Fall 2020 UPDATE on Research and Leadership

UPDATE
ON RESEARCH AND LEADERSHIP

PARENTING STUDENTS IN ADVANCING EQUITY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION CAREER AND TECHNICAL

How can integrative institutional EDUCATION IN ILLINOIS
supports address the
multidimensional needs of a highly Ways equity-conscious evaluation
diverse population of learners? can help close equity gaps in CTE
(p. 8) programs of study.
(p. 12)

The Multiple and Vol. 30, No. 1
Nuanced Ways
Universities
Perpetuate Settler
Colonial Aims of
Erasure for
Indigenous Students

An interview with Dr. Heather
Shotton on redefining P-20
educational landscapes to reflect
indigenous student knowledges
(p. 4)

Fall 2020

2 UPDATE - FALL 2020

The Office of Community College Research and Leadership (OCCRL) was established in 22
1989 at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. OCCRL is affiliated
with the Department of Educational Policy, Organization, & Leadership in
the College of Education. Projects of this office are supported by the Illinois
Community College Board and the Illinois State Board of Education, along with
other state, federal, private, and not-for-profit organizations. The content within
publications does not necessarily represent the positions or policies of our sponsors
or the University of Illinois. Comments or inquiries about our publications are
welcome and should be directed to [email protected]. The UPDATE is prepared
pursuant to a grant from the Illinois Community College Board (Federal Award
Identification Number: Grant Number: D55381). ©2020 Board of Trustees,
University of Illinois.

4
12

16

UPDATE on Research and
Leadership is a biannual newsletter with

articles on programs, policies, and research that
highlights transitions to, through, and out of
postsecondary education. Sign up via the

8 OCCRL mailing list to receive regular news and updates
from OCCRL.

UPDATE - FALL 2020 3

DIRECTOR’S NOTE CONTENTS

This fall marks the normalization of navigating 04 THE MULTIPLE AND NUANCED WAYS
unmatched times as the country and our colleges UNIVERSITIES PERPETUATE SETTLER
respond to a national health, economic, racial, COLONIAL AIMS OF ERASURE FOR
climate, and leadership crises. The year 2020 INDIGENOUS STUDENTS
has been marked as one of the most challenging Dr. Heather Shotton
periods globally. It also is a sobering time given
the coronavirus pandemic has lifted the veil on 08 PARENTING STUDENTS IN HIGHER
disenfranchisement and inequity across populations EDUCATION BENEFIT FROM COMMUNITY
that were marginalized and underserved prior COLLEGES, BUT MORE RESEARCH IS
to COVID-19. More than ever, having capable, NEEDED
diverse, and inclusive practitioners, scholars and Marielisbet Perez
policymakers are needed to bridge opportunities
and close student equity gaps. This issue of 12 ADVANCING EQUITY IN CAREER AND
UPDATE on Research and Leadership underscores TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN ILLINOIS
our core values, calling for decolonizing practices Dr. Chaddrick James-Gallaway, Jason A. Keist, and
that produce equitable student experiences and Dr. Marci Rockey
outcomes. We explore how special populations
such as parenting students and Latinx collegians 16 LATINX COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS:
navigate higher education. Also of note is how NAVIGATING PATHWAYS TO THE
imperative coupling an equity agenda is with the DOCTORATE
completion agenda as we explore student transfer Marielisbet Perez & Dr. José Del Real Viramontes
and mobility. Additionally, we highlight the equity
initiatives supported by the Illinois Community 22 FOSTER YOUTH AND BASIC-NEEDS
College Board in career-technical education as INSECURITY
well as consider the current climate for former Dra. Nidia Ruedas-Gracia, Chequita S. Brown,
foster youth. This issue of UPDATE illustrates how Dr. Mauriell Amechi, Dr. Eboni M. Zamani-
community colleges can be the sites for catalyzing Gallaher, and Nathaniel M. Stewart
socially just education for diverse learners. I hope
you find the contents of UPDATE thoughtful Our mission is to use research and
and action provoking. Please remember to pass it
along and stay connected with us on Facebook, evaluation methods to improve policies,
LinkedIn, and Twitter. programs, and practices to enhance
Eboni M. Zamani-Gallaher community college education and transition
to college for diverse learners at the state,
national, and international levels.

Follow Us!

Editor-at-Large: Eboni M. Zamani-Gallaher
Managing Editors: Eboni M. Zamani-Gallaher and Sal Nudo
Copy Editor: Sal Nudo
Graphic Designer: Jason A. Keist

4 UPDATE - FALL 2020

The Multiple and
Nuanced Ways
Universities Perpetuate
Settler Colonial Aims
of Erasure for
Indigenous Students

An OCCRL interview with

Dr. Heather Shotton

Dr. Heather Shotton is an associate professor in Educational Leadership about, and a lot has been written about, the “failure of Indigenous
and Policy Studies at the University of Oklahoma. Her research centers students.” But we haven’t really talked about the real issue, which
on Indigenous students in higher education and Indigenous women, is the failure of institutions in schools, in schooling systems, to
particularly in the areas of leadership and Indigenous women in Indigenous students.
academia. She co-edited the book Beyond the Asterisk: Understanding We have to recognize the strengths that Indigenous students bring,
Native Students in Higher Education (Stylus), which addresses strategies the incredible cultural knowledge that Indigenous students bring.
for serving Native college students. Dr. Shotton is a strong advocate for And when we see institutions, whether it be K-12 or institutions
Native education and serves Native students and communities on local of higher education, that are grounded in ancestral knowledge and
and national levels. She is the past president of the National Indian cultural pedagogies, one only has to look to our tribal colleges and
Education Association and a former recipient of the NIEA Educator universities to see what this looks like. When we have institutions
of the Year. The following conversation took place during a Democracy’s that honor Indigenous people, Indigenous knowledge, then we see
College podcast interview with Dr. Shotton as the guest and OCCRL where Indigenous students thrive.
Director Eboni Zamani-Gallaher asking the questions.

Dr. Zamani-Gallaher: That centering of Indigenous knowledge and the cultural strengths
In looking at some of your works, one thing you have noted is that of Indigenous students is critical. I think aspects of community and
the attrition rate for American Indian students is higher than that relationships with support systems, whether it be within institutions,
of any other racial and ethnic group. Could you share with us some within community, or with family, all of those, I think, are important
factors that you think would encourage persistence among American factors that contribute to persistence in graduation. And I think
Indian collegians? we have to re-examine the motivation of Indigenous students.
Dr. Heather Shotton: We have to stop looking at motivation in education as one that is
I think when we look at Indigenous students, both in higher purely grounded in capitalism and kind of neoliberal aims and that
education and in K-12 education, what we see is a disconnect between is centered on the individual. And think about what is motivating
curriculum and between approaches to teaching and cultural values, Indigenous students to go to college.
cultural knowledge. We also see a number of socioeconomic factors Over and over we’ve found that it has to do with reciprocity and
as we look at issues of where our students are enrolling in schools really framing it within Native nation building. And so if we
and what the resources are for those schools. We understand a lot understand why Indigenous students are going to college, and what

UPDATE - FALL 2020 5

it is they’re trying to get out of it, so that they can go back to their you share how there’s this really unique and complex nature of
tribal communities and help to build up tribal nations, then I think racism that’s experienced by Native women, and particularly within
it helps us to better understand how we shape curriculum, how we academic contexts and when pursuing advanced graduate education.
support and serve Native students, and how we interact with them Can you share your findings, especially given that there’s been so little
in these spaces. examination around the subtle and overt forms of racial antipathy
Dr. Zamani-Gallaher: experienced by Native women.
What are some other holistic strategies, whether it be in a TCU Dr. Heather Shotton:
environment or at a historically white institutional context, that can That piece was challenging because one of the things that I argue is
effectively address opportunity gaps for Indigenous learners? the very basis of our understanding of sovereignty and the distinction,
Dr. Heather Shotton: the unique place of Indigenous people and what Bryan Brayboy refers
It’s looking at students as whole human beings and treating them as to as this liminal space that we occupy as both racialized and political
whole human beings. We see that, again, TCUs are a great example people. So it was difficult discussing these racial microaggressions
of being guided by cultural practices and cultural knowledge, because simultaneously they’re also these settler aggressions, which I
Indigenous knowledge systems that really tends to the whole person. don’t go into it in the piece.
And I think in non-TCUs, we have to take our cues and look at That particular piece really deals with the racism that Indigenous
what TCUs are doing well and how they’re doing it well, how they’re women encounter in academia, and those examples are based truly
serving Indigenous students well. And think about how we actually in racist ideologies around who Indigenous people are, based in
think about the whole student rather than thinking about them as beliefs of White supremacy. The other side of that is that there also
products and outcomes and measures. what might aptly be termed “settler aggressions,” because those can
come from multiple populations that really, at the root, have issues
When we have institutions that honor of eraser as part of those aggressions.
Indigenous people, But in the piece, I think what came out over and over is this
really complicated space that Indigenous women encounter, not
Indigenous knowledge, unlike other women of color, where how we communicate, how
then we see where that’s perceived, how that’s immediately perceived as a threat or as
Indigenous students aggressive, no matter how we’re communicating. Really, it’s about
what we’re communicating and our very presence that is the threat in
thrive. these spaces. It’s this discrediting of knowledge, so there’s these micro
invalidations of, we can’t possibly be experts of our own experiences
I don’t know how much we often consider how harmful our or our own knowledge systems. Even when we’re talking about issues
institutions are, and that a real fear that we have is that when of Indigenous communities or education or whatever it might be,
Indigenous students come into our institutions, are we doing more that someone else, often white men, know better than we do. It’s this
harm than good? Yes, we want them to graduate, but we want them very paternalistic engagement where, again, there’s no way we could
to leave whole, happy human beings who are better than when they possibly know better than someone else about our own experiences.
came to us. The other piece I thought was really interesting, and what inspired
When I have the opportunity to meet my students when they graduate, the title for the article, was the way that Indigenous people and
when I meet their families, I often say, “Thank you for sharing your Indigenous women are made into these exotic objects that exist
child with us.” And my hope is that we return them to you in a better outside of consciousness. So the “I Thought You’d Call Her White
way and that we haven’t recreated harm for them and that we have Feather” actually came from an example from one of the women that
cared for them. I think framing that as our responsibilities to students came out of my dissertation study. What she described is she went
and thinking about students and our responsibilities is relative. So to her chair, she was writing up her findings, and she had come up
how do we be a good relative to students? How are institutions good with pseudonyms for the people in her study. And they weren’t your
relatives? And in that framing, it necessitates our accountability to Eurocentric European names, I guess, and her chair says to her, “Oh,
one another, our responsibility to those relationships, and to the I thought you would have called them something like White Feather
well-being of the people that we’re in relationships with. Thinking or Babbling Brook or something like that.” And the woman who was
more holistically about the whole human and framing it as how we’re telling this story, she was like, ‘I don’t know what kind of BS name
being good relatives to one another. she thought I was going to come up with.’ Her perception of who
Dr. Zamani-Gallaher: an Indigenous person is and what that is was so far off and trying to
In your publication, “‘I Thought You’d Call Her White Feather’: disrupt that agency. It was really like this kind of exotic stereotypical
Native Women and Racial Microaggressions in Doctoral Education,” notion of who Indigenous women are, like this Disney Pocahontas,
like all the “Colors of the Wind” kind of image that people think
of when they think about Indigenous women, but it’s really, really
harmful. And we see that in so many ways.

6 UPDATE - FALL 2020

And the other piece is that we often don’t think about racism when standards, what you would teach a kindergartner about sovereignty
it comes to Native people. We often don’t think about what that and how you introduce that is very different, clearly, than what you
experience is and how Indigenous people uniquely experience racism. would do with a 12th grader.

Dr. Zamani-Gallaher: So I think those are great examples, and then I think we see
There are few examples of American education that truly addresses particular universities and colleges that are working to create cohorts
and integrates American Indian sovereignty curriculum. As tribal of Indigenous teachers and educational leaders that are based in
sovereignty calls for active cultivation of government to government Indigenous knowledges—University of Oregon’s a great example.
relations between schools and tribes, as well as the requirement of University of New Mexico has its NALE program and they’re
making sure Native voices are in the curriculum content, can you developing something similarly with Dr. Robin Minthorn at the
share places or examples that you feel serve as models for promising University of Washington at Tacoma.
practices? Dr. Zamani-Gallaher:
Dr. Heather Shotton: I wanted to ask about how educational leaders, as well as the faculty
There are two promising examples. One is in Montana and the other members themselves, can really work and endeavor to advance
is in the state of Washington. And this is particularly when we think decolonization of P-20 education.
about state-level curriculum and Montana’s Indian Education for Dr. Heather Shotton:
All, which I think was an initial example for many of us that other It’s so challenging because to do that requires a disruption of privilege.
states have and are attempting to follow. When we’re asking our colleagues and faculty and administrators in
And Washington has a similar approach and actually provides really colleges of education to decolonize, or to even enter into this work
great resources. One of the things we talk about is that it’s one thing with de-colonial aims, we’re asking them to willingly disrupt their
power and privilege, and that’s not an easy sell. Though I think when
Indigenous societies we truly understand how that benefits all of us, and it’s not just
and governments Indigenous people, when we approach things with decolonial aims,
and knowledges have how that benefits communities and how we think about education,
survived for millennia, how we approach education, how we approach our work, I think it’s
so there’s something to important to acknowledge that first because we’re asking people to
be learned from that. willingly give up and disrupt power and privilege.
The other thing is asking our colleagues to really reflect and
for states to mandate in curriculum standards that there has to be interrogate our systems and how our systems are set up in teacher
some inclusion of sovereignty education or Indigenous peoples. prep programs and educational leadership—how we even conceive of
If you don’t couple that with actual resources for educators, then leadership. How we think about educational leadership departments
what’s the point? So you’re setting up these standards- and programs, how we’re preparing educational leaders. Even the
concepts of leadership as this very hierarchical, really kind of colonial
concept of what leadership means, as opposed to what we can learn
from Indigenous concepts of leadership and Indigenous framings of
leadership and how that is centered in the collective and community
and how that benefits and work so much better. Indigenous societies
and governments and knowledges have survived for millennia, so
there’s something to be learned from that.

Dr. Zamani-Gallaher: So really interrogating that and reflecting on how we even define our
Unfunded mandates. approaches and how we define leadership, how we define education
Dr. Heather Shotton: and how we think of education as existing in this box.
Yes! Unfunded and beyond funding, un-resourced. We expect Dr. Zamani-Gallaher:
educators to come to know and be familiar with sovereignty, but As an activist scholar and leader, how do you mitigate burnout, for
sovereignty is complex. It is particularly nuanced, and it’s a whole those of us who want to stay the course?
area of law that people study. When we’re asking educators to not Dr. Heather Shotton:
only to become familiar but to become somewhat expert enough to If I said I don’t experience fatigue and don’t experience burnout,
translate it into curriculum and into their teaching, we’re asking a lot then that wouldn’t be honest because I do. I try my best; I don’t
if we’re not providing them with adequate resources. know that I’m always successful. One of the ways that I do that is
Then the other side of that is how many of our colleges of education that I often refer to my sister scholars, my Indigenous sister scholars.
are actually preparing teachers to tackle this? Washington is, I That community and those relationships, that family, is really critical
think, another great example where there’s an entire website for for me in these spaces because it’s not just the, you know, we write
the state, where they provide resources and curriculum examples. together, we think together, we push each other in our scholarship,
And especially when we’re thinking about K-12, all these different but more importantly, we’re accountable to one another. So that

UPDATE - FALL 2020 7

everything that I’m doing is based in love and relationship, then I
have to first and foremost honor that love and those relationships
with my family.” There’s nothing like having two teenage daughters
to keep you humble, right? And to make you laugh and to not take
yourself too seriously. On the one hand, while everything I’m doing
is inspired by them and is for them and for everyone that will come
after them, the other part of that is that they remind me about the
importance of laughter and of love. In those spaces I’m just Mom,
and that’s a great, great feeling.
I think family is really critical, and then for me the other aspect is
ceremony, maintaining and tending to my own spirituality and my
responsibilities and my family’s responsibilities in ceremony. And so
being forced to shift how I think about where my responsibilities lie
and that that also sustains me, and so it’s all connected. That sustains
how I am able to function in these spaces because those are things
that are much older than any of these institutions, than any of these
settler notions and logics that exist in these spaces that have existed
and survived and that have a purpose in our lives. I think those are
the things that really help me to mitigate those issues of burnout and
fatigue and how I interact in these spaces.
Dr. Zamani-Gallaher:
Is there a call to action you have for educators and how they can
advance equitable student outcomes for American Indian learners?
Dr. Heather Shotton:
Honor Indigenous knowledge, which also requires honoring our
relationship to land and place and honoring sovereignty and self-
determination of our tribal nations. And the critical knowledges
and understandings of the world that we bring as valuable, which
ultimately means honoring Indigenous people.

Dr. Eboni M. Zamani-Gallaher, Ph.D., can be reached at
[email protected]

means we celebrate together, we mourn together, we focus on Dr. Heather Shotton, Ph.D., can be reached at
nurturing those relationships because those relationships are really [email protected]
what sustain.

So when it’s hard for one of us and you are surrounded by a
community of sisters that can help to lift you up and pull you up
when you’re fatigued, because sometimes I think those women see
me better than I see myself, and they are able to see me in critical
ways that I really need sometimes, especially in these spaces that
constantly communicate to us that we don’t belong here, we’re not
supposed to be here, we’re not smart enough, our scholarship isn’t
real scholarship. We take those assaults on a daily basis. And so
having those women around you and community members around
you who really are able to see you and remind you and tell you that
you’re great and you’re awesome and you’re amazing when you don’t
feel so amazing. When I’m looking beat down and feeling beat down
and dejected, for them to be able to say, “We see you.”

And I think that I’m really privileged to have a number of women This interview was part of OCCRL’s Democracy’s College podcast series,
outside of my Indigenous sister scholars who have become a part which focuses on P-20 education pathways and research and leadership
of that. And then my family. I think it’s really easy in these spaces that promotes educational equity, justice, and excellence for all students.
to get so focused on the work that I have to remind myself, “If

8 UPDATE - FALL 2020

Parenting Students in
Higher Education
Benefit from Community
Colleges, but More
Research is Needed

By Marielisbet Perez

Mothering and fathering students are present in society and
continue to enroll in institutions of higher education as a way of
advancing their knowledge, promoting educational attainment to
their children, managing a career change, and/or enhancing their
professional development (Goldrick-Rab, Minikel-Lacocque, &
Kinsley, 2011; Schumacher, 2013). Whatever their educational
interest may be, parenting students who are seeking higher
education credentials are raising children while managing their
familial lifestyles, maintaining employment, and managing school.
When it comes to the diversity represented in the parenting student
population, mothering and fathering students are individuals who
are raising children of all ages and with varied care necessities.
They may be single, married, divorced, widowed, separated, or in
a relationship. Mothering and fathering students may be raising
their children as a single parent or co-parenting with their children’s
biological mother or father. When it comes to parenting students’
households, their family may be a blended one, with children present
from current and/or previous relationships. The demographic
background of mothering and fathering students is racially/
ethnically diverse and includes different age groups, socioeconomic
levels, genders, gender non-conforming, and LGBTQIAparents.
Additionally, parenting students can identify as first-generation,
postsecondary students who are enrolled in certificate, associate,
baccalaureate, and postbaccalaureate programs across institutional
types and majors, with varied financial needs (Goldrick-Rab,
Minikel-Lacocque, Kinsley, 2011 Ogren, 2003).
This article provides an overview of parenting students by first
discussing how traditional and nontraditional labels are problematic
for this population of learners enrolled in higher education. In
particular, the community college context is valuable when
considering viable pathways for parenting students due to the open-
door mission, lower tuition, transfer function, closer proximity to
home and work (Madden, 2018). Parenting students require support,
inclusion on their campuses, and need a sense of connectedness
with their college communities. Without support services, such
as affordable campus based child care, parents school age children
may experience barriers in managing school (Askelson et al., 2020).
Hence, it is imperative to identify, serve, and support mothers and
fathers who are attempting to earn degrees while navigating work/
life balance amid school and family commitments.

UPDATE - FALL 2020 9

Parenting Students in Higher Education Beyond Deficit Labels of Parenting Students

The profile of students who are raising children in higher education No one definition defines parenting students. As a researcher of
cannot be defined by one title, label, or categorization. The parenting the parenting population in higher education, I draw from various
population is diverse, and those who make up this population have interpretations to discuss who these individuals are. When we
similarities and differences among them. Factors such as their think of the mothering and fathering students who are enrolled in
children’s ages and schooling, co-parenting relationships, day care higher education, it is crucial to consider them as having multiple
access and cost, financial status and income, marital/relationship identities, similar and different personal characteristics and statuses,
status, and employment all contribute to their efforts in accessing and diverse backgrounds. Parenting students often relate with one
and attaining degrees (Arcand, 2015; Nelson, Froehner, Gault, 2013; another because of the similar responsibilities they have in raising
Peterson, 2016). Age, race/ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, children and in maintaining student lifestyles.
ability, language, citizenship status, and other factors contribute to In higher education, we often use and hear terms and labels such as
their experiences and outcomes in higher education. nontraditional, traditional, first-generation, low-income, advantaged
Parenting students make up nearly a quarter (3.9 million) of and disadvantaged, and minority. These terms come with socially
undergraduate students in the U.S., and half of these students are constructed meanings, a social process that is defined by Ballantine
single parents (1.9 million) (Miller, Gault, & Thorman, 2011). (2007) as “conflicting functions of education,” which draws from
Within the low-income and first-generation student population, acts of “socialization,” “transmission of culture,” and “selecting,
over one-third of individuals are parents and students of color who training, and placement of individuals in society” (p. 28).
are managing school and family- simultaneously (Nelson, Froehner, The industrialization of society affects the educational process and
& Gault, 2013; Sallee & Cox, 2019). Students who are raising labeling of students by differentiating and categorizing them by
children are less likely to complete their undergraduate degrees race, gender, age, income, family status, educational background,
compared to students who do not have children. Nelson, Froehner,
and Gault (2013) reported that 53% of parents versus
31% of nonparents have a higher risk of leaving college
without a degree after six years.

The Community College Sector The demographic background of

Accessing and completing college degrees is not always mothering and fathering students
a smooth process for parenting students. Students who
are managing school and family lifestyles have specific
needs that non-parents do not require. Community is racially/ethnically diverse.
colleges specifically provide parenting students with
the opportunity to access education and complete
postsecondary credentials. Furthermore, community
colleges are more accessible to parenting students because
of their open-door admission policies, convenient locations, lower citizen status, and in other ways. As a researcher who is committed
tuition fees and costs, and flexible course schedules, which often to promoting access, persistence, and successes for parenting
includes night classes. The transfer function is another benefit of students and their families.
community colleges (Arcand, 2015; St. Rose & Hill, 2013), and 80%
of students in two-year institutions strive to earn a baccalaureate In particular, I am concerned by how we define parenting
degree or higher (Horn & Skomvold, 2011) with student parents students and how those definitions come with deficit views
being no exception. and misinterpretations of individuals’ potential without
considering the dynamics of white patriarchal status quo that
Nationally, the number of parenting students enrolled in pervades organizational culture, especially predominately white
postsecondary education institutions between 2004 to 2012 has institutions (DePouw & Matias, 2016). Many times for example,
increased by 30%, from 3.7 million to 4.8 million (Noll, Reichlin, parenting students of color are not considered to have cultural or
& Gault, 2017). Noll, Reichlin, and Gault (2017) reported that navigational capital as parents or as students let alone access to
26% of undergraduate students are raising children. Of the entire community cultural wealth drawn from their collectivist cultures
parenting student population nationally, community colleges enroll (Yosso, 2005). Parenting students, particularly those that are
45% (2.1 million) of those attending institutions of higher education first-generation collegians juggle managing the responsibilities of
(Noll, Reichlin, & Gault, 2017) and 15% of parenting students at raising their children while navigating, pursuit of their studies and
community colleges are single parents (American Association of seeking degree attainment (Perez, 2016; Peterson, 2016).
Community College, 2020).
Despite the published literature that discusses the diversity of current
and past student populations that are enrolled in higher education,
the traditional profile of students as being single, being between the
ages of 18 and 23 years old, and being childless is consistently

10 UPDATE - FALL 2020

considered the norm in higher education settings (Goldrick-Rab, to manage for mothering and fathering parents without affordable
Minikel-Lacocque, Kinsley, 2011 Ogren, 2003). The literature on childcare and student-support services that explicitly meet their
“nontraditional” students, indicate students are older (24+ years needs.
of age). They are often also transfer students, married, divorced, Conclusion
parents, full-time employees, part-time college attendees, and There is no one way to describe or define the diversity of parenting
individuals who delay college enrollment after graduating from students and their children. In higher education, labels get used
high school or receiving a GED (Brenden, Deli-Amen, & Rios- as a way of categorizing students and their necessities. Some of
Aguliar, 2015;U.S. Department of Education, 2015). However, the indicators within these classifications are based on students’
little is known about how all of the personal factors collectively socioeconomic status and income level, as well as their race/
contribute to or dampen their ability to enroll, retain, and complete ethnicity, their employment status, and their families’ educational
their degrees. Critically examining how students’ identities, backgrounds. Even within this grouping process, defining parenting
family statuses, and background characteristics contribute to students, and understanding how they manage to get through
their experiences and achievements is important in discerning the school and other challenges, is limited in the published literature
degree to which what has traditionally been considered hampering (Gault, Reichlin, Reynolds, & Frohner, 2014; Huelsman & Engle,
student mobility serves as a motivating factor (e.g., being a 2013; Kruvelis, Cruse, & Gault, 2017; Miller, Gault, & Thorman,
parenting student) for persistence and completion. 2011; Women Employed, 2012).
Institutional Support Needed by Parenting Students

Various studies point to the crucial function of institutional There are a variety of reasons why achieving a higher education
support in contributing to academic retention and degree credential is of relevance to students with children. Many mothering
completion by parenting students. A survey of the policies and and fathering students find themselves seeking credentials as a way
programmatic needs of pregnant and parenting students at a mid- of escaping poverty and providing better living conditions for
Atlantic state university found that few resources exist for students their children and families. When referring to the success stories
who have children as dependents (Brown & Nichols, 2012). The of parenting students in higher education, there is not a clear
study found that institutions of higher education, particularly understanding of how they navigate school and family life all at
universities, show little effort to support parenting students by once. While these inquiries are taken into consideration, mothers
implementing child-friendly spaces and family-friendly events on and fathers of all ages and diverse backgrounds continue to enroll
campus. in higher education institutions for an opportunity to advance their
For parenting students to feel a sense of belonging at their college educational attainment, with minimal to no support (Nichols,
campuses, institutions need to become aware of the challenges Biederman, & Gringle, 2017).
that mothering and fathering students manage while in school. Parenting students experience a lack of support and inclusiveness on
Institutional policies and practices must provide for a more inclusive many campuses therefore it is critically important that institutions
campus climate that is open to students from diverse backgrounds, are not ‘care-blind’ and offer more than just childcare but
which includes individuals with children and family-oriented wraparound services with integrative supports (i.e., campus based
lifestyles. Past research that has focused on parenting students institutional agents) (Sallee & Cox, 2019). As stated previously, most
who attend community colleges has found that affordable child of the research on parenting students focuses on the community
care, financial assistance, and course schedules to be the primary college yet more is needed. Research that examines mothering and
factors affecting parenting students’ ability to complete their fathering students’ intersecting identities and how these identities
credentials (Arcand, 2015; Goldrick-Rab, Minikel-Lacocque, & contribute to their successes and challenges in attaining credentials
Kinsley, 2011; Peterson, 2016). Mothering and fathering parents at the community college level and beyond would fill gaps in the
who are working toward their degrees must manage employment, existing literature. Lastly, differential statuses of fathering students,
courses, and family simultaneously. Childcare, therefore, is crucial for example, (single, co-parenting, divorced, or widowed) are
for parenting students who have elementary-age children and not included in the research on college men or student fathers’
younger. Attending college and completing degrees is challenging enrollment by institutional type in the published literature on

parenting students.

For parenting students to feel a sense
of belonging at their college campuses, Marielisbet Perez can be reached at
institutions need to become aware of the [email protected]
challenges that mothering and fathering

students manage while in school.

UPDATE - FALL 2020 11

References

American Association of Community Colleges. Fast facts. Miller, K., Gault, B., & Thorman, A. (2011). Improving child care
Washington, DC: Author. access to promote postsecondary success among low-income student
parents. Institute for Women’s Policy Research.
Arcand, C. (2015). How can community colleges better serve low-
income single-mother students? Lessons from the for-profit Nelson, B., Froehner, M., & Gault, B. (2013). College students with
sector. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, children are common and face many challenges in completing
39(12), 1187-1191. high education. Institute for Women’s Policy Research.

Askelson, N., Ryan, G., Pieper, F., Bash-Brooks, W., Rasmusson, Nichols, T. R., Biederman, D. J., & Gringle, M. R. (2017).
A., Greene, M., & Buckert, A. (2020). Perspectives on Organizational culture and university responses to parenting
implementation: Challenges and Successes of a program students: A case study. Journal of Student Affairs Research and
designed to support expectant and parenting community Practice, 54(1), 69-81.
college students in rural, midwestern state. Maternal and Child
Health Journal, 1-11. Noll, E., Reichlin, L., & Gault, B. (2017). College students with
children: National and regional profiles. Institute for Women’s
Ballantine, J. (2007). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis. Policy Research.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Press.
Ogren, C. A. (2003). Rethinking the “nontraditional” student
Brenden, S., Deil-Amen, R., & Rios-Aguilar, C. (2015). ‘Anyone from a historical perspective: State normal schools in the late
like me?’ Identity and social media among nontraditional-age nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The Journal of Higher
community college students. Selected Works, 1-28. Education, 74(6), 640-664.

Brown, V. & Nichols, T. R. (2012). Pregnant and parenting Perez, M. (2016). The voices of student-parents and their hurdles
students on campus: Policy and program implications for a to success in higher education [Unpublished master’s thesis].
growing population. Educational Policy, 27(3), 499-530. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

DePouw, C., & Matias, C. (2016). Critical race parenting: Peterson, S. (2016). Community college student-parents: priorities
Understanding scholarship/activism in parenting our children. for persistence. Community College Journal of Research and
Educational Studies, 52(3), 237-259. Practice, 40(5), 370-384.

Gault, B., Reichlin, L., Reynolds, E., & Froehner, M. (2014). 4.8 Sallee, M. W., & Cox, R. D. (2019). Thinking beyond Childcare:
million college students are raising children [IWPR #C424]. Supporting Community College Student-Parents. American
Washington, DC: Institute for Women’s Policy Research. Journal of Education, 125(4), 621-645.

Goldrick-Rab, S., Minikel-Lacocque, J., & Kinsley, P. (2011). Schumacher, R. (2013). Prepping colleges for parents: Strategies for
Managing to make it: The college trajectories of traditional-age supporting students parent success in postsecondary education.
students with children [Working paper]. The Wisconsin Scholar Working Paper. Institute for Women’s Policy Research.
Longitudinal Study.
St. Rose, A., & Hill, C. (2013). Women in community colleges:
Horn, L., & Skomsvold, P. (2011). Web tables: Community college Access to success. Washington, DC: American Association of
student outcomes: 1994–2009 (NCES Publication 2012-253). University Women (AAUW).
Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of
Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. Women Employed (2012). Low-income single mothers at community
colleges: Recommendations for practice to improve completion.
Huelsman, M., & Engle, J. (2013). Student parents and financial
aid. Institute for Women’s Policy Research. Yosso, T. J. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race
theory discussion of community culutral wealth. Race
Kruvelis, M., Cruse, L. R., & Gault, B. (2017). Single mothers in Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69-91.
college: Growing enrollment, financial challenges, and the benefits
of attainment. Institute for Women’s Policy Research.

Madden, M. (2018). Illuminating low-income pregnant and
parenting student mothers’ experiences with community
college. Equity & Excellence in Education, 51(3-4), 378-395.

12 UPDATE - FALL 2020

Advancing Equity in
Career and Technical
Education in Illinois

By Dr. Chaddrick James-Gallaway,
Jason A. Keist, and Dr. Marci Rockey

With the implementation of the Strengthening Career and Technical (Carnevale et al., 2017). Hence, community college CTE programs
Education for the 21st Century Act (Perkins V) legislation, special are critical to advancing equity and meeting workforce needs. As
populations were expanded and now include: institutions are increasingly being asked to analyze disaggregated
data, identify specific equity gaps, and implement and evaluate
• Individuals with disabilities; changes to redress these gaps, three OCCRL projects have been
• Individuals from economically disadvantaged families, central to building capacity for equity-conscious evaluation of CTE
programs of study.
including low-income youth and adults; Comprehensive Local Needs Assessment (CLNA)
• Individuals preparing for nontraditional fields; The comprehensive local-needs assessment (CLNA) required by
• Single parents, including single pregnant women; Perkins V facilitates equity-minded analysis of CTE programs
• Out-of-workforce individuals; toward continuous improvement at the local level. The purpose of
• English learners; completing this process is to utilize the findings to prioritize action
• Homeless individuals; steps toward closing equity gaps in the Perkins V local funding
• Youth who are in, or who have aged out of, the foster care application. Informed by the Association for Career and Technical
Education (2019), OCCRL developed the CLNA template for
system; Illinois community colleges to “facilitate a data-informed, continuous
• And youth with a parent who is a member of the armed forces improvement process for community colleges to biannually assess
the extent to which their career and technical education (CTE)
and is on active duty (Advance CTE & Association for Career programs and programs of study are aligned with local workforce
and Technical Education, 2018). and economic needs in six key areas: 1) student performance data; 2)
Perkins V also calls for the disaggregation of data at the state and size, scope, and quality as defined by the state plan; 3) labor market
local levels to identify equity gaps for populations that have been alignment; 4) progress toward implementing CTE programs of
historically underserved by higher education and raises accountability study; 5) recruitment, retention, and training of faculty and staff;
for closing these gaps (National Alliance for Partnerships in Equity, and 6) progress toward improving access and equity (Welton et al.,
n.d.). The Office of Community College Research and Leadership 2019, p. 1).”
(OCCRL) has a longstanding relationship with the Illinois The CLNA template and associated supports that are provided
Community College Board (ICCB) to develop tools and resources by OCCRL challenge practitioners to move beyond a compliance
that support community college faculty and practitioners in mindset that focuses on merely reporting data. Effectively
conducting equity-centered evaluations of programs of study. This is communicating what the data means is critical to institutional
especially relevant given the state’s disinvestment in higher education improvement efforts (Jankowski and Cain, 2015). Students, regions,
that has put college further out of reach for Black students, Latinx and institutions are not well served by simply copying and pasting
students, and rural students across the state (Partnership for College data charts that do not contain the critical analysis necessary to
Completion, 2020). inform change efforts that can disrupt inequitable systems and meet
As gains for opportunities to secure good jobs without a baccalaureate
degree in Illinois are growing in skilled services such as health and
financial services, there have been decreases in the manufacturing
sector, which has historically offered these opportunities

UPDATE - FALL 2020 13

Community
college CTE
programs are
critical to
advancing equity
and meeting
workforce needs.

14 UPDATE - FALL 2020

changing workforce needs. Hence, OCCRL has provided webinars, Informed by data gathered from the aforementioned study, OCCRL
briefs, coaching, and professional development academies to engage led efforts to form the inaugural cohort of board members for the
stakeholders in meaningful data analysis, which can inform action Illinois Community College Program Review Advisory Committee
steps and be utilized to garner support for CTE programs and (PRAC). Board members represent community college professionals
students. across the state of Illinois who are on the front lines of their
Pathways to Results (PTR) institutions’ program review process. Accordingly, the committee
The Pathways to Results (PTR) framework is utilized by practitioners strives to identify and promote equitable and evidence-based program
to advance equitable student outcomes in programs of study review practices and processes that promote rigorous and exceptional
at Illinois community colleges. The process includes engaging outcomes for students and institutions. The advisees also play an
stakeholders, analyzing disaggregated data, assessing institutional important role in assisting institutions with sharing experiences,
processes and practices, implementing improvement and evaluation, resources, and feedback that is germane to program review.
and engaging in critical reflection. Within the context of CTE, this Conclusion
process assists practitioners in identifying equity gaps and working Inherent in all three of these projects is an explicit focus on equity.
toward implementing, evaluating, and sustaining change to close Guided by this focus and informed by the PRAC, OCCRL planned
these gaps for special populations and racially minoritized students. two separate Equity Academies at the Illini Center (Chicago, Illinois)
PTR projects at Illinois community colleges have focused on and Kaskaskia College (Centralia, Illinois). These academies sought
improving retention and completion of men of color (Graham, to connect community college professionals to encourage knowledge-
2016b); advancing retention and completion for CTE students sharing practices. Additionally, both events engaged practitioners in
(Rockey, 2016); alleviating barriers associated with developmental discussions and activities aimed at centering racial equity within
education (Gallaway & Rockey, 2017; Rockey, 2017); addressing processes of continuous program improvement and campus-level
inequitable outcomes for racially minoritized students in health decision-making to address equity gaps. Lastly, the academies hosted
professions programs (Gallaway, 2018; Graham, 2016a; Rockey, keynote speakers and held simultaneous breakout sessions, which
2019); and dismantling white supremacist capitalistic patriarchy to were designed for the unique interests of attendees who wanted to
identify and close racial equity gaps for Students of Color (James- apply evidence-based storytelling techniques to inform program-
Gallaway, 2019). These projects have two concepts in common: level reporting and planning efforts that contribute to completion of
first, all of them focused on identifying and alleviating burdens put Program Review and the CLNA.
in place by the institutions themselves; and second, data-informed Moving beyond the special populations prescribed by Perkins V,
improvement efforts were initiated by PTR team leaders expressly to OCCRL has specifically worked to advance race consciousness
rectify institutional inequities. in CTE program evaluation., which pushes community college
Program Review Illinois (PRI) stakeholders to critically examine the influence of social identifiers
Program Review Illinois (PRI) is tasked with eliciting formative (e.g., race, gender, age, veteran status) on student outcomes. While
feedback from community college practitioners across diverse former PTR team leaders have success stories relative to increasing
contexts pertaining to state level program review processes. According equity-guided practices within their CTE programs (Rockey &
to the Illinois Community College Board (ICCB), James-Gallaway, 2019), the combination of Perkins V and the PTR
framework will further improve how community college practitioners
The purpose of Statewide Program Review is to: 1) support continue to seek out and close equity gaps at their institutions.
strategic campus-level planning and decision-making related PTR was specifically designed to support the CTE program review
to instructional programming and academic support services; process in the state of Illinois and has informed institutional
2) support program improvement; and 3) support the delivery approaches to the five-year program review cycle (Bragg, 2017;
of locally responsive, cost-effective, high quality programs and Rockey, 2018). If PTR is the means by which program review is
services across Illinois’ community college system (ICCB, p. facilitated, the resulting analysis naturally flows into the CLNA
2). process, which leads to an easier lift for community college
With support from ICCB and partner colleges across Illinois, stakeholders and more meaningful results.
OCCRL conducted a participatory focus group study aimed at In closing, as institutions are increasingly being held accountable for
better understanding the substantive challenges that impact the closing equity gaps in student outcomes for CTE programs of study,
design, implementation, and impact of the program review process these projects and their associated tools can easily be incorporated
for CTE programs at Illinois community colleges, and how these into institutional improvement processes to ensure they are data-
challenges might be remedied (Fox, Thrill, & Keist, 2008). Focus driven and equity-minded.
group participants from 49 community colleges provided invaluable
expert feedback to assist stakeholders in fostering and promoting Dr. Chaddrick James-Gallaway can be reached at [email protected]
a culture of evidence, addressed challenges faced during program Jason A. Keist can be reached at [email protected]
review, and evaluated factors specific to their institutional and local Dr. Marci Rockey can be reached at [email protected]
contexts.

UPDATE - FALL 2020 15

References

Advance CTE & Association for Career and Technical Education National Alliance for Partnerships in Equity (n.d.). Special
(2018). Legislative summary and analysis: Strengthening Career populations in Perkins V.
and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (Perkins V).
Partnership for College Completion (2020). College affordability for
Association for Career and Technical Education (2019). students in Illinois.
Maximizing Perkins V’s comprehensive local needs assessment and
local application to drive CTE program quality and equity. Rockey, M. (2019). Advancing equitable access to select admissions
health professions programs. Office of Community College
Bragg, D. D. (2017). The case for evaluating student outcomes and Research and Leadership, University of Illinois at Urbana-
equity gaps to improve pathways and programs of study. New Champaign.
Directions for Community Colleges, 178, 55-66.
Rockey, M. (2017). Accelerated pathways through developmental
Carnevale, A. P., Strohl, J., Cheah, B., & Ridley, N. (2017). Good reading and writing at Lincoln Land Community College. Office
jobs that pay without a BA. Georgetown University Center on of Community College Research and Leadership, University of
Education and the Workforce. Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Fox, H. L., Thrill, C. R., & Keist, J. (2018). Advancing program Rockey, M. (2018). Institutionalizing pathways to results in career
review: Evaluating and envisioning the future of program review and technical education programs (CTE) at Illinois Eastern
at Illinois community colleges. Office of Community College Community Colleges and Rock Valley College. Office of
Research and Leadership, University of Illinois at Urbana- Community College Research and Leadership, University of
Champaign. Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Gallaway, C., & Rockey, M. (2017). Engaging CTE and math Rockey, M. (2016). Improving CTE student retention and transfer at
faculty in curricular change at Black Hawk College and Rend Lake College with degree audit and reengagement strategies.
Kishwaukee College. Office of Community College Research Office of Community College Research and Leadership,
and Leadership, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Gallaway, C. (2018). Reaching for equity in dental assistance: Solving Rockey, M., & James-Gallaway, C. (2019). Advancing practitioner
issues of access for in-district students at Prairie State College. understandings of equity in Illinois community colleges. Office of
Office of Community College Research and Leadership, Community College Research and Leadership, University of
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Graham, E, (2016a). Employing content-based curricula in nursing Welton, A. D., Rockey, M., & James-Gallaway, C. (2019).
at Illinois Central College to improve equity and outcomes An equity-centered, comprehensive local needs assessment.
for students. Office of Community College Research and Champaign, IL: Office of Community College Research and
Leadership, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Leadership, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Graham, E. (2016b). Ready and interested: Harry S Truman College’s
multipronged approach to improving retention and completion
among males of color. Office of Community College Research
and Leadership, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Illinois Community College Board (n.d.). Program Review Manual.
Fiscal Year 2017-2021.

James-Gallaway, C. (2019). Dismantling white patriarchal hegemony
through institutional professional development. Office of
Community College Research and Leadership, University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Jankowski, N. A. & Cain, T. R. (2015). From compliance reporting
to effective communication: Assessment and transparency. In
In G. D. Kuh et al. (Eds.), Using evidence of student learning to
improve higher education (pp. 201-219). Jossey-Bass.

16 UPDATE - FALL 2020

By Marielisbet Perez &
Dr. José Del Real Viramontes

Latinx Community College Students:

Navigating Pathways to the Doctorate

B etween 1999 and 2000, Hispanicsi became the more than doubled from 72,300 in 2003-2004 to 167,100 in 2013-
second largest racial/ethnic population group in the 2014 representing a 131% increase (U.S. Department of Education,
United States with the majority of this population 2017). In 2013, Latinx were reported to be the second highest
from Mexican origin (Aud et al., 2010). Within the group enrolled in the community college sector at 20 percent with
Latino population, Ramirez and Del La Cruz (2003) identified California and Texas serving the highest numbers of these students
“two-thirds (66.9%) were of Mexican origin, 14.3% were Central (Santiago et al., 2015).
and South American, 8.6% were Puerto Rican, 3.7% were Cuban, When broken down by ethnicity, Hispanics represent the lowest
and the remaining 6.5% were of other Hispanic origins” (p. 2). As numbers among those attaining doctorate degrees in the United States
this population has grown, the college enrollment rate of Latinx (National Science Foundation, 2018). For example, one-quarter of
from high school to college increased from 54% to 70% since 2004 Chicana/o students in doctoral programs start their educational
outpacing white and African American students (Santiago et al., trajectory at the community college.(Santiago et al., 2015; Solórzano
2015). et al., 2005). In 2013, 3% of Latinx attained master’s degrees and
Understanding the disconnects that contribute to the opportunity 0.5% completed doctoral degrees (Santiago et al., 2015). Therefore,
gaps for Latinx students needs to be explored further from different Latinx faculty in higher education are significantly underrepresented
points of view. There are a variety of factors that shape and at “just 4% of faculty (instruction and research), compared to Whites
challenge Latinx students’ aspirations and educational attainment (74%), African American (7%), and Asian (6%)” (Santiago et al.,
with institutional type being important. For many Latinx college 2015, p.16). Hence, Latinx students are less likely to see themselves
students, their postsecondary access and success is contextual with represented in the faculty and subsequently the number of professors
many attending Hispanic-serving institutions (HSIs) (Garcia & that reflect them in their classes is lacking.
Dwyer, 2018; Crisp, Núñez, & Carales, 2016) as well as two-year Community College Outcomes for Latinx Students
community colleges. However, while research on HSIs centers full- Considering the population growth of Latinx in the United States
time students at four-year HSI campuses, the critical mass of Latinx and their increasing enrollment in higher education, there is a need
students attend two-year HSIs (Núñez, Crisp, & Elizondo, 2015). to acknowledge community colleges as the primary educational
As there are well over 400 Hispanic-serving community colleges sector that provides Latinx students an opportunity to attain higher
(HSCCs) their role in Latinx student transfer, mobility, and education. Given the significant numbers of Chicana/o PhDs that
educational attainment relative to associate’s degrees and beyond start their educational trajectory at the community college,
are largely overlooked (Zamani-Gallaher, Yeo, Velez, Fox, & Samet,
2019). The number of associate degrees awarded to Latinx students

UPDATE - FALL 2020 17

further exploration of the role of the community college in advancing identified as critical for students who are successful at their sending
doctoral degree attainment is warranted. and receiving institutions, and by their families (Castro & Cortez,
There are four main factors that influence Latinx students in 2016; Cortez & Castro, 2017; Dowd et al., 2013; Jain, Bernal, &
choosing the community college as a pathway into higher education Herrera, 2020). As such, wrap around support services, sense of
including insufficient guidance from high school personnel, financial belonging and connectedness to familial ties, to campus resources
concerns, family, and seeing the community college as a good place such as mentoring, involvement in campus activities and community
to begin their college education (Vega, 2017). Additionally, Latinx engagement are found to contribute to Latinx student success (Sáenz,
students experience four main barriers of part-time enrollment, Segovia, Viramontes, Lopez, & Rodriguez, 2020).
financial challenges, academic obstacles, and limited access to
information and resources that would prepare them to transfer that Although research on the post-transfer outcomes for Latinx
can interrupt, delay, or prevent them from transferring to a four- community college transfer students is limited, literature
year college or university (Acevedo-Gil, 2018). Those Latinx who documenting their experiences in STEM majors describe facing
successfully navigate the community college to four-year university challenges with academic and social integration into these fields
transfer pathway describe accomplishing this through the support (Valenzuela, 2006; Hagler, 2015). Latinx community college transfer
of institutional agents at both two-and four-year institutions students enrolled at a highly selective private four-year institution
(Bensimon & Dowd, 2009; Doran & Hengesteg, 2020; Tovar, 2015; often experience “transfer shock” (Cobian, 2008; Rivera, 2007).
Cortez & Castro, 2017). Support has also been identified through Further, Rivas (2012) highlighted transfer navigational tools used by
participating in student support programs, family, and people who Chicana transfer students while they were at the four-year institution
are part of their social network (Castro & Cortez, 2016; Jabbar et al., and as they applied to graduate school.
2019; Vega, 2017).
Latinx Community College Transfer Students and Transfer- Promising Practices: Ph.D. Access and Completion Among
Receptive Cultures Latinx
Research has noted the necessity of expanding our understanding
of Latinx academic and social integration in an effort to understand When it comes to the success of racial/ethnic groups in higher
and build students’ navigational capital (Andrade 2018; Castro education and within doctoral studies in the United States, as
& Cortez, 2016; Doran & Hengesteg, 2020). These studies find previously stated Latinx born citizens are the most underrepresented
that Latinx community college transfer students are marginalized population attaining doctoral degrees (Aud et al., 2010; Santiago
as a result of their racial/ethnic identity, age, class, and perceived et al., 2015; Solórzano et al., 2005). Even though there has been
abilities (Castro & Cortez, 2016) and developed spatial awareness a small increase in the number of Latinx students completing
of comfort spaces where they selectively engaged in moments of graduate degrees, these numbers remain low when considering this
socio-academic, nonsocial, and nonacademic integration (Andrade, population’s growth in the United States over the last four decades.
2018). The support of institutional agents and their families was Several institutions and organizations have created programs to
specifically advance equitable representation at the doctoral level.

Community College to Ph.D. (CC2PhD) Association at the
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)

When broken The Community College to Ph.D. (CC2PhD)
Association at UCLA is a registered campus organization
down by ethnicity, whose mission addresses the underrepresentation
Hispanics represent of community college alumni in Ph.D. programs.
the lowest numbers Students in the CC2PhD participate in twice-a-month
among those attaining video conference meetings with a CC2PhD Graduate
doctorate degrees in Student Mentor, monthly meetings with a CC2PhD
Community College Faculty Advisor, monthly
the United States discussion sessions with a CC2PhD Peer Advisor, and
monthly Saturday Academies at UCLA. As part of the

program, participants engage in and complete five
major activities including: 1) complete a qualitative
interview research project, 2) apply for summer

undergraduate research programs, 3) develop an
upper-division research proposal that will be used to
apply for undergraduate research programs and research
grants at their future four-year college, 4) present their
interview research project and their upper-division
research proposal, and 5) develop a Ph.D. preparation
plan for their upcoming junior and senior year. The
long-term goal of the CC2PhD program is for CC2PhD
Scholar alumni to become more competitive Ph.D.
applicants (Community College to PhD Association at
UCLA, n.d.).

18 UPDATE - FALL 2020

Mellon Mays Undergraduate Fellowship (MMUF) Program Future Directions

Another promising program at the university level that supports This article provides insights into what community colleges offer “
Latinx students pursuit of a Ph.D. is the Mellon Mays Undergraduate Latinx students as both a transfer pathway to attaining their
Fellowship (MMUF) program, part of the Andrew W. Mellon undergraduate degrees and motivating Latinx students to pursue
Foundation initiatives to increase the diversity of faculty in higher graduate education. The research and practice presented reflects the
education institutions. The fellowship provides participants with contributions the community college, especially minority serving
many forms of support including regular, structured programming; community colleges in expanding access, equitable experiences, and
faculty mentoring; term-time stipends for research activities; support improved outcomes as MSCCs , particularly HSCCs can be an asset
for summer research; and repayment of undergraduate loans up to the educational and professional trajectory for Latinx students
to $10,000 provided that fellows pursue doctoral study in eligible (Baber, Zamani-Gallaher, Stevenson, & Porter, 2019; Fox, Thrill,
fields (The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, 2019).This initiative & Zamani-Gallaher, 2017; Zamani-Gallaher et al., 2019). Little
also includes post-collegiate programming that complements and research has explored community college student pathways to the
sustains the undergraduate initiative and supports fellows as they doctorate (Zamani-Gallaher, Turner, Brown-Tess, & Thrill, 2017).
enter and complete graduate school. Through grants to the Social Our research endeavors to further understand how Latinx students
Science Research Council (SSRC) and the Woodrow Wilson in particular benefit from community colleges and may strategically
National Fellowship Foundation, two nonprofit organizations with use the community college as a way to navigate and negotiate their
proven track records in training graduate students and academics, educational goals and career trajectories from the associates degree
the Mellon Foundation provides PhD-bound MMUF fellows with to the PhD. Additionally, community colleges have had a significant
a targeted array of graduate initiatives. These include conferences, impact on postbaccalaureate degree attainment across student
writing seminars, and grants designed to support fellows at critical populations given in the past decade 46% of students who completed
junctures in graduate school. MMUF’s support continues into a bachelor’s degree enrolled at a community college (Shapiro, et al.,
fellows’ postdoctoral careers with the SSRC’s Ph.D. Retreat and 2018). As more students and namely Latinx students rely on the
Woodrow Wilson’s Junior Faculty Career Enhancement Fellowship community college as a pathway into higher education, it is overdue
program (The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, 2019). to have additional attention paid to how the two-year college sector
McNair Scholars Program can be pivotal for not just postsecondary education entry but
completion of the highest postsecondary credentials – the PhD.

The Ronald E. McNair Postbaccalaureate Achievement Program
(McNair Scholars Program) is a TRIO federally funded program
by the U.S. Department of Education (2007) that prepares first-
generation, low-income, and/or underrepresented students in Ph.D.
programs across the country in all fields of study. One of their
intended initiatives is to diversify faculty in colleges and universities
nationwide. The McNair Scholars Program at the University of
Central Florida reported that 100% of their Latinx scholars complete
their bachelor’s degrees and have higher opportunities to attend
graduate school (Excelencia in Education, 2019).

Professional Associations

The American Association of Hispanics in Higher Education, Inc.
(AAHHE) is committed to supporting Latinx in completing their
Ph.D. degrees and seeking faculty, administration, and policymaker
positions in higher education. The association created a Latino/a
Graduate Fellows Program that provides doctoral students an
opportunity to attend the national conference where they meet and
network with Latinx professors and administrators to receive guidance
that helps them navigate the complexities of higher education
(American Association of Hispanics in Higher Education, 2019).
Within the community college sector, The National Community
College Hispanic Council is a professional organization that prepares
and supports Latinx leaders. Professionals involved in this council
receive resources and opportunities to network with others in the
field of education (National Community College Hispanic Council,
2019).

Marielisbet Perez can be reached at [email protected]
Dr. José Del Real Viramontes can be reached at [email protected]

UPDATE - FALL 2020 19

“Those Latinx who
successfully navigate
the community
college to four-year
university transfer
pathway describe
accomplishing this
through the support
of institutional
agents at both
two- and four-year
institutions.

20 UPDATE - FALL 2020

References Cortez, E., & Castro, E. L. (2017). Mexican and Mexican American
Acevedo-Gil, N. (2018). Postsecondary pathways of Latinas/os: A student reflections on transfer: Institutional agents and the
continued role of the community college. Association of Mexican
review of student experiences in the community college. Journal American Educators Journal, 11(2), 155-176.
for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 12(1), 4-13.
American Association of Hispanics in Higher Education (2019). Doran, E., & Hengesteg, P. (2020). Ascending toward new heights:
About us. Building navigational capital for Latinx community college
Andrade, L. M. (2018). Latina/o transfer students’ selective students. Journal of The First-Year Experience & Students in
integration and spatial awareness of university spaces. Journal of Transition, 32(1), 29-41.
Hispanic Higher Education, 17(4), 347-374.
Aud, S., Fox, M. A., & KewalRamani, A. (2010). Status and trends Dowd, A. C., Pak, J. H., & Bensimon, E. M. (2013). The role of
in the education of racial and ethnic groups. (NCES 2010-015). institutional agents in promoting transfer access. Education
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Policy Analysis Archives, 21, 1-40.
Statistics.
Baber, L. D., Zamani-Gallaher, E. M., Stevenson, T. N., & Porter, Excelencia in Education (2019). McNair scholars program-University
J. (2019). From access to equity: Community colleges and the of Central Florida.
social justice imperative. In Higher education: Handbook of theory
and research (pp. 203-240). Springer. Fox, H. L., Thrill, C. R., & Zamani-Gallaher, E. M. (2017). Serving
Bensimon, E. M., & Dowd, A. (2009). Dimensions of the transfer racial minority students in STEM at minority-serving community
choice gap: Experiences of Latina and Latino students who colleges. Office of Community College Research and Leadership.
navigated transfer pathways. Harvard Educational Review, 79(4),
632-659. Garcia, G. A., & Dwyer, B. (2018). Exploring college students’
Castro, E. L., & Cortez, E. (2016). Exploring the lived experiences identification with an organizational identity for serving
and intersectionalities of Mexican community college transfer Latinx students at a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI) and an
students: Qualitative insights toward expanding a transfer emerging HSI. American Journal of Education, 124(2), 191-215.
receptive culture. Community College Journal of Research and
Practice, 41(2), 77-92. Hagler, L. R. (2015). Exploring the academic and social experiences
Cobian, O. (2008). The academic integration and retention of Latino of Latino engineering community college transfer students at a
community college transfer students at a highly selective private 4-year institution: A qualitative research study. (Publication
four-year institution (Publication No. 3325224) [Doctoral No. 3688377) [Doctoral dissertation, California Lutheran
Dissertation, University of Southern California]. ProQuest University]. ProQuest Dissertation and Theses Global.
Dissertations and Theses Global.
Community College to PhD Association at UCLA (n.d.). About us. Jabbar, H., Serrata, C., Epstein, E., & Sánchez, J. (2019). “Échale
ganas”: Family support of Latino/a community college students’
transfer to four-year universities. Journal of Latinos and
Education, 18(3), 258-276.

Jain, D., Bernal, S., & Herrera, A. (2020). Power to the transfer: A
critical race theory approach to transfer receptive cultures. Michigan
State University Press.

National Community College Hispanic Council (2019). About
NCCHC.

UPDATE - FALL 2020 21

National Science Foundation (2018). Doctorate recipients from U.S. Department of Education. (2007). Ronald E. McNair
U.S. Universities:2016. Special Report (NSF 18-304). National postbaccalaureate achievement program: 2002-05 facts and figures
Center for Science and Engineering Statistics. at a glance.

Ramirez, R. R., & Del La Cruz, G. P. (2003). The Hispanic U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
population in the United States: March 2002. U.S. Census Statistics. (2017). Status and trends in the education of racial and
Bureau. ethnic groups 2017, degrees awarded (NCES 2017-051).

Rivas, M. A. (2012). Soulfully resistant transferistas: Understanding the U. S. Department of Education. (2011). Web tables: Community
Chicana transfer experience from community college and into the college student outcomes:1994–2009 (NCES Publication 2012-
doctorate (Publication No. Rivas_ucla_0031D_10507) [Doctoral 253).
dissertation, University of California Los Angeles]. ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses Global. Valenzuela, Y. (2006). Mi fuerza/my strength. The academic and
personal experiences of Chicana/Latina transfer students in
Rivera, R. (2007). Latino community college transfer students in math and science (Publication No. AAI3243278) [Doctoral
engineering: Transition experiences and academic success at a dissertation, University of California Irvine and University of
large research university (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from California Los Angeles] . ProQuest Dissertations and Theses
ProQuest Dissertation Publishing (Accession No. 3258152). Global.

Sáenz, V. B., Segovia, J., Viramontes, J. D. R., Lopez, J., & Vega, D. (2017). Navigating postsecondary pathways: The college
Rodriguez, J. (2020). Bridging the gap between research and choice experiences of first generation Latina/o transfer students.
practice. Multiculturalism in Higher Education: Increasing Access Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 42(12), 848-
and Improving Equity in the 21st Century, 165. 860.

Santiago, D. A., Galdeano, E. C., & Taylor, M. (2008). The Zamani-Gallaher, E. M., Turner, F., Brown-Tess, K., & Thrill, C.
condition of Latinos in education: 2015 factbook. Excelencia in (2017). Autobiographical counternarratives from the community
Education. college to the PhD. Community College Journal of Research and
Practice, 41(4-5), 326-328.
Shapiro, D., Dundar, A., Huie, F., Wakhungu, P.K., Bhimdiwali, A.,
Nathan, A., & Youngsik, H. (2018, July). Transfer and mobility: Zamani-Gallaher, E. M., Yeo, H. T., Velez, A. L., Fox, H. L., &
A national view of student movement in postsecondary institutions, Samet, M. (2019). STEM completion at Hispanic-serving
fall 2011 cohort (Signature Report No. 15). National Student community colleges. STEM Pipelines. Office of Community
Clearinghouse Research Center. College Research and Leadership.

Solórzano, D. G., Rivas, M. A., & Velez, V. N. (2005). Community iOften Hispanic, Latina/o, and Latinx are used interchangeably in the
college as a pathway to Chicana/o doctorate production. Latino literature. However, this article primarily employs Latinx as it is a gender
Policy & Issues Brief, 11, 1-4. neutral/nonbinary term referring to those of Latin American origin or
descent.
The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. (2019). Mellon Mays
undergraduate fellowship program.

Tovar, E. (2015). The role of faculty, counselors, and support
programs on Latino/a community college students’ success and
intent to persist. Community College Review, 43(1), 46-71.

22 UPDATE - FALL 2020

Foster
Youth and
Basic-Needs
Insecurity

By Dra. Nidia Ruedas-Gracia, Chequita S. Brown,
Dr. Mauriell Amechi, Dr. Eboni M. Zamani-Gallaher,
and Nathaniel M. Stewart

The impact of the global health pandemic is unprecedented
as it has upended life with 43 states having stay-at-home
orders to slow down the spread of coronavirus, also referred

to as COVID-19 (Silverstein, 2020). Notwithstanding,
COVID-19 has reached all sectors, leaving no industry
unaffected with adverse impact to the medical field,

hospitality, tourism, transportation, employment, and
education.
The public health crisis has unleashed an accompanying
economic crisis and has lifted the veil on educational

disenfranchisement. Relative to who is marginalized
and routinely underserved prior to the crisis have been
Black and Latinx communities. In fact, the coronavirus
crisis has worsened what has been historical and
present-day racial inequality problems in the U.S.,
as African American/Black and Hispanic/Latinx
families have been the most vulnerable due to systemic
racialized inequities in health care/health conditions,
employment, housing, education, food insecurities and
other social factors (Nania, 2020; Tappe, 2020). Other
special populations that have been adversely impacted
have been former foster youth.
Foster Care and Racial Stratification
In the United States, approximately 443,000 children make
up the foster care population. Foster care is defined as 24-hour
substitute care for children and adolescents who have been
taken away from their parents or guardian and for whom the
state or tribal agency has placement and care responsibility.
These young people may come to the attention of child
welfare systems due to abuse, neglect, or other reasons
such as child behavioral issues or the death of a parent.
COVID-19 has intensified the vulnerabilities of foster
and former foster youth, many of whom are Black, Native
American, Alaska Native, and multiracial kids who have a higher rate
of placement into foster care than White youth (Federal Interagency
Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2016).

UPDATE - FALL 2020 23

Race intersects The racial overrepresentation of Black children in foster care is
and exacerbates a the most pronounced, with Black children comprising one-fourth
myriad of barriers of the foster care population nationally, though only representing
14% of all children in the United States (Child Welfare Information
... and COVID-19 Gateway, 2016).
has punctuated As of July 2020, an estimated 18,320 children were present in
these difficulties the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services (DCFS)
(2020)—a rate of 4.9 compared to the overall population at 5.8. In
even further. Illinois, neglect (87%), physical abuse (13%), and parental substance
abuse (12%) are the three most common reasons children enter
foster care. Consistent with national demographics for foster youth,
young people in Illinois DCFS are racially and ethnically diverse
(Illinois Department of Children and Family Services, 2019). In
2017, 53% were Black/African American, 35% were White, and 9%
were Latinx.
In terms of gender, a little more than half of foster youth are male
and 47% are female. Young people in Illinois DCFS commonly
spend more time in foster care relative to their counterparts in the
general nationwide foster care population (Amechi, 2016; Annie E.
Casey Foundation, 2018). Notably, across every racial group, half of
all foster youth exited care without establishing a permanent, legal
connection to family. This factor is a critical indicator of how well
youth in the state fare in other areas of their life, such as educational
attainment, employment, and housing insecurity.
Race intersects and exacerbates a myriad of barriers (e.g., attendance
interruptions, enrollment delays, costs of attendance, unemployment,
etc.), and COVID-19 has punctuated these difficulties even further.
Other hurdles to higher education attainment faced by former
foster youth are financial, housing insecurity, food insecurity, and
homelessness. With respect to housing stability, data suggest that
between 11% and 36% of emancipated youth become homeless
within the first year of their transition to adulthood (Dion, 2015;
Fryar et al., 2017). Unlike their non-foster peers, foster care youth
often lack familial connections and supportive environments where
they can cultivate independent living skills that are essential for
successful college life and adulthood (Amechi, 2016; Cochrane &
Szabo-Kubitz, 2009; Wolanin, 2005).
College Student Hunger, Housing Insecurity, and Homelessness
Only about 10% of former foster youth attend postsecondary
education, and those who do are half as likely as their peers to
complete their studies (Davis, 2006; Wolanin, 2005). As a result
of these personal and systematic barriers, foster care youth often
fall short of accessing and attaining postsecondary credentials due
to opportunity gaps. Extending support beyond covering tuition
and fees is needed, particularly in lieu of the present multiplicity of
crises. Hence, more colleges and nonprofit support programs need to
amplify financial assistance for educational-related expenses beyond
tuition such as books, transportation, housing, and food (Stoltzfus,
2017).
Much of the research on students who are experiencing hardships
relative to basic needs such as food and housing highlight
undergraduate students who are attending public research
universities.

24 UPDATE - FALL 2020

Collegians from marginalized and historically underserved Colleg
communities are often stratified by race/ethnicity and social class, historical
with the critical mass attending college at two-year institutions of
higher learning (Broton & Goldrick-Rab, 2018). The critical mass are ofte
of former foster students are students of color whose postsecondary and
opportunities have been largely in community colleges (Fox &
Zamani-Gallaher, 2018). Increasing on-ramps to higher education mass
and degree attainment are critical factors in successfully transitioning in
former foster youth (Dworsky, 2018; Fryar, Jordan, & DeVooght,
2017; Ma, Pender, & Welch, 2016).
Access to adequate food and stable housing are essential to cognitive
development and academic success (Bassuk, Hart, & Donovan, 2020;
Hallett, Crutchfield, & Maguire, 2019; Maslow, 1943). However,
recent studies suggest that a growing demographic of college
students with foster care experience suffer from unmet basic needs.
For example, in 2017, researchers surveyed 33,000 undergraduates
at community colleges regarding their unmet basic needs. The results
show that 29% of former foster youth were homeless, and 72%
faced housing insecurity. These rates are significantly higher than
their peers who have no prior experience in foster care (13% and
49%, respectively) (Goldrick-Rab et al., 2017). Since there could be
considerable overlap between homelessness and former foster youth
status, exploration of the experience of homeless college students
may also provide insights into their college experience.
Independent and conservative analyses of various national datasets
suggest that approximately 2,000 community college students in
Illinois are experiencing homelessness. Although this computation
is a very conservative estimate, and there is no reliable information
on how many community college students in Illinois are foster youth
or homeless, data from a survey of students enrolled in City Colleges
of Chicago (a consortium of seven community colleges) showed
that—as of 2018—approximately 66% of respondents reported
food and/or housing insecurity. Fifty-four% of students reported
experiencing housing insecurity (e.g., not being able to pay rent or
moving frequently), and 15% reported being homeless. Although
informative, these data sources exclude key student demographics.
For example, the survey on college students enrolled in City Colleges
of Chicago does not include students enrolled at community colleges
outside of the Chicagoland area in other parts of Illinois. Also, the
number of students estimated to be enrolled in community colleges
statewide does not include students coming from private K-12
systems.
Housing insecurity increasingly permeates many college students’
experiences generally and more acutely for collegians who have
foster care backgrounds. For example, in many residential colleges,
students who live in the dormitories are required to find alternative
housing during the winter break, which can range between two to six
weeks in duration, depending on the institution’s academic calendar.
Traditional college students often use this time to take a winter-break
trip or to visit family. College students with foster care experience,
however, do not have such privileges. Additionally, when severe
weather conditions result in the cancellation of classes, housing-
insecure students who do not reside in dormitories are left to look
for other sheltering alternatives.

UPDATE - FALL 2020 25

gians from marginalized and
lly underserved communities
en stratified by race/ethnicity
d social class, with the critical
attending college at two-year
nstitutions of higher learning.

26 UPDATE - FALL 2020

Despite the national prevalence of food insecurity among college A New Norm but Familiar Challenges and Realities
students, data describing the scope and dimensions of this problem Eighteen years old is when individuals are legally seen as adults and
remain scarce. Research has noted how food insecurity contributes when states consider foster youth old enough to “age out” of the
to heightened student anxiety, adversely impacts student wellness, system, be emancipated, and live independently. What is paradoxical
and is a critical issue relative to student persistence and success as is the coming-of-age period when youth enter their college years—
students learn to navigate hunger and work around having a lack when a formal system of care designed to provide services is the most
of food (Stebleton, Lee, & Diamond, 2020). Although nearly two crucial. Therefore, continuity of wraparound support services and
million food-insecure students were potentially eligible for the extending services through age 21 can improve former foster youth
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly known postsecondary access, experiences, and outcomes.
as food stamps), they did not report having received benefits in 2016 It is fair to say the coronavirus epidemic has highlighted a great deal
(Broton & Goldrick-Rab, 2018; U.S. Government Accountability of stratification and insecurities felt by individuals nationwide. Foster
Office, 2018). Unsurprisingly, the growing food insecurity crisis has youth and former foster youth are special populations that are often
prompted recent legislative changes these past few years. invisible, overlooked segments of society. Additional wraparound
In 2018, Governor Bruce Rauner signed into law Senate Bill 351, supports are provided to foster care youth through the Illinois
which mandates that eligibility for SNAP benefits for low-income, Department of Children and Family Services. DCFS offers protective
career-technical-track community college students in Illinois. services to children and youth who have experienced abuse or neglect.
However, since the spring of 2020, there has been a substantial The organization also provides an array of services to address the
demand for food aid, with applications doubling in addition to total well-being of youth in care, including educational attainment,
high demand for charitable food services (e.g., food pantries, food independent living, and cultivating life skills. For example, the
banks, soup kitchens, food drives, etc.), all while the cost of food has Life Skills Program, offered through the Office of Education and
increased (Leddy, Weiser, Palar, & Seligman, 2020). Transition Services at DCFS, serves as a resource for improving the
Furthermore, studies suggest that homeless college students report independent living skills of foster youth while promoting economic
access barriers to federal financial aid. For example, a national survey and social self-sufficiency. Caseworkers are tasked with collaborating
of community college students showed that only half of the students with foster youth and caregivers to create an individualized transition
in the study who experienced food or housing insecurity received a plan and establish time-sensitive goals for foster youth. Young people
Pell Grant for college. However, an alarming 40% of students in the who complete the entire life-skills training will receive a $150 stipend
sample who experienced food or housing insecurity did not receive (Illinois Department of Children and Family Services, 2019). DCFS
any financial aid. It is important to note that community college also requires an Annual High School Academic Plan meeting with
students are not typically eligible for housing assistance programs foster youth, which is completed by the caseworker at the start of
(e.g., Section 8). In fact, less than 13% of students who experience each school year between August and October. Additionally, the
housing insecurity receive any assistance with housing costs. caseworker provides instruction and support that will assist the
Student Voice student in transitioning to the postsecondary institution (Illinois
Department of Children and Family Services, 2019).

Students across the United States have begun raising awareness of Pre-COVID-19, foster youth and wards of the state have a different
the housing instability crisis in colleges. In response to their call to reality than their non-foster peers. Nonprofit organizations such as
action, different universities, community colleges, and states have Together We Rise, through its teddy bear scavenger hunt, is one
implemented short-term solutions. For example, California passed example of the efforts to support foster youth during the pandemic,
a bill that would require every community college in the state to which also includes emergency help in the realms of housing, utilities,
provide a safe parking lot where homeless students can sleep in food, and laptop access.
their cars. Tacoma Community in Tacoma, Washington, has In closing, more policies and programs are necessary to curb basic-
released a voucher pilot program that provides community college needs insecurity and end hunger and homelessness for minoritized,
students with vouchers to assist with rent. Massachusetts debuted underserved, and marginalized former foster care collegians who have
a pilot program that provides campus housing at nearby four-year marked financial instability, stress, and life interruptions. Research is
universities to homeless students enrolled in community colleges. needed to help society understand the lived experiences of former
Considering the increased awareness of the housing instability crisis foster youth who are navigating schooling during the pandemic,
among community college students, the importance of food and with studies that explore how to improve high-touch, high-impact
housing stability for cognitive development, and the probable overlap practices that offer evidence of interventions and practices that
between homeless and former foster community college students, work for foster alumni to survive and thrive during and beyond
research should develop more rigorous methods for not only the COVID-19.
tracking of homeless college students but also an understanding
of their experience. This vital information can jumpstart future Dra. Nidia Ruedas-Gracia can be reached at [email protected]
efficacious interventions and programming for this prominent Chequita S. Brown can be reached at [email protected]
population and consequently improve academic outcomes among Dr. Mauriell Amechi can be reached at [email protected]
homeless and former foster youth in colleges and universities. Dr. Eboni M. Zamani-Gallaher can be reached at [email protected]
Nathaniel M. Stewart can be reached at [email protected]

UPDATE - FALL 2020 27

References

Amechi, M. H. (2016). “There’s no autonomy”: Narratives of Self- Illinois Department of Children and Family Services (2020).
Authorship from Black Male Foster Care Alumni in Higher Children placed in foster care, relative care, group homes, or
Education. Journal of African American Males in Education, institutions by placement county date as of August 31, 2020.
7(2), 18-35.
Leddy, A. M., Weiser, S. D., Palar, K., & Seligman, H. (2020).
Amechi, M. H. (2020, September 2). The forgotten students: A conceptual model for understanding the rapid COVID-19-
COVID-19 response for youth and young adults aging out of foster related increase in food insecurity and its impact on health and
care. [Report]. Third Way: Academix Upshot Series. healthcare. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

Annie E. Casey Foundation (2018). Illinois profile: Transition-age Ma, J., Pender, M., & Welch, M. (2016). Education pays 2016: The
youth in foster care. benefits of higher education for individuals and society. New York,
NY: The College Board.
Bassuk, E. L., Hart, J. A., & Donovan, E. (2020). Resetting Policies
to End Family Homelessness. Annual Review of Public Health, Nania, R. (2020, April 23). Blacks, Hispanics hit harder by the
41, 247-263. coronavirus, early U.S. data show. AARP.

Broton, K. M., & Goldrick-Rab, S. (2018). Going without: Stebleton, M. J., Lee, C. K., & Diamond, K. K. (2020).
An exploration of food and housing insecurity among Understanding the food insecurity experiences of college
undergraduates. Educational Researcher, 47(2), 121-133. students: A qualitative inquiry. The Review of Higher Education,
43(3), 727-752.
Child Welfare Information Gateway (2016). Caseload and workload
management. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health Stoltzfus, E. (2017). Child welfare: An overview of federal programs
and Human Services, Children’s Bureau. and their current funding. Washington: Congressional Research
Service.
Cochrane, D. F., & Szabo-Kubitz, L. (2009). Hopes & hurdles:
California foster youth and college financial aid. Institute for Tappe, A. (2020, April 21). America’s Black and Hispanic
College Access & Success. Berkeley, CA: Institute for College communities are bearing the brunt of the coronavirus crisis. CNN
Access & Success. Business.

Davis, R. J. (2006). College access, financial aid, and college success U.S. Government Accountability Office (2018). Food insecurity:
for undergraduates from foster care. Washington, DC: National Better information could help eligible college students access federal
Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators. food assistance benefits. Washington.

Dion, R. (2015). Housing for youth aging out of foster care: In focus Watt, T. T., Norton, C. L., & Jones, C. (2013). Designing a
brief. Mathematica Policy Research. campus support program for foster care alumni: Preliminary
evidence for a strengths framework. Children and Youth Services
Dworsky, A. (2018). Improving the postsecondary educational Review, 35(9). 1408-1417.
attainment of youth in foster care. New Directions for
Community Colleges, 181, 11-19. doi:10.1002/cc.20287 Wolanin, T. R. (2005). Higher education opportunities for foster youth:
A primer for policymakers. Washington, DC: The Institute for
Fox, H. L., & Zamani‐Gallaher, E. M. (2018). Exploring equity in Higher Education Policy.
early postsecondary education. New Directions for Community
Colleges, 181, 29-37.

Fryar, G., Jordan, E., & DeVooght, K. (2017, November 14). 1National Center for Education Statistics ED Facts, American Community
Supporting young people transitioning from foster care: Findings Survey (ACS) census data, and National Center for Homeless Education
from a national survey. Bethesda. (NCHE) data

Hallett, R. E., Crutchfield, R. M., & Maguire, J. J. (2019).
Addressing homelessness and housing insecurity in higher education:
Strategies for educational leaders. Teachers College Press.

Illinois Department of Children and Family Services (2019).
Getting there tip sheets.

28 UPDATE - FALL 2020

Editor-at-Large: Eboni M. Zamani-Gallaher
Managing Editors: Eboni M. Zamani-Gallaher and Sal Nudo
Copy Editor: Sal Nudo
Graphic Designer: Jason A. Keist