient brick kilns an investment. New boilers combined with a an increasing incentive to switch to improved
In producing charcoal, traditional and widely while cutting methane emissions in half.78 The switch to agricultural residues, such as rice husk kiln technologies. Considering the required
used practices are often associated with low yield GreenMad Dome Retort is a larger and more briquettes, could offer returns with a better investment and the current difficulties for brick
and high energy losses, with a conversion rate of efficient version with higher volume and better business case. businesses to get loans, support to commercial
6 to 7 kilogrammes of wood to 1 kilogramme insulation. banks to devise tailored financing solutions could
Another measure would be the insulation of steam be one way forward (see Table 3.1).
pipes and regular monitoring to reinsulate as leaks
occur. Poor insulation can significantly increase

Table 3.1.

The main brick kilns currently in use in Cambodia

Intermittent or tunnel kiln Traditional batch kiln Hoffman or continuous kiln
(boat kiln) (square/ elephant/ round kiln) (rotary kiln)

Improvements for traditional charcoal kilns can enhance production and energy efficiency Fuel used Rice husk Both firewood and rice husk
Photo credit: GERES. Firewood 5.53 2.52
Specific energy consumption 10% 18%
A higher efficiency Adam Retort charcoal kiln in Strung Treng province. 8.41
Photo credits: GERES (left) and GreenMad Dome Retort, GIZ (right). Share of the brick production
72%

Source: GERES.

67 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 68

Improved cooking stoves to improve efficiency Switching from woodfuel to alternative energy

Greater efficiency and the transition to more stoves, for example. The Neang Kongrey Stove An example of moving away from charcoal use to 1.7 million tons of wood. A significant share
sustainable energy will largely depend on changes shows similar savings. Both are designed altogether involves the industrial and community of paddy is exported to neighbouring countries
in households, where more than 5 million cook around local cooking habits. Support for their production of char-briquettes. These can be made such as Thailand or processed locally, however,
stoves are in use. In rural areas, more than a production and distribution has already resulted from several types of widely available biomass. In which diminishes the potential for rice husk to
quarter of households still cook with highly in the New Laos Stove and Neang Kongrey Phnom Penh, Khmer Green Charcoal produces become a more broadly used energy source.
inefficient basic cooking stoves referred to as Stove capturing 25 percent and 14 percent of and sells char-briquettes made from coconut
three-stones or Siam/Mong stoves. the woodfuel cook stove market, respectively, a shells and charcoal wastes. Some entrepreneurs are Brick and cement factories absorb a significant
significant success. Over the decade to the end working to develop bamboo pellets and briquettes share of what is produced, as do some food-
Some progress has been made in introducing of 2014, more than 3.6 million improved cook to replace wood for industrial use. processing industries located close to rice mills.
improved stoves (Table 3.2). With better stoves were sold. Production and distribution In the garment industry, the use of rice husk
insulation and a smaller combustion chamber, provide employment to more than 550 workers, Rice husk can replace fuelwood use for the briquettes instead of firewood has already been
the New Laos Stove allows significant fuel savings especially in Kampong Chhnang. industrial sector.80 Rick husk generates fuel, heat a major climate change mitigation action. Actual
of around 20 percent compared to traditional or electricity through thermal, chemical or bio available residues are unknown and depend on
processes, and is in ready supply, with more than many different factors, including distance to
Table 3.2. 8 million tons of paddy milled in 2014.81 With markets, distance from neighbouring countries
no agricultural use, rice husk could become a key and other primary users.
Main improved cook stoves currently in use in Cambodia79 source of energy. National production potential
could be more than 2 million tons, corresponding

New Lao Stove Neang Kongrey Stove

Retail price $1.6
$3.5

New Lao Stove Manufacturing country Coconut shells Rice husk briquettes
Cambodia Photo credits: GERES
High power efficiency Cambodia

24.1% (wood), 29.1% (charcoal) 25.5% Challenges in promoting to pay. As a result, regulations are rarely followed,
sustainable woodfuel and very few permits are obtained for legal
Low power specific fuel consumption (MJ/min/l) options firewood harvesting and charcoal production.

Neang Kongrey Stove 0.036 (wood), 0.028 (charcoal) 0.035 Cambodia’s Forestry Law requires permits to Illegal production and trade of woodfuels creates
use, produce, transport and trade forest and non- several notable challenges. There is little incentive
Source: GERES. timber forest products.82 The Protected Area Law for producers to invest in sustainable production
prohibits commercial extractionofforestproducts, or improve energy efficiency, as most wood
non-timber forest products and fuelwood.83 is readily available at very low cost. Similarly,
industrial users have limited motivation to
Procedures for obtaining permits for woodfuel switch to other energy sources such as briquettes
are complex and expensive, lowering incentives to from rice husk or bamboo, as these cost at least
apply. Fines for violations are very high, at a level 50 percent more. Sustainably produced charcoal
that most producers and distributors cannot afford and firewood cannot compete in the market given
higher prices related to ensuring sustainability on
top of formal taxation, among other issues.

69 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 70

Ecosystem sustainability, Recommendations management. Few commercial timber Table 3.3.
human development and operations or plantations provide woodfuel,
Cambodia’s longer-term Ecosystem sustainability, human development which is a missed opportunity. Residues from Differential taxation for incentivizing community-based firewood harvesting
energy transition hinge in and Cambodia’s longer-term energy transition timber production84 are significant, and could
large part on the sustainable hinge in large part on the sustainable production supply many charcoal and fuelwood operations. Beneficiaries Sustainably Open access Illegal
production and consumption and consumption of woodfuel. Integrated production models that combine co- managed exploitation
Extend law enforcement: Moving in that production of roundwood and fuelwood could
of woodfuel direction could begin by recognizing that it is yield a significant amount of woodfuel. This Household Energy and Environment Agency 100 riels 2,000 riels 4,000 riels
inefficient and ineffective to regulate charcoal can generate short-term income from woodfuel
Figure 3.8. production mainly through fines leveraged at production and long-term higher value income Ministry of Finance 100 riels 2,000 riels 4,000 riels
production sites. To apply regulations more from roundwood production.
comprehensively, the Government could build Introduce a low-cost sustainable woodfuel Local management structures 1,000 riels
“charcoal checkpoints” into existing police traffic certification scheme. This could encourage
control systems. This would boost regulation as sustainable production. It would entail standards Community 800 riels
well as taxation, which could then be directed and labelling to regulate the entire fuelwood and
towards incentivizing sustainable production charcoal production chain, making it possible to Total 2,000 riels 4,000 riels 8,000 riels
and preventing illegal production. ensure that certified charcoal is not mixed with
Enable fuelwood production through non-sustainable charcoal. Certification schemes Source: GERES.
plantations and sustainable forest could target wood producers for sustainable
forest management, and charcoal producers and Create producer and consumer networks and restaurants. This would enable producers
distributors for chain of custody.85 See Figure 3.8. for community forestry-sourced woodfuel. to reduce transaction costs associated with
The marketing and distribution of sustainable marketing.
Chain of Custody Certification Scheme woodfuel, including that sourced from
community forestry, faces the significant Provide technical and financial assistance
Source: GERES. challenge of competing with illegally sourced for energy efficiency and fuel switching. This
and much cheaper woodfuel. Furthermore, should initially be targeted to charcoal producers
community forestry products have limited with the smallest investment capacity, as a way
market differentiation and access. To improve to improve their current practices and kiln-
this situation, producer and consumer networks building, before promoting new technologies.
for community forestry-sourced woodfuel could Transformational change will need to be driven
be established. by campaigns targeting factories and clients to
increase awareness of the benefits of legal and
On the production side, cooperatives could form, sustainable charcoal for forest ecosystems and
linking registered community forests, traditional human well-being.
charcoal producers and distributors. They could
aid production, processing, distribution and Provide initial financing support: Even if
marketing. Cooperatives could also provide the above interventions are achieved, some
assistance with technology and knowledge sustainable woodfuel initiatives will not be fully
transfer, and make investments in enrichment competitive in the market in the short term.
planting and assisted natural regeneration of trees Initial financing will be necessary to catalyse and
with high potential for charcoal. Complementary accelerate transformation of the sector.
regulatory support would help community
Introduce differentiated taxation to If well designed, the system could generate forestry groups remain competitive through
incentivize sustainable woodfuel production. funds for local law enforcement, and support operating small chainsaws and moto-trailers for
the development of local livelihoods and fuelwood harvesting and transport.
This would tax non-sustainable woodfuels that community forestry activities. A value added
originate from free firewood collection in forest tax exemption for sustainable woodfuel and On the consumer side, modern technology
areas at higher rates than sustainably sourced alternative sustainable energy sources could be such as a smartphone app to order sustainable
woodfuels. Table 3.3 presents a model inspired applied across the market, making these options charcoal could be introduced to develop a base
by a scheme implemented in Chad. Effectiveness more competitive. of regular consumers, such as among households
requires chain of custody certification schemes
as well as an efficient law enforcement system.

NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 64

Figure 3.6.

Value chain of charcoal from Phnom Aural supplying Phnom Penh

Figure 3.7.

Value chain of charcoal from Chambok from ELC

Source: VANDYROS

65 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019

Many options to move towards sustainable energy

Cambodia has many options Cambodia has many options in improving of charcoal. Production efficiency can increase,
in improving the efficiency the efficiency of woodfuel production and however, through improvements in wood drying,
of woodfuel production and consumption, and switching to alternative energy kiln construction and kiln operations.
as part of moving towards more sustainable
consumption, and switching production and consumption. Improved charcoal kilns can raise efficiency
to alternative energy as through internal and external heating, and
part of moving towards Improving production efficiency for heating with recirculated gas. One example
sustainable energy charcoal production is the Adam Retort, which achieves yields
closer to more highly efficient brick kilns
In producing charcoal, traditional and widely while cutting methane emissions in half.78 The
used practices are often associated with low yield GreenMad Dome Retort is a larger and more
and high energy losses, with a conversion rate of efficient version with higher volume and better
6 to 7 kilogrammes of wood to 1 kilogramme insulation.

Improvements for traditional charcoal kilns can enhance production and energy efficiency
Photo credit: GERES.

A higher efficiency Adam Retort charcoal kiln in Strung Treng province.
Photo credits: GERES (left) and GreenMad Dome Retort, GIZ (right).

NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 66

Improving energy efficiency for the garment and brick sectors

Improved energy efficiency is critical in the water condensation and energy consumption.
garment and brick sectors as the main consumers Regular monitoring through thermal cameras
of 0.8 million tons of fuelwood used by industries could help identify pipes with high-temperatures
each year. In garment businesses, existing boilers for rapid reinsulation. Further, by recovering
could be replaced with energy-efficient ones, condensate water, the temperature of boiler feed
but given the cost of a new boiler, which is more water could be significantly increased.
than $60,000, and a cheap supply of woodfuel,
many garment businesses do not prioritize such Among brick businesses, rising wood prices pose
an investment. New boilers combined with a an increasing incentive to switch to improved
switch to agricultural residues, such as rice husk kiln technologies. Considering the required
briquettes, could offer returns with a better investment and the current difficulties for brick
business case. businesses to get loans, support to commercial
banks to devise tailored financing solutions could
Another measure would be the insulation of steam be one way forward (see Table 3.1).
pipes and regular monitoring to reinsulate as leaks
occur. Poor insulation can significantly increase

Table 3.1.

The main brick kilns currently in use in Cambodia

Intermittent or tunnel kiln Traditional batch kiln Hoffman or continuous kiln
(boat kiln) (square/ elephant/ round kiln) (rotary kiln)

Fuel used Rice husk Both firewood and rice husk
Firewood 5.53 2.52
Specific energy consumption 10% 18%
8.41
Share of the brick production
72%

Source: GERES.

67 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019

Improved cooking stoves to improve efficiency

Greater efficiency and the transition to more stoves, for example. The Neang Kongrey Stove
sustainable energy will largely depend on changes shows similar savings. Both are designed
in households, where more than 5 million cook around local cooking habits. Support for their
stoves are in use. In rural areas, more than a production and distribution has already resulted
quarter of households still cook with highly in the New Laos Stove and Neang Kongrey
inefficient basic cooking stoves referred to as Stove capturing 25 percent and 14 percent of
three-stones or Siam/Mong stoves. the woodfuel cook stove market, respectively, a
significant success. Over the decade to the end
Some progress has been made in introducing of 2014, more than 3.6 million improved cook
improved stoves (Table 3.2). With better stoves were sold. Production and distribution
insulation and a smaller combustion chamber, provide employment to more than 550 workers,
the New Laos Stove allows significant fuel savings especially in Kampong Chhnang.
of around 20 percent compared to traditional

Table 3.2.

Main improved cook stoves currently in use in Cambodia79

New Lao Stove Neang Kongrey Stove

Retail price $1.6
$3.5

New Lao Stove Manufacturing country Cambodia
Cambodia
High power efficiency

24.1% (wood), 29.1% (charcoal) 25.5%

Low power specific fuel consumption (MJ/min/l)

Neang Kongrey Stove 0.036 (wood), 0.028 (charcoal) 0.035

Source: GERES.

NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 68

Switching from woodfuel to alternative energy

An example of moving away from charcoal use to 1.7 million tons of wood. A significant share
altogether involves the industrial and community of paddy is exported to neighbouring countries
production of char-briquettes. These can be made such as Thailand or processed locally, however,
from several types of widely available biomass. In which diminishes the potential for rice husk to
Phnom Penh, Khmer Green Charcoal produces become a more broadly used energy source.
and sells char-briquettes made from coconut
shells and charcoal wastes. Some entrepreneurs are Brick and cement factories absorb a significant
working to develop bamboo pellets and briquettes share of what is produced, as do some food-
to replace wood for industrial use. processing industries located close to rice mills.
In the garment industry, the use of rice husk
Rice husk can replace fuelwood use for the briquettes instead of firewood has already been
industrial sector.80 Rick husk generates fuel, heat a major climate change mitigation action. Actual
or electricity through thermal, chemical or bio available residues are unknown and depend on
processes, and is in ready supply, with more than many different factors, including distance to
8 million tons of paddy milled in 2014.81 With markets, distance from neighbouring countries
no agricultural use, rice husk could become a key and other primary users.
source of energy. National production potential
could be more than 2 million tons, corresponding

Coconut shells Rice husk briquettes
Photo credits: GERES

Challenges in promoting to pay. As a result, regulations are rarely followed,
sustainable woodfuel and very few permits are obtained for legal
options firewood harvesting and charcoal production.

Cambodia’s Forestry Law requires permits to Illegal production and trade of woodfuels creates
use, produce, transport and trade forest and non- several notable challenges. There is little incentive
timber forest products.82 The Protected Area Law for producers to invest in sustainable production
prohibitscommercialextraction offorest products, or improve energy efficiency, as most wood
non-timber forest products and fuelwood.83 is readily available at very low cost. Similarly,
industrial users have limited motivation to
Procedures for obtaining permits for woodfuel switch to other energy sources such as briquettes
are complex and expensive, lowering incentives to from rice husk or bamboo, as these cost at least
apply. Fines for violations are very high, at a level 50 percent more. Sustainably produced charcoal
that most producers and distributors cannot afford and firewood cannot compete in the market given
higher prices related to ensuring sustainability on
top of formal taxation, among other issues.

69 NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019

Ecosystem sustainability, Recommendations management. Few commercial timber
human development and operations or plantations provide woodfuel,
Cambodia’s longer-term Ecosystem sustainability, human development which is a missed opportunity. Residues from
energy transition hinge in and Cambodia’s longer-term energy transition timber production84 are significant, and could
large part on the sustainable hinge in large part on the sustainable production supply many charcoal and fuelwood operations.
production and consumption and consumption of woodfuel. Integrated production models that combine co-
Extend law enforcement: Moving in that production of roundwood and fuelwood could
of woodfuel direction could begin by recognizing that it is yield a significant amount of woodfuel. This
inefficient and ineffective to regulate charcoal can generate short-term income from woodfuel
Figure 3.8. production mainly through fines leveraged at production and long-term higher value income
production sites. To apply regulations more from roundwood production.
comprehensively, the Government could build Introduce a low-cost sustainable woodfuel
“charcoal checkpoints” into existing police traffic certification scheme. This could encourage
control systems. This would boost regulation as sustainable production. It would entail standards
well as taxation, which could then be directed and labelling to regulate the entire fuelwood and
towards incentivizing sustainable production charcoal production chain, making it possible to
and preventing illegal production. ensure that certified charcoal is not mixed with
Enable fuelwood production through non-sustainable charcoal. Certification schemes
plantations and sustainable forest could target wood producers for sustainable
forest management, and charcoal producers and
distributors for chain of custody.85 See Figure 3.8.

Chain of Custody Certification Scheme

Source: GERES.

Introduce differentiated taxation to If well designed, the system could generate
incentivize sustainable woodfuel production. funds for local law enforcement, and support
the development of local livelihoods and
This would tax non-sustainable woodfuels that community forestry activities. A value added
originate from free firewood collection in forest tax exemption for sustainable woodfuel and
areas at higher rates than sustainably sourced alternative sustainable energy sources could be
woodfuels. Table 3.3 presents a model inspired applied across the market, making these options
by a scheme implemented in Chad. Effectiveness more competitive.
requires chain of custody certification schemes
as well as an efficient law enforcement system.

NATIONAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT CAMBODIA 2019 70

Table 3.3.

Differential taxation for incentivizing community-based firewood harvesting

Beneficiaries Sustainably Open access Illegal
managed exploitation

Household Energy and Environment Agency 100 riels 2,000 riels 4,000 riels

Ministry of Finance 100 riels 2,000 riels 4,000 riels

Local management structures 1,000 riels

Community 800 riels

Total 2,000 riels 4,000 riels 8,000 riels

Source: GERES.

Create producer and consumer networks and restaurants. This would enable producers
for community forestry-sourced woodfuel. to reduce transaction costs associated with
The marketing and distribution of sustainable marketing.
woodfuel, including that sourced from
community forestry, faces the significant Provide technical and financial assistance
challenge of competing with illegally sourced for energy efficiency and fuel switching. This
and much cheaper woodfuel. Furthermore, should initially be targeted to charcoal producers
community forestry products have limited with the smallest investment capacity, as a way
market differentiation and access. To improve to improve their current practices and kiln-
this situation, producer and consumer networks building, before promoting new technologies.
for community forestry-sourced woodfuel could Transformational change will need to be driven
be established. by campaigns targeting factories and clients to
increase awareness of the benefits of legal and
On the production side, cooperatives could form, sustainable charcoal for forest ecosystems and
linking registered community forests, traditional human well-being.
charcoal producers and distributors. They could
aid production, processing, distribution and Provide initial financing support: Even if
marketing. Cooperatives could also provide the above interventions are achieved, some
assistance with technology and knowledge sustainable woodfuel initiatives will not be fully
transfer, and make investments in enrichment competitive in the market in the short term.
planting and assisted natural regeneration of trees Initial financing will be necessary to catalyse and
with high potential for charcoal. Complementary accelerate transformation of the sector.
regulatory support would help community
forestry groups remain competitive through
operating small chainsaws and moto-trailers for
fuelwood harvesting and transport.

On the consumer side, modern technology
such as a smartphone app to order sustainable
charcoal could be introduced to develop a base
of regular consumers, such as among households