b. This analysis can be advantageous and useful to the ...

b. This analysis can be advantageous and useful to the readers, especially to the
students of English Department or those who are interested in sociolinguistics.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is one of study about language in related by society condition.

Hudson (1980:4) says that sociolinguistics is study of language in relation to society,
while Wardaugh (1998:12) states that sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating
the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better
understanding of the structure of language and how languages function in
communication. While Gumperz in Wardaugh (1998:11) states that sociolinguistics is
an attempt to find correlations between social structure and linguistic structure and to
observe any changes that occurs.

There are several possible relationships between language and society. One is that
social structure may either influence or determine linguistic structure and behavior.
Certain evidence may be adduced to support this view : the agegrading phenomenon
whereby young children speak differently from older children and in turn children
speak differently from mature adults ; studies which show that the varieties of
language that speakers use reflect such matter as their regional, social, or etnic origin
and posssibly even their sex (or gender) and other studies which show that particular
ways of speaking, choices of words and even rules for conversing are in fact highly

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determind by certain social requirements. The second possible relationship is directly
opposed to the first: linguistic structure and behavior may either influence or
determine social structure. The third possible relationship is that the influence is bi-
directional: language and society may influence each other. One variant of this
approach is that this influence is dialectical in nature. The fourth possibility is to
assume that there is no relationship at all between linguistic structure and social
structure and that each is independent of the other. A variant of this possibility would
be to say that, although there might be some such relationship, present attempts to
characterize it are essentially premature, given what we know about both language
and society. Actually, this variant views an asocial linguistic as a preliminary to any
other kind of linguistic, such as asocial approach being in his view, logically prior.

2.2 Bilingual
Bilingualism can be regarded as the ability to cummunicate in two languages, but

with greater skills in one language. While the people which interrelated in, it called
billingual. A bilingual person is, in its broadest definition, anyone with
cummunicative skills in two languages, be it active or passive. The term bilingual is
often reserved for those speakers with native or native like proficiency in two
languages. A bilingual people can be narrowly defined like able to express itself
perfectly in two languages.

Bloomfield (1993:56) definite the bilingualism as “ability of a speaker in using
two languages, in case the using of the first language as good as the second language.”
According to bloomfield, someone called bilingual if she/he can use the first language
as well as the second language. Many people asked about Bloomfield’s concept about
bilingualism, it is because, first, how to measure the ability of the speaker in

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mastering two languages that they use, second, is there any speaker that using the
second language as well as the first language. If there is, it is rarely to find someone
who can master two languages as well. And in the fact, it is more common for
bilingual people even those who been bilingual since birth to be somewhat
“dominant” in one language. Whereas, someone who learn second language, the
ability in mastering second language is always below the ability of first language.

2.3 Code
According to Marjohan (1998:48) says, “code is a term which refers to a variety.”

Thus a code may be an idiolect, a dialect,a socielect, a register or a language. A
speaker has a linguistic repertoire which consists of various codes. Thus he usually
has a set of codes, each code having certain function or maybe some of them have
similar fucntion. In a monolingual situation, the use of different codes depends on the
variability of the language. In a multilingual situation the use of different codes
depends on the variability of the languages and specification of their uses as agreed
upon by the people. When the speakers have two codes with each having specific
functions, the speakers have a stable diglosia.

Holmes (2001:23) draws “three important social factors in code choice –
participant, setting and topic.” Holmes also states that three are other factors that
contributed to the appropriate choice of code. They are social distance, status,
formality and function or goal of the interaction. The social distance dimension is
relevant. How well does the speaker know each other, i.e., what is the social distance
between the speakers? Are they strangers, friends, brothers? The status relationship
between people may be relevant in selecting the appropriate code. Social role may
also be important and is often a factor contributing to status differences between

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people. For example, teacher-pupil, doctor-patient, soldier-civilian, priest-parishioner,
official-citizen. Features of the setting and the dimention of formality may also be
important in selecting an appropriate variety or code. In church, at aformal ceremony,
the appropriate variety will be different from that used afterwards in the church porch.
The variety used for a formal radio lecture will differ from that used for adverts.
Another relevant factor is the function or goal of the interaction. What is the language
being used for? Is the speaker asking a favor or giving orders to someone?

People are usually required to select a particular code when ever they choose to
speak and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes
even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code. The
phenomenon in switch or mix the code called code switching and code mixing.

2.3.1 Code Switching
Code swithcing can be generally defined as the phenomenon wherein a bior

multilingual speaker shifts from one language to another in the course of a
conversation. According to Gal in Wardaugh (1998:100) says that code switching is a
conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy boundaries; to create, evoke
or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations. Code switching is
also known as a term in linguistics referring to using more than one language or
variety in conversation. Bilinguals, who can speak at least two language, have ability
to use elements of both languages when conversing with another bilingual. In another
manner, Gardner-Chloros in Coupland and Jaworski (1997:361) states that code
switching can be defined as the use of two or more languages in the same
conversation or utterance. Thelander (2004:115) says “ bila di dalam suatu peristiwa
tutur terjadi peralihan dari satu klausa suatu bahasa ke klausa bahasa lain, maka

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peristiwa yang terjadi adalah alih kode.” (when there is a switching from one clause
of a language to another clause of other language occur in a conversation so it called
code switching).

2.3.1.1 Types of Code Switching
Suwito in Chaer and Agustina, (2004:114) divides code switching into two

types, they are:
1. Extern Code Switching

Extern Code Switching occurs when one language is switched into another
language in different group of language, for example bahasa indonesia is switched
into English or in versa.
2. Intern Code Switching
Intern Code Switching occurs when one language is switched into another
language in the same group of language. The language is switched into another
variant. For example, in Javanese language, Jawa Ngoko language is switched into
Jawa Krama language. But if there is switching from Bataknese into Javanese, it is
also called intern code switching. It is because the switching occurs in one group of
language that is Bahasa Indonesia.

2.3.1.2 Factors of Code Switching
1. Conversant
A conversant sometimes switches the code with another conversant
because of certain purpose. For example, to change formal situation to
informalsituation and in versa.
2. Background of language

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If the first conversant and the second conversant have a similar
background of language, they will switch the code in variant switching
form but if the first conversant and the second conversant have a different
background of language, they will switch the code in language switching
form.
3. The appearance of the third conversant
If the third conversant has the different background of language with the
first and the second conversant, they usually do code switching to
neutralize the situation and to respect the appearance the third conversant.
4. Topic
Topic is the dominant factor in determining code switching. The formal
topic is usually served in neutral and serious style of language and
informal topic is usually served in relax of language.

2.3.2 Code Mixing
Code mixing refers to the mixture of two or more languages or language

varieties in speech. Wardaugh (1998:103) says, ”code mixing occurs when conversant
use both languages together to the extent that they change from one language to the
other in the course of single utterance.” It meants that the conversant just change some
of the elements in their utterance. Code mixing takes place without change of topic
and can involve levels of language. And as Thelander in Chaer and Agustina
(2004:115) says that “apabila di dalam suatu peristiwa tutur, klausa-klausa maupun
frase-frase yang digunakan terdiri dari klausa dan frase campuran (hybrid
clauses,hybrid phrases) dan masing-masing klausa atau frase itu tidak lagi
mendukung fungsi sendiri-sendiri, maka peristiwa yang terjadi adalah campur kode.”

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(if in the single utterance the clauses and the phrases used are hybrid clause or hybrid
phrases and each clause or phrase does not support the function of clause and phrase,
it is called code mixing).

2.3.2.1 Types of code mixing
Suwito in Chaer and Agustina (2004:114) is devided code mixing in two

types, they are :
1. Inner Code Mixing

“Campur kode ke dalam (inner Code Mixing) adalah campur kode yang
bersumber dari bahasa asli dengan segala variasinya.” Inner Code Mixing occurs,
if the speaker inserts the elements of their own language into national language, the
elements of dialect into their own language, or elements of varieties and style into
their dialect.
2. Outer Code Mixing
“Campur kode keluar (outer code mixing) adalah campur kode yang bersumber
dari bahasa asing.” Outer Code Mixing occurs if the speaker insert the element of
their own language into foreign language.

2.3.2.2 Factors Code Mixing
1. The using of elements from one certain language in sentece or foreign
discourse.
2. The complusion of technology might be mentioned as a need feeling
motive.
3. Actually happen on situation of informal conversation and pushed by
prestige filling motive.

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4. The language is dynamic, this parallel with the globalization of
development.

5. The limited Indonesian, there are many foreign terminology. If it put in
Indonesian, the meaning will be hazy/vague and sometimes it wouldn’t
practice.

6. There’s image, if using the foreign terminology, it seems intellect and
good. The case in village society in Indonesia, if the society using
Indonesia it seems like people is an intellect person. In many cities the
foreign. Language becomes the icon of the intellectuality.

2.4 similarity and difference between Code Switching and Code Mixing
It is not easy to determine one situation whether it is code switching and code

mixing. It is because there is no exact standardization to determine them. But for
simple understanding, it is better to understand the similarity and different between
code switching and code mixing. As Chaer and Agustina (2004:114) states the
similarity between code switching and code mixing “ kesamaan yang ada antara alih
kode dan campur code adalah digunakannya dua bahasa atau lebih atau dua varian
dari sebuah bahasa dalam satu masyarakat tutur”. (Similarity between cede switching
and code mixing is both of the phenomenons occur in multilingual society which is
using two languages or more). But there is a real different between these
phenomenons which is code switching still have its autonomy, doing in conscious
because of certain causes while code mixing is a major code or basic code which is
used having a function. More specific, Thelander in Chaer and Agustina (2004:115)

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states that perbedaan alih kode dan campur kode adalah bila di dalam suatu
peristiwa tutur terjadi peralihan dari satu klausa suatu bahasa ke klausa bahasa lain,
maka peristiwa yang terjadi adalah alih kode. Tetapi apabila di dalam suatu
peristiwa tutur, klausa-klausa maupun frase-frase yang digunakan terdiri dari klausa
dan frase campuran (hybrid clauses,hybrid phrases) dan masing-masing klausa atau
frase itu tidak lagi mendukung fungsi sendiri-sendiri, maka peristiwa yang terjadi
adalah campur kode. (The difference between code switching and code mixing is
when there is a switching from one clause of a language to another clause of other
language occur in a conversation, so it called code switching. But when in a
conversation, the clauses or phrases which are used consist of hybrid clauses and
hybrid phrases and each of clause or phrase not support the autonomy function, it
called code mixing).

2.5 Reason for bilinguals to Switch or to Mix Language
Except the factors of code switching and code mixing, there are some reasons for

bilinguals to switch or mix their languages, they are:
1. Talking about a particular topic

People sometimes prefer to talk about particular topic in one language rathen than
in another. Sometimes a speaker feels free and more comfortable to express their
emotional feelings in a language that is not their everyday language.
2. Quoting somebody else
People sometimes like to qoute a famous expression or saying of some well-known
figures. In Indonesian, those well-known figures are mostly from some English-
speaking countries. Then, because many of Indonesian people nowadays are good

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in English, those famous expressions or saying can be qouted intact intheir original
language.
3. Being emphatic about something
Usually, when someone who is talking using a language that is not his native
tongue suddenly wants to be emphatic about something, he/she, either intentionally
or unintentionally, will switch from his second language to his first language. Or ,
on the other hand, there are some cases where people feel more convenient to be
emphatic in their second language rather than in their first language.
4. Interjection (inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors)
Language switching and language mixing among bilingual or multilingual people
can sometimes mark an interjection or sentence connector. It may happen
unintentionally or intentionally.
5. Repetition used for clarification
When a bilingual wants to clarify his/her speech so that it will be understood more
by the listener, he/she can sometimes use both of the languages that he masters
saying the same utterance (the utterance is said repeatedly).
6. Intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor
When bilingual talks to another bilingual, there will be lots of code switching and
code mixing occur. It means to make the content of his/her speech runs smoothly
and can be understood by hearer.
7. Expressing group identity.
Cede switching and code mixing can be also used to express group identity. As it
has been mentioned previously, the way of communication of academic people in
their disciplinary groupings are obviously different from other group. In other

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