Health, Population and Environment Education 9

b) Developmental works

Development works are possible only though the exploitation of environment.
Development works improve quality of human life. So people are benefited by
development works. Environmental conservation can also be done by some
sorts of development works. It balances the uneven distribution of population,
which causes severe destruction of the environment. In school education,
awareness and information about environment has been included to make the
students aware of it so that they can contribute for environmental conservation.

Environment

Agriculture Industries

Employment Health

Environment Education Population Residence Environment
Security and
Communication
Development

Culture Technology

Human Resource Entertainment

Environment

Activity

What kinds of developmental activities have been recently conducted in your village
or town? Discuss with senior members in your community and prepare a short report
including:

a) Introduction to the Developmental Works

b) Objectives

c) Programmes

d) Advantages to the local people

e) Disadvantages, if any

f) Conclusion and Recommendations.

Present your report to your teacher and conduct a symposium in your class.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 51

c) Economic development

Economic improvement is impossible without development. Development can
uplift the economic status of people. And, economic development is for the
betterment of human beings.

If the development works are run without caring its effects upon environment,
such kind of activity harms human life in spite of ensuring quality in it.

d) Social and cultural activities

Social and cultural traits have equal
relationships with human being
and the environment. Human
beings have developed various
types of social norms and cultural
values. Also, those norms and
values leave remarkable effects
on human life and environment
too. Environmental components
are essential to celebrate feasts
and festivals and other cultural
ceremonies. There is a sense of conservation of some natural resources like
rivers, trees, herbs, due to religious myths and faiths. For example: people
hesitate to cut down trees of banyan and Peepal, they protect Tulsi; and, they
do not defecate and urinate near rivers and temples etc.

3.2 Concept of Development

Development works are regarded as the backbone of nation. It adds facilities to
livelihood for citizen of the nation. Human being carries out development activities to
make their life comfortable and better with easy access to various types of their needs.
They fulfill basic needs like food, shelter, clothing, etc. by development works like
agricultural advancement and mechanizations, construction of houses and buildings,
establishment of garments etc. Additional needs like entertainment, religious practices,
etc are also fulfilled by establishment of movie hall, temples, churches, monasteries
etc. There are many such development works which are utilized to fulfill countless
human needs. In these all development works, there is a common process of obtaining
raw materials. What is the common process? Is this about the source of raw materials
for development works? Yes, people obtain all raw materials to run development
from the common environment and nature. All development works need utilization

52 Health, Population and Environment - 9

of natural resources. For construction
works, we need pebbles, stone, and
sand obtained from river; wood, fibers,
timbers, plant sap, etc. from forest; oil,
ghee, meat, bones, etc. form biodiversity;
diesel, petrol, kerosene, gas, etc. from
natural petroleum resources; metallic
substances like iron, copper, gold, silver,
silicon, etc from their respective ores
found freely in the nature and minerals
from their natural resources.

There is deep-rooted relationship among population, environment, and development.
People carry out development works by utilizing raw materials from the environment.
In this way, these three factors become integrated with one another. As mentioned
earlier, development works are the processes of obtaining more facilities for human
life. In a single word, development can be taken synonymously as growth. Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary gives meaning of the term “development” as “The
gradual growth of something so that it becomes more advanced, stronger, etc.” and
also “the process of producing or creating something new or more advanced”. In
broader sense, development can be defined as “the process of generating new accesses
of human being to obtain facilities, commodities, and services needed for improving
their quality of life by appropriate management and mobilization of resources.”

3.2.1 Aspects of Development
Development possesses different aspects on the basis of its output and
contributions to us. There are major four aspects of development. They are
physical, social, economic and human resource aspects.

a) Physical aspects of development

It includes the aspects which exist in our surroundings as substantial things.
They are tangible and visible aspects. Roads, buildings, service centers,
communication tools, electricity, irrigation canals, etc. are some examples of
physical aspects of development.

b) Social aspects

This aspect of development includes social norms, values, level of knowledge
and understanding, state of adjustment, readiness for change and such other

Health, Population and Environment - 9 53

factors that motivate people for developmental works.

c) Economic aspects

It is the financial support for development and economic funds. It is generated
by employment, business, industrialization and proper utilization of resources.

d) Human resource aspect

Human resource is the key factor for planning and executing the developmental
processes. Human resources are related to education, health, agriculture,
communication, science and technology.

3.3 Indicators of Development

Development plays important roles in human life. It primarily improves the
level of fulfillment of basic needs of people. Food, shelter and cloth are three
basic needs. Besides, people experience various needs to cope with the existing
conditions of difficulties and circumstances. The needs of people are arranged
in a succession of hierarchy from lower level to upper level. Fulfillment of such
needs and their level indicates the extent of development. Therefore, there
should be adequate measures to fulfill the needs and demands of people to
prove that there is development at the place. Industrialization, employment
opportunities, income generating activities and effective mobilization of
resources ensures the developmental achievements. Some of the indicators of
development are as follows:

a) Economic Growth
Economic growth is one of the

major indicators of development.
Development adds different facilities
and potentiality of income generation
for people. Development creates
employment opportunities. Besides,
total production of developed places
is better than that of underdeveloped
places. Progress is expressed in terms
of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and GNP (Gross National Product). These
values show significant progress with the developmental activities. Industrial
revolutions and development of infrastructures support for economic growth
of society and country.

Economic growth is not merely related to the income level of people. Progress
in GDP growth rate is taken as the most important indicator of economic
growth.

54 Health, Population and Environment - 9

b) Quality Life

Life has different dimensions
and aspects. Everyone wants to
get satisfaction, happiness, and
success in life. Some people are
living happily with fulfilment of
their desires and needs, but some
are not. If we compare many
families in a community, we
can find some happy families,
where there is happiness,
harmony, satisfaction, good
relations, cooperation, etc. and
some unhappy families, where there are disputes, quarrel, dissatisfaction, hunger,
starvation, and so on. In this way, quality of life differs from family to family.
Quality of life resides in those families where family members fulfill their basic
needs and other desires. Now, we can say quality of life depends upon two basic
factors; the extent of desires and ability to fulfill those desires.

Quality of life is uplifted when there is fulfilment of desires, needs, or wants.
Adversely, it is seized by the conditions where there is no fulfillment of desires,
needs, or wants. These needs may be physical, psychological, biological,
spiritual1 and aesthetic2 . One can add quality of life in two ways: by minimizing
the extents of desires and fulfilling the upcoming desires. When there is quality
existing in one's life it plays significant roles in advancement of his/her life.
Some of the importances of quality of life are:
• Fulfillment of basic needs
• Attainment of quality education
• Management of health services, facilities, and sanitation
• Facilities for maternal and child welfare
• Opportunities for income generating activities and employment
• Women empowerment

Some of the measures to improve quality of life are given below:
i. Nutritious food should be managed for all the family members so that they do

not suffer from malnutrition and other nutrition-deficiency diseases.

ii. Family size must be made as small as possible. It is possible by restricting the
number of children by married couples. They can use the contraceptive devices

1. Spiritual : relating to the spirit or soul and not to physical nature or matter; intangible.
2. Aesthetic : concerning the appreciation of beauty or good taste.
3. Decent : of a satisfactory quality or level.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 55

to control unexpected childbirth.
iii. Health is a prime factor of quality of life. Therefore, health of all family

members should be monitored periodically with the help of qualified health
practitioners. Health examination, necessary treatment and follow-up prevent
us from harmful effects of diseases.

iv. Sanitation is an aspect of physical and aesthetic part of our life. It keeps our
environment safe from the disease germs. It also keeps our mind calm and
happy to increase our quality of life.

v. Education is an ornament that enhances the inner glow and glory for each
individual. Educated people can get better jobs and earn more than others to
maintain the quality of life.

vi. Income is the key factor for the fulfillment of every sort of needs nowadays.
We can get almost everything in the market with money. If income level is
stronger, we can obtain the things and services we need to improve the quality
of life.

Quality of life is a complex and abstract feature of human life. Therefore,
measurement of quality in one’s life has been very difficult though we are
trying to find the ways to measure it. There are some numeric ways to measure
the quality of life. Some of them are ‘basic needs oriented approach’, physical
quality of life index (PQLI) and human development index (HDI) Among
them, HDI is one of the widely used measures for quality of life.

HDI was first developed by late Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq for the
annual report of UNDP. It has an index-range between zero and one. From
the year 1990 AD, UNDP (United Nations Development Program) started
preparing and publishing Human Development Report (HDR) annually with
Human Development Indices of many countries of the world) Nowadays, it is
found more appropriate to measure this abstract aspect of human life.

Human development index is a tool to measure the quality of life in numeric
figures that comprise of a country's average achievements in three basic
aspects of human development: health, knowledge, and income in a certain
time period)

UNDP has defined Human Development Index (HDI) as “a composite
index measuring average achievement in three basic dimensions of human
development–a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent3 standard of
living.”

56 Health, Population and Environment - 9

The following tables show some of the distinct situations of HDI among
SAARC countries and in the world:

Human Development Indexes of SAARC countries, UNDP 2015, 2016

HDI 2014 AD HDI 2015 AD
(According to HDR, 2015 AD) (According to HDR, 2016 AD)

Country Rank HDI Country Rank HDI

Sri Lanka 73 0.757 Sri Lanka 73 0.766
Maldives 104 0.706 Maldives 105 0.701
0.609 0.624
India 130 0.605 India 131 0.607
Bhutan 132 0.570 Bhutan 132 0.579
Bangladesh 142 0.548 Bangladesh 139 0.558
Nepal 145
Nepal 144

Pakistan 147 0.538 Pakistan 147 0.550
Afghanistan 171 0.465 Afghanistan 169 0.479

Source: UNDP, Human Development Report (HDR) - 2015, 2016 AD

Human Development Indexes of first ten countries, UNDP, 2015, 2016

Rank HDI 2014 AD Rank HDI 2015 AD
(According to HDR, 2015) 1 (According to HDR, 2016)
2
Countries HDI 2 Country HDI
4 Norway 0.949
1 Norway 0.944 5 Australia 0.939
5 Switzerland 0.939
2 Australia 0.935 7 Germany 0.926
8 Denmark 0.925
3 Switzerland 0.930 Singapore 0.925
Netherlands 0.924
4 Denmark 0.923 Ireland 0.923

5 Netherlands 0.922

6 Germany 0.916

6 Ireland 0.916

8 United States 0.915

9 Canada 0.913 9 Iceland 0.920

9 New Zealand 0.913 10 Canada and USA 0.920

Source: HDR, 2015 Source: HDR, 2016

Health, Population and Environment - 9 57

Quality of life is measured with human development indices. The table given
below shows the HDI status of five countries with least quality of human life.
According to HDR 2014 and HDR 2016, these countries possess least HDI because
of poor and unsatisfied people with low income, inadequate education, diseases
and malnutrition.

The last five countries with lowest HDI in 2013 AD and 2015 AD

S 2013 AD 2015 AD
N Name of Countries HDI RANK Name of Countries HDI RANK

1 Eretria 0.381 182 Burundi 0.404 184
2 Sierra Leone 0.374 183 Burkina Faso 0.402 185

3 Chad 0.372 184 Chad 0.396 186
Niger 0.353 187
4 Central African 0.341 185
Republic Central African 0.352 188
Republic
5 Congo 0.338 186
Source: HDR, 2014, 2016

C) Happiness

Happiness is a sense of satisfaction, well-being,

joy, or contentment. When people are successful,

or safe, or lucky, they feel happiness. The

"pursuit of happiness" is something that every

person possesses throughout the life. People

feel happiness for different reasons. Whenever

something causes happiness, people usually

want to remain adhesive to the same situation.

Development contributes significantly in

addition to happiness among people. It provides

additional facilities and services to make peoples'

life better and comfortable. Therefore it is one of Happiness Promotes our Health

the prominent indicator of development. If we

find happier people at a place, we guess there is adequate development.

Happiness is an abstract aspect of human life. It is felt through the experiences and
feelings. In order to analyze peoples' happiness with numeric value, the technique
of Happiness Planet Indes (HPI) is practised nowadays.

58 Health, Population and Environment - 9

HPI (Happiness Planet Index)

It is one of the strong and trustworthy indicators of development. It primarily
accounts for the environmental adjustment and ecological4 footprint of human
being in the nature. It was first introduced by the New Economics Foundation
(NEF) in July 2006. The Happy Planet Index (HPI) is an index of human well-being
and environmental impact on their life. It has been found that the index is weighted
to give progressively higher scores to nations with lower ecological footprints . The
index is designed to challenge well-established indices of countries’ development,
such as the gross domestic product (GDP) and the Human Development Index
(HDI., which are seen as not taking sustainability into account. It is closely related
to the sustainable development.

Out of the 178 countries surveyed in 2006, the best scoring countries were
Republic of Vanuatu5 , Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominica, and Panama, although
Vanuatu is absent from all later indices. In 2009 Costa Rica was the best scoring
country among the 143 analyzed, followed by the Dominican Republic, Jamaica,
Guatemala and Vietnam. Tanzania, Botswana and Zimbabwe were featured
at the bottom of the list. In practice, the HPI is best conceived as a measure
of the environmental efficiency of supporting well-being in a given country.
Such efficiency could emerge in a country with a medium or low adverse
environmental impact e.g. Costa Rica and very high well-being. Each country’s
HPI value is a function of its average subjective life satisfaction, life expectancy
at birth, and ecological footprint per capita. Among them, the values of first
two factors increases HPI but the ecological footprint reduces its value.

i. Economic Progress
It includes the factors like employment opportunity, income level and

distribution of income in the country.

ii. Environmental Progress

It includes the factors like environmental pollution, sustainability of
environmental components and ecological footprint.

iii. Physical Progress

It includes the aspects of physical health like diseases, obesity, epidemics etc.

iv. Mental Progress

Mental progress is accounted with the prevalence of mental diseases
and consumption of medicines used for such diseases. It is related to the
efficiency of mental functions of people.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 59

v. Workplace Progress

Workplace is very important to determine the happiness of people. It is
accounted with the help of workplace satisfaction, grievance, employees'
behaviors etc.

vi. Social Progress

It is one of the strong indicators of development. Discrimination, security,
violence, crimes, governance and such other factors are taken under this
aspect.

vii. Political Progress

Democracy, human rights, personal freedom and conflict management
systems are taken under consideration in this aspect.

d) Human Resource Development
Human resource is the key and crucial factor for development. It plans, executes,

finalizes and analyzes all sort of developmental tasks. Human resource can be
categorized to unskilled, semi-skilled, skilled and highly skilled manpower.
Human resource is very important in developmental works because it helps:

• To identify and mobilize the natural resources.
• To increase the agricultural production.
• To utilize the physical property in proper ways.
• To carry out the social development through social campaign, NGOs,

and INGOs.
• To utilize the products of development in wise ways.
• To integrate the concept of sustainable development in general

developmental works.
• To conserve the environment along with developmental works.

• To gain economic progress through development.

3.4 Concept of Human Resource Development

Human resource development (HRD) refers to the field of training and
development provided by organizations to increase the knowledge, skills,
education, and abilities of their employees or any other trainees or students. In
many organizations, the human resources development process begins upon
the hiring of a new employee and continues throughout that employee's tenure
with the organization. It is one of the major responsibilities of government as
well. HR development is designed to give people the knowledge and skill that

60 Health, Population and Environment - 9

they need to contribute the national development and economic progress.

Human Resource Development

Need and Importance of HRD
a) Function of Management

Managerial skill is very important for any sort of developmental tasks.
Management of human activities and utilizing the human skill appropriately
result in the achievement of expected level of development. Management
skills may be of different categories. Some important aspects of them are
administrative management, resource management, cost and financial
management, technological management etc.

b) Effective Utility
HRD aims to prepare such set of manpower that can maximize the utilization

of resources in most efficient manner. Effective utility of manpower itself and
the utility of natural resources and agricultural resources are major functions of
Human Resource Development. People living at a particular place know about
the available natural resources around them. They can identify them quickly
and easily if they have knowledge about identifying the resources. Available
natural resources can be mobilized only with the help of expert manpower.
Similarly, agricultural activities need active participation of people to work in
the field and to carry out harvesting crops. Nowadays, agriculture is practised
in advanced ways with technological innovations and modern methods.
Biological engineering and hybrid techniques have increased the total yield
of agricultural production. It has become possible due to the development of
human resources.
c) Motivation
Inordertoefficientandoptimumuseofhumanresources,thereneedscontinuous
motivation from the higher level of administrative personnel. Incentive plans,

Health, Population and Environment - 9 61

trainings, participation in the decision-making process, planning for future are
some of the techniques of motivating people. It is possible with well-trained
human resources.

d) Improvement of Human Relations

Human relations are related to the mental peace and social adjustment of
human life. It improves the productivity of human labor and time invested
by them in a particular work. Sound relations among the employees improve
the quality of workplace satisfaction, effective communication, supervision,
leadership and cooperation among them.

e) Higher Productivity

Productivity is the ratio of total output over total investment. Investment is
accounted in terms of capital investment, running expenses and utilization
of mind and time. Effective mobilization of natural resources, efficient
capital management, energy saving and such other productivity-enhancing
performance can be possible only with the trained human resources.



3.5 Process of Human Development

Human resources are very useful for the developmental tasks. Works done by efficient
manpower is obviously capable of producing better results as per the expectations.
It is a systemic and sequential process with predetermined steps. The steps are given
below:

a) Estimation of the Need of Human Resource

It is the first stage of human resource development. There are several categories
of human resources with multiple knowledge and skills. For a country or
society, there need certain categories of human resources. It is determined by
the current need of manpower experienced by the contemporary society and
nation.

b) Assessment of the Current Human Resource

The present need and availability of human resources are compared at this
second stage of HRD process. It helps to design and estimate the size of
expected goal of human resources to be developed.

c) Forecasting the Future Need of Human Resource

HRD is a long process that enhances human psychomotor skills and analytical
compatibilities in people. Therefore, it cannot be prepared instantly when
the need is felt. In order to fulfill the need of human resources for a predicted
future, potential need of human resources required in that future conditions and
circumstances should be forecasted earlier. Then, it is required to enroll the required

62 Health, Population and Environment - 9

number of people for the development of required compatibilities in them.

d) Development of Employment Program

Employment opportunities are very essential for the development of human
resources. People are searching new jobs and opportunities. Even in working
environment, some employees are always seeking for new challenges and
additional responsibilities.

e) Training and Development Program

This stage of HRD process is the stage for execution of skill development in
people. Training, teaching, workshops, lab-operations, field-visits and such
other skill development processes are executed in order to gain the expected
level of competence in human resources.

3.6 Challenges of Human Resource Development in Nepal
at Present and Future Perspectives

Nepal is a developing country with higher level of poverty and morbidity. In
spite of abundant natural resources, we have not become able to utilize them
adequately in the development of country. It is due to the lack of proper
developmental plans and policies with prospective vision. There is lack of skilled
manpower; and the problem of brain-drain is seriously increasing in Nepal due
to the trend of educated human resources migrating aboard. They are leaving
the nation in search of better jobs and opportunities. In order to develop human
resources sustainably in Nepal, we must plan for inclusive, fair and cooperative
policies of human resource development.

There is need of long-term visions for appropriate human resource development.
In order to do so, we have to access the current status of resources and
predict the potential need up to a certain future. We are very rich in natural
resources. Therefore, we the maximum attention should be focused in its
genuine utilization. The sustainable development focuses on natural resource
conservation while carrying out the developmental works. This is the time of
threat on the environment due to human activities and pollutions. Therefore,
we have to become conscious while planning for the development of nation.
Well-planned industrialization and urbanization, dissemination of services
and facilities to the rural and dormitory areas, utilization of water resources,
development of alternatives of petroleum products and development of self-
dependent national economy are the key formula to drag Nepal towards the
sustainable way of development in the future.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 63

Notes

l Population, environment, and development are interrelated with each
other.

l Environmental conservation balances the uneven distribution of population,
which causes severe destruction of the environment.

l Development is the process of generating new accesses of human being
to obtain facilities, commodities, and services needed for improving their
quality of life by appropriate management and mobilization of resources.

l Economic growth, quality life, happiness and development of human
resources indicate development of a country.

l Human resource development is a systemic and sequential process
with predetermined steps involving the need, assessment, forecasting,
programming and training human resources.

Exercises

Group "A"

Give very short answers to the following questions.
1. Write any one way of utilizing natural resources wisely.
2. Define development.
3. What do you mean by quality of life?
4. Write any one importance of quality of life.
5. Give an example of social aspect of development.
6. What is the full form of PQLI?
7. Who developed Human Development Index?
8. Define HPI.
9. Write any one role of human resource in development work.
10. Write any one challenge of human resource development in Nepal at

present.

64 Health, Population and Environment - 9

Group "B"

Give short answers to the following questions.
1. How do the developmental works connect population and environment?

Describe.
2. What are social and cultural activities? How are they related to environment?
3. What is development? Introduce any four aspects of development.
4. What do you mean by indicators of development? How does economic

growth indicate development of a country? Justify with an example.
5. Give any five ideas of improving quality of life with short description of

each.
6. What is the role of UNDP in measuring quality of people globally? How

does its tool measure the quality? Describe in short.
7. Write a comprehensive paragraph on comparative study of HDI among

SAARC countries.
8. 'HPI' is a new concept of indicating human development. Justify.
9. Explain the role and contribution of human resource in development.
10. "We must plan for inclusive, fair and cooperative policies of human resource

development." Explain.

Group "C"

Give long answers to the following questions.
1. How are population, environment and development interrelated with each

other? Explain with examples.
2. What is development? Why is it important for people? Explain.
3. How does quality of life indicate development? Explain the techniques of

improving quality of life.
4. Explain any five importance of human resource development.
5. How can we develop human resources? Describe its process.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 65

DEMOGRAPHIC

4 SITUATION OF NEPAL
AND ENVIRONMENT

Contents

4.1. Population
4.1.1 Population Size and Growth Rate
4.1.2 Population Composition
4.1.3 Population Density
4.1.4 Population Distribution
4.2 Urbanization and its Effects
4.2.1 Meaning of Urbanization and Unmanaged Urbanization
4.2.2 Classification of the Urban Areas (Municipality,
Sub Metropolitan City, Metropolitan City)
4.2.3 Trend of Urbanization in Nepal
4.2.4 Effects of Urbanization on Population
4.2.5 Effects of Urbanization on Environment
4.2.6 Mitigating Measures for the Effects of Unmanaged Urbanization

4.1 Population

Population refers to the total number of people living in certain area at a specific
time. It includes total number of children, youths, adults, elderly people as well
as infants of both genders within certain area. In a broad sense, population is
defined as the organization of various groups of people living with respect to their
socioeconomic and cultural background in certain area at a given time. Human
resource is the most important resource needed for the developmental process of
a country. All other resources like financial, physical, and biological resources are
handled by human resource. Human population determines the social, political,
cultural as well as economic development of a country. Therefore, the study of
population is very important.

66 Health, Population and Environment - 9

4.1.1 Population Size and Growth Rate
The total population of a certain place expressed in terms of numbers at a given

time is termed as population size. As it is dynamic1 , it is always expressed with
time factor. For example, population size of Nepal in 2001 AD was 23,151,423
and that in 2011 AD was 26,494,504. Similarly, population size of the world in
2011 October 31st was seven billion.
There is no specific rule to point out the ideal size of population. Though the
consequences of population size in a country depend upon the contemporary2
socioeconomic situations and other factors, the developing countries like Nepal
are facing the problems of overpopulation.

Population size refers to the total population of a place expressed in terms of
numbers at a certain point of time. It is never constant, and generally found
increasing with the passage of time. It is expressed in terms of time, place and
total number of people.

Population of Nepal is increasing rapidly. In the past, there was no such
increase. The population data from the second and third censuses of Nepal
showed remarkable decline in the population of Nepal.

1. Dynamic : continuously changing or moving
2. Contemporary : existing or happening at the same time as something

Health, Population and Environment - 9 67

The first census was held in 1968 BS (1911 AD) with the population size of
5,638,749. After twenty years, in 1987 BS (1930 AD), population of Nepal was
5,532,574. It showed an exceptional decline in the total population. After this
decline, population of Nepal has been increasing continuously from 1987 BS to
2068 BS. The following data shows that the population of Nepal has increased
nearly by FIVE folds in 100 years' time period (i.e. from the first to the eleventh
census). Census is taken in every ten years in Nepal.

Population Size and Growth Rates, Nepal, 1911-2011

S.N. Census Year Total Popu- Average Average Average Pop. dou- Pop.
decadal annual bling time density
lation decadal growth growth
rate (%) rate (%) (years)
(intercensal)
-1.15
growth -0.74
13.58
BS AD 31.40
14.01
1. 1968 1911 5,638,749 22.77 38
30.00 38
2. 1977 1920 5,573,788 (64,961) 23.09 -0.13 38
25.20 -0.07 60.3 43
3. 1987 1930 5,532,574 (41,214) 14.44 1.16 30.8 56
2.27 42.7 64
4. 1998 1941 6,283,649 751,075 1.64 34.1 79
2.05 26.7 102
5. 2009-11 1952-54 8,256,625 1,972,976 2.62 33.7 126
2.08 31.1 157
6. 2018 1961 9,412,996 1,156,371 2.25 51.9 180
1.35
7. 2028 1971 11,555,983 2,142,987

8. 2038 1981 15,022,839 3,466,856

9. 2048 1991 18,491,097 3,468,258

10. 2058 2001 23,151,423 4,660,326

11. 2068 2011 26,494,504 3,343,081

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2011 AD)

The above table shows the population declining from the year 1911 AD to
1930 AD. The causes behind this decline were prevalent epidemics, influenza,
recruitment of many Gurkha Army in the First World War3 and also the
unscientific enumeration of people.

From 1998 BS to 2009-2011 BS, the size of population had increased by 31.4%.
This is the maximum intercensal4 population growth rate. It was due to arrival
of many Nepali people from other countries including Gurkha Army after the
end of the Second World War5 .

68 Health, Population and Environment - 9

The following key points can be extracted from the table given above.

• The last census taken in 2011 AD (2068 BS) was the eleventh one and it
showed a total population of 26,494,504 in Nepal.

• Population census was started in 1911 AD (1968 BS) in Nepal. The
eleventh census in 2011 AD (2068 BS) was held after one hundred years
from the first census.

• The second and third censuses showed continuous population decline
in Nepal over the respective intercensal periods. So there are negative
values of intercensal growth rates and average annual growth rates.

• The first scientific census in Nepal was the fifth census that was held
during 2009-2011 BS. It took the longest period of about two years.

• The fifth census (Census 2009-11 BS) had the maximum intercensal
population growth rate i.e. 31.4 %.

• The eighth census (Census-2038 BS) had the maximum average annual
growth rate i.e. 2.62 % p.a.

• Average annual population growth rate in Nepal in the tenth census was
2.25% per annum. This figure has been reduced in the eleventh census to
1.35% per annum. If the rate remains constant it takes 51.9 years period
from the census year 2011 AD for the population to double.

Change in population size depends upon the fertility, mortality and migration
rates. Census 2011 AD showed that the total fertility rate was 2.6 per woman
in that year. It was 4.1 per woman according to census 2001 AD and 3.1 in 2006
AD according to the demographic survey.

4.1.2 Population Composition

Population is composed of people in
various categories. Population can be
categorized on the basis of age, gender,
caste, ethnicity, religion, language,
occupation, etc. Such arrangement
is studied under population
composition. Thus, population
composition can be defined as the

3. The First World War : The First World War was held during the years 1914-1918 AD
4. Intercensal : Between two consecutive censuses
5. The Second World War : The Second World War was held between 1939 AD to 1945 AD

Health, Population and Environment - 9 69

arrangement of population on the basis of various characteristics of people
like language, age, sex, caste, ethnicity, religion, occupation, etc. The study of
population composition helps to find out the population structure of a country
and assists in formulation of plans and policies for people.

Study of population composition is very important due to the following
reasons:
i. It helps to know about the structure of the population.
ii. It helps governmental and non-governmental organizations to formulate
plans and policies.
iii. It provides the foundation of other demographic studies.
iv. It helps to launch special program for socially and economically backward
people.
v. It helps to know about the formation of social organization.

Population composition can be studied with different bases. Some of the ways
of studying population composition are:

a) Population Composition by Age
b) Population Composition by Dependent and Independent Age Groups
c) Population Composition by Sex
d) Population Composition by Caste and Ethnicity
e. Population Composition by Language
f) Population Composition by Occupation
g) Population Composition by Religion

a) Population Composition by Age

It is the arrangement of population on the basis of age groups of people. Age
groups can be made in different ways like equal interval age group, active and
inactive age group, fertile and infertile age group, etc. For the convenience of
various studies related to population and its related issues, age composition is
made by taking 5 years age interval. Central Bureau of Statistics of Nepal gives
data of census 20011 AD as tabulated below:

70 Health, Population and Environment - 9

Population Composition by Age and Sex, 2011 AD

Age Population Age Population
Group Group
Male % Female % Total Male % Female % Total
0-4 5-9
10-14 10.23 9.18 9.69 12.73 11.50 12.10
20-24 15-19
30-34 13.73 12.54 13.12 25-29 11.23 10.91 11.07
35-39 7.14
40-44 8.13 9.63 8.90 5.76 8.52 7.85
50-54 6.0 7.07 6.55 6.33 6.06

60-64 5.14 5.32 5.23 45-49 4.48 4.38 4.43
70-74 3.94 3.66 3.80 55-59 3.21 2.97 3.09
80-84
90-94 2.87 2.85 2.86 65-69 2.16 2.03 2.09

1.55 1.43 1.49 75-79 0.91 0.86 0.89
0.49 0.48 0.49 85-89 0.20 0.20 0.20
0.07 0.08 0.08 95+ 0.03 0.05 0.04

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal 2011 AD

Following key points can be extracted from the table given above.
• Male and female population in the age group 10–14 years occupies the

maximum percentage.
• Population of both genders goes on increasing up to age group 10.14

years and then goes on decreasing order afterwards.

b) Population Composition by Dependent and Independent Age Groups

If we analyze population composition on the basis of active and inactive
age group, total population can be categorized in three age groups as
shown in the table below:

Population Composition by Dependent and Independent Age Groups

Age Group 2001 AD 2011 AD %
Population 34.91
Dependent 0-14 years 39.35% 9,248,246
Population 60 years and above 6.5% 8.14
Independent 54.15% 2,154,410
population. 15-59 years 100 56.98
15,091,848 100
26,494,504

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal

Populations in the age group 0-14 years and above 60 years are regarded as
inactive or dependent population as they cannot be involved actively in income

Health, Population and Environment - 9 71

generating activities and depend upon others. Population in the age group 15-
59 is regarded as active or independent population.

c) Population Composition by Sex
Arrangement of population on the basis of sex or gender is called population

composition by sex. Sex composition gives data about total number and
percentage of male and female population. It is helpful in determining the
ratio of male and female population. This ratio is called sex ratio. In most of
the places male population and female population is almost equal. A small
gap difference is found between them. Population composition by sex in
Nepal is shown by the table given below:

Population Composition by Sex, CBS, 2011 AD

Census Male Male Female Female Sex Ratio
Year Population Percent Population Percent 105.02

1981 7695336 51.22 7327503 48.78

1991 9220974 49.87 9270123 50.13 99.47

2001 11563921 49.95 11587502 50.05 99.80
2011 12849041 48.50 13645463 51.5 94.2

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal

The table given above can be summarized with the following points.
• The latest two censuses i.e. census 2001 AD and 2011 AD show less
percentage of male than that of female.
• In previous censuses 1971 AD and 1981 AD, populations of males were
more than those of females.

• Sex ratio has remarkably declined in the census 2011 AD.

d) Population Composition by Occupation

It is the composition of population on the basis of occupation of people. This
composition shows the number of people engaged in different occupations.
Occupational status of people changes over time. Nepalese people are found
to be shifting from agricultural occupation to non-agricultural occupation. In
2028 BS, total percentage of people engaged in agricultural occupation was
noted to be 94.4%, but the figure has been found to be decreased gradually.

Simultaneously, the involvement of people in non-agriculture fields like industrial
and foreign employment sectors is gradually increasing over time. This is
regarded as a positive indicators of industrial progress and remittance in Nepal.
The following table shows the composition of population by occupation in Nepal.

72 Health, Population and Environment - 9

Occupation Pop% in 2028 BS Pop % in 2058 BS. Pop % in 2068 BS.

Agriculture 94.4% 65.7% 60.43 %
Non-agriculture 5.6% 34.3% 39.57 %
100% 100% 100 %
Total

e) Population Composition by Caste and Ethnicity Source: CBS, Nepal

Nepal has multireligious6 and multi-ethnic societies. Many religions have
made sufficient foundations for vividness of castes too. There is a saying,
"Nepal is a country of four castes and thirty six different tribes7 ." though it
is not a clearly observed fact and there are many counter opinions for and
against this saying under discussion.

There was not any system of keeping the record of different castes of people
from 1911 AD to 1981 AD censuses. From the census of 1991 AD, the record
keeping according to caste began. Above 60 different castes and ethnicity
were enumerated in the census 1991 AD but only 19 out of them were
recorded. A record from census 2011 AD is shown in the table given below:

Population Composition by Caste and Ethnicity, 2011 AD

Caste Group Pop. % Caste Group Pop. %
1. Chhetri 16.6 11. Gurung 1.97
2. Bramhin 12.2 12. Damai 1.79
3. Magar 7.1 13. Thakuri 1.61
4. Tharu 6.6 14. Limboo 1.46
5. Tamang 5.8 15. Sarki 1.42
6. Newar 5.0 16. Teli 1.40
7. Kami 4.8 17. Chamar 1.27
8. Muslims 4.4 18. Koiree 1.16
9. Yadav 4.0 19. Others 19.12
10. Rai 2.3

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal

6. Multi-religious : with many religious practices
7. Tribe : ethnic group

Health, Population and Environment - 9 73

f) Population Composition by Language

It is the arrangement of population on the basis of their mother tongue or
the language predominantly spoken in their family. Nepal is a country of
multilingual8 society. There are various languages spoken in various parts
of Nepal. Nepali language is spoken widely in offices, schools and other
organizations and it is the main language of communication. Various new
issues about right to indigenous9 languages are under discussion these days
on the platform of New Nepal. The table given below depicts prominent
languages of Nepal with the percent of population speaking them according to
census 2011 AD.

Population Composition by Language, 2011 AD

Mother Tongue Population Mother Tongue Population Percentage
Percentage
Nepali Gurung 1.23
Maithali 44.6 Limbu 1.3
Bhojpuri 11.7 Rai Bantaba 0.5
Tharu 6.0 Hindi 0.29
Tamang 5.8 Santhali 0.19
Newari 5.1 Sunuwar 0.17
Magar 3.2 Danuwar 0.14
Bajjika 3.0 Bhote 0.03
Doteli Thakali 0.02
3.0 Others 8.24
Urdu 3.0
Awadhi
2.6
1.89

Source: CBS 2011 AD

g) Population Composition by Religion

Nepal is a multi-religious country. In the past, it was a Hindu country, but after
political changes of Nepal, it has been declared as secular country. Though
Hindus occupy maximum population share in Nepal, people of other religions
can equally enjoy religious freedom and rights. Status of different religions
according to census 2011 AD is presented below:

8. Multilingual : with many people speaking several languages
9. Indigenous : originating and occurring in a community, country, etc. native

74 Health, Population and Environment - 9

Population Composition by Religion, 2011 AD

Religion Population Religion Population
Total %
1.Hindu 81.34 6. Prakriti Total %
2.Buddha 21,551,492 9.00 7. Bon
3.Islam 2,396,099 121,982 0.46
4.39 8. Jain
1,162,370 13,006 0.04

3,214 0.012

4.Kirant 807,169 3.05 9. Others -- 0.22

5.Christian 375,699 1.41

Source: CBS, 2011 AD, Nepal.

4.1.3 Population Density

Population density is the total population living in a unit square kilometre area)
Nepal is rich in geographical diversity10 . Varieties of geographical places lie
here and they have various climatic, natural, and environmental features. As
mountain region has very cold climate with less fertile soil, survival is difficult
and population density is less.

Development activities are also less in this region due to scarcity of resources
and problems in the mobilization of resources. In Terai region, there is fertile
soil and availability of various services and facilities like transportation, health,
education, security, industries and employment opportunities, entertainment,
communication, and others. So people want to live there and population
density is high in this region.

The factors are generally found to be available near district headquarters and
along the highway in hill and mountain areas too. Therefore some places
in those regions have high population density. Morang, Sunsari, Jhapa, in
the eastern region, Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Lalitpur in the central region,
Rupandehi, Kaski in western region, Surkhet, Banke in mid-western region are
highly populated districts in different regions of Nepal.

Population density refers to the total number of people living in unit square
kilometer area) It gives an average value of population in a certain area)
The following tables show the situation of population density in different
development and geographical11 regions.

10. Diversity : the degree of vividness or varieties

Health, Population and Environment - 9 75

Population Density by Geographical Regions

Geographical Regions 1991 AD Census Year (AD) 2011 AD
28 2001 AD 34.
Mountain 137 32.57 186
Hill 254 167.11 392
Terai 329.59
126 180
Total (Nepal) 157.3

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal

The following key points can be summarized from the table given above.

• Terai region has the highest population density. Its value is 392 per sq.
km.

• Average number of people living in one sq. km. area of Nepal, i.e.
population density of Nepal is 180.

• Mountain region has the least population density. Its value is 34 per sq.
km.

• Population densities are increasing in all geographical regions. But, the
rate of increase is more in Terai region.

4.1.4 Population Distribution

Total land of Nepal can be divided on the basis of ecological12 or development
regions. Nepal has three ecological regions: Mountain region, Hill region and
Terai region. There is unequal distribution of population in different regions.
People want to live in those areas where they can find more facilities and
services. In some places, life process is very difficult due to the lack of food,
transportation, fertile soil, natural resources, and suitable environment to live.

Population distribution can be defined as the arrangement of population on
the basis of geographical , ecological , developmental, or any other form of
land divisions at a given time. Population density is affected and determined
by the structure and features of land area) Plain, fertile, pollution-free, and
environmentally sound land has high population distribution whereas steep,
infertile, polluted, and difficult land has less population distribution.

Some of the reasons behind unequal population distribution are:

• Availability of services and facilities

11. Geographical : pertaining to the structure, altitude, and characteristics of land
12. Ecological : pertaining to the ecosystem and environment of land

76 Health, Population and Environment - 9

• Security

• Climate

• Topographical structure

• Job opportunities

• Fertility of land

Population distribution in Nepal can be studied as the distribution by ecological
or geographic region, developmental regions, and rural or urban areas.

a) Population Distribution by Ecological or Geographic Regions

There is no equal distribution of population in mountain, hill, and Terai regions
in Nepal. Population in Terai region is very high in comparison to hill and
mountain regions. Though there is 35 percent land in mountain region, it has
only 6.73 percent of population. The figure given shows the information about
the situation of population distribution in three ecological regions of Nepal
with percentage of land and population. Population is not equal in different
regions because of topography13 of land, environmental status, and natural
resources like fertile soil, water resources, available vegetations, and cultivable
crops. It is also affected by availability of various services and facilities

Information of population distribution is very important for the policy makers
who make policies and plans related to various forms of development works
like road construction, establishment of schools and hospitals, and other public
welfare. The table given below shows the situation of population of Nepal in
different geographical regions. Mountain region which has 35 percentage of
total land has 6.73 percentage of population whereas the Terai region which
has only 23 percent of total land has 50.27 percent of population. It indicates a
remarkable imbalanced distribution of population in Nepal.

Population Distribution According to Ecological Region

Ecological region Area Population and Percentage

Sq. km. % 2001 AD 2011 AD

Mountain Region 51,817 35 1,687,859 (7.3%) 1,781,792 (6.73%)
Hill Region
Terai Region 61,345 42 10,251,111 (44.3%) 11,394,007 (43%)
Total 34,019 23 11,212,453 (48.4%) 13,318,705 (50.27%)
1,47,181 100 23,151,423 (100%) 26,494,504 (100%)
13. Topography :
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal 2001AD, 2011 AD)

the physical structure of land

Health, Population and Environment - 9 77

Population growth rate depends upon the desire of people to produce children,
prevalence of diseases and natural calamities leading to deaths of people, as
well as migratory behavior of people. Because of availability of various services
and facilities in Terai region, many people migrate towards this region from
hill region and mountain region every year. Such migratory behavior of people
has contributed to make the population growth rate of Terai region very high.
If such growth continues for many years to come, limited land of Terai region
will not be able to meet the needs of large population. It shows imbalanced
population distribution in three regions as population share in mountain and
hill region is decreasing.

c) Population Distribution by Rural and Urban Areas

Rural areas are the village areas whereas the urban areas are the town areas
with more facilities and modern services. Density of population is higher in
the urban areas because the availability of employment opportunities is more
there. Besides, there are more services like transportation, education, health-
care, communication and entertainment. Nepal is a country with significantly
more number of villages. There are comparatively less number of towns and
municipalities. Therefore, the total village population is higher in Nepal in
spite of lesser population density in village areas. The following table shows
the distribution of population on the basis of people living in town and village
areas:
Population Distribution by Rural and Urban Areas in Nepal

Census Year Rural Area Urban Area

2058 BS (2001 AD) 86.1 13.93
2068 BS (2011 AD) 83.0 17.07

4.2 Urbanization and its Effects

4.2.1 Meaning of Urbanization and Unmanaged Urbanization

Urbanization is the process of converting rural and underdeveloped areas
into well-facilitated town areas with additional services and facilities like
health, education, communication, transportation, entertainment, and others.
Urbanization process increases total population with increased number of
houses, buildings, service centres, roads, etc. along with a parallel increase
in drainage, sewage, narrow and congested areas, pollutants, and population
density. For a proper urbanization process, there must be appropriate town plan
in the beginning. Haphazardly built houses have made main towns of Nepal

78 Health, Population and Environment - 9

including the capital city not fit to reside. There is high pollution, rivers have
become dirty, temples and other public places are highly polluted, and roads
have been congested and narrow. This is a result of unmanaged urbanization.
Unmanaged urbanization is the process of developing a place into urban area
without conscious pre-plans and with haphazard development works, which
create obstacles to protect healthy and natural environment.

4.2.2 Classification of the Urban Areas (Municipality, Sub Metropolitan
City and Metropolitan City

Local Self-Governance Act, 2055 of Nepal has made distinct provisions for the
declaration of municipalities, sub-metropolitan cities and metropolitan cities in
Nepal. It gives the guidelines regarding the basic requirements and criteria of
the categorization.

a) Municipality:

The criteria required for municipalities are:

i. Total minimum population of 20,000 in Terai region and 10,000 in
mountain or hilly region.

ii. Minimum annual income of 50 lakhs rupees in Terai and 5 lakhs in hilly
and mountain region.

iii. Availabilityofserviceslikeelectricity,road-transportation,communication
and other facilities of the town areas.

b) Sub-Metropolitan City

The criteria required for sub-metropolitan cities are:

i. Minimum total population of one lakh.

ii. Minimum annual income of 10 crore rupees.

iii. Wellmanagedfacilitiesofelectricity,road-transportation,communication,
education and health care.

iv. Availability of the infrastructures required for national and international
games, public parks, seminar hall, and other facilities of town areas.

c) Metropolitan City

The criteria required for metropolitan city are:

i. Existing as a sub-metropolitan city.

ii. Minimum population of 3 lakh.

iii. Minimum annual income of 40 crore.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 79

CITATION

Provision for Classification of Municipalities According to local self-governance act, 2055
(1999), an act made to provide for local self-governance.

Chapter – 3, Provisions relating to Municipality, Article 88
88. Classification of Municipality :
1. Nepal Government may classify the Municipalities constituted under Section 80, on

the basis of population, sources of income and other urban facilities, as follows :-
a) Municipal Corporation,
b) Sub-municipal Corporation,
c) Municipality

2. The following Municipalities classified under sub-section (1) shall have the population
and urban facilities as follows :-

a) Municipal Corporation : With the population of at least three hundred thousand
and annual income source of minimum four hundred million rupees, having the
facilities of electricity, drinking water and communications, having the main road
and accessory roads of the town pitched, availability of highly sophisticated nature of
service in respect of health services, having the necessary infrastructures as required
for international sports programmes, availability of adequate opportunities for
higher education in different subjects and having at least one university established
and other similar adequate urban facilities and having already been existed as a Sub-
municipal Corporation.

b) Sub-municipal Corporation : With the population of at least one hundred thousand
and annual income source of minimum one hundred million rupees, having the
facilities of electricity, drinking water and communications, having the main roads
of the town already pitched, having the facilities of higher level education and
health services, ordinary facilities for national as well as international level sports
programmes, having the provisions of public gardens and city halls and other similar
necessary urban facilities and having already been existed as a Municipality.

c) Municipality : A semi-urban area with a population of at least twenty thousand, and
annual source of income of minimum five million rupees and with electricity, roads,
drinking water, communications and similar other minimum urban facilities.

Provided that in the cases of mountainous and hilly areas, a population of at least ten
thousand and annual source of income of minimum five hundred thousand rupees
shall be sufficient even if there is no road facility.

3. Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1) and (2), this provision shall
have no effect on the Municipalities already existing here before.

4. Nepal Government may also declare as a cultural town on the prescribed basis in
order to preserve historical and archaeological objects and art and culture of a town.

80 Health, Population and Environment - 9

iv. Wellmanagedfacilitiesofelectricity,road-transportation,communication,
education and health care.

v. Availability of the infrastructures required for national and international
games, public parks, seminar hall, and other facilities of town areas.

vi. Availability of higher level of education services with at least one local
university.

4.2.3 Trend of Urbanization in Nepal

Urbanization is the process where an increasing percentage of a population
lives in cities. Urbanization is found to be a rapid historic transformation
of human civilization and human societies all over the world. It can also be
understood as the rapid migration of massive populations to larger cities. The
United Nations defines urbanization as "the buildup of densely populated area
containing the city and urban areas."

Nepal's urban population has increased to 17% of the total population in 2011
from 13.9% in 2001. The urban population growth rate is measured at 3.38%.
Similarly the rural population has decreased from 86.1% of 2001 to 83% in 2011.
Kathmandu consists of the largest urban population in Nepal. Pokhara, Lalitpur,
Biratnagar, Birgunj, Hetauda, Bharatpur, Butawal, Dhangadhi, Dharan, Itahari,
Birendranagar are some of the largely populated urban areas in Nepal.

Urbanization was first acknowledged by the fifth national census of Nepal
held during 1952 to 1954 with its stated definition. At that time, the urban area
was simply defined as the residential area with at least five thousand human
populations. With the rapid increase in population of Nepal, population
exceeded the limit at various places and the urban areas were re-defined with
classifications.

The trend of urbanization is illustrated in the following table.

Year Urban Population in Number of Urban Population Growth
Percentage Areas Rate in Percentage
1952-54 AD 2.9 10
1961 AD 3.6 16 -
1971 AD 4.0 16 4.53
1981 AD 6.4 23 3.23
1991 AD 9.2 33 7.55
2001 AD 13.9 58 5.89
2011 AD 17.0 58 6.65
3.38

Health, Population and Environment - 9 81

4.2.4 Effects of Urbanization on Population
a) Positive Effects of Urbanization on Population:
i. Urbanization increases the access of people on education and health
services
ii. It increases the employment opportunities.
iii. Urban areas have more options for entertainment and mental calmness.
iv. It helps in uplifting the status of women.
v. It increases access of people in communication and information.
vi. It motivates people to have small family.
vii. It helps in uplifting the quality of life.
b) Negative Impacts of Urbanization on Population
i. It increases the probability of crimes and wrongs.
ii. Urban areas are crowded and burdensome.

iii. There is more practice of unhealthy and inhuman competitions among
people in different issues.

iv. The density of service seekers increases and it results in inconvenience
among the beneficiaries.

v. Urbanization increases the total consumption of goods and foods. So,
there is high chance of scarcity and black marketing.

vi. It increases pollution and human health is degraded due to unhealthy

82 Health, Population and Environment - 9

surrounding.

vii. Antisocial activities increase in town areas due to dense population.

viii. There is high chance of disputes and conflicts among many groups of
people living in narrow and crowded areas.

ix. Due to overcrowded population in particular narrow area, unhealthy
competitions to obtain facilities develop. High competition for survival
develops in such areas. It results in different social disorders like pick
pocketing, theft, quarrel, blackmail, abduction, coercion, and crimes.

x. Unmanaged urbanization may result in lack of basic facilities like drinking
water, transportation, electricity, communication, health, education, etc.
because, there is haphazard and uneven establishment or construction of
those services in case of unmanaged urbanization.

4.2.5 Effects of Urbanization on Environment

a) Positive Effects of Urbanization on Environment

i. Urban areas have more population that can provide the higher number
of experts and educationalists working in the field of environmental
conservation.

ii. There are more numbers of educational institutions that can help in
raising awareness against environmental degradation. Dissemination of
knowledge and awareness is easier in town areas.

iii. The organizations working for the conservation of environmental
conservation are mostly working in urban areas so that they can have
access to the government facilities and assistance.

b) Negative Impacts of Urbanization on Environment

i. Congested settlement
Settlement of people becomes congested due to closely built houses and

buildings. Difficulties arise even for making narrow paths to reach from
one house to another. Such congested settlement leaves adverse effects
on human development and quality of life.

Activity

On the basis of geographical division of Nepal, population is rapidly growing in Terai
region. Similarly, on the basis of developmental regions, it is the most rapid in central
region. What may be the probable reasons for such growth in these regions? Discuss
with your friends and senior members. Prepare a report and show it to your teacher.
Is your conclusion similar to the conclusions of your friends? Compare.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 83

ii. Adverse effects on health
Due to narrow and congested settlement, there is no proper diffusion

of air. Fresh air cannot be obtained in residential areas. Drainage canals
cannot drain all sewage and it pollutes the environment. This creates
favourable situations for the disease germs and life process becomes
unhealthy.

iii. Improper distribution of population

Due to unmanaged urbanization, there is unequal distribution of services
and facilities too. Migration of people has a tendency towards such
facilitated place. Thus, it causes uneven distribution of population.

iv. Environmental degradation

The merits of environment
are spoiled due to
unmanaged urbanization.
More vehicles and
industries pollute air,
more production of liquid
and solid wastes garbage,
litters, etc. pollute soil and
water resources. There
remains no place for
natural existence of biodiversity. Human population occupies all sectors
of natural resources. In this way, environmental degradation becomes
very rapid due to unmanaged urbanization.

4.2.6 Mitigating Measures for the Effects of Unmanaged Urbanization

i. Practice of planned urbanization

There must be pre-plan of each development work with expert’s assistance and
town planners’ contribution. Future impacts of development activities on the
environment should be forecast earlier. These facts must be considered while
doing development works. Drinking water supply pipes, roads, electricity
lines, etc. must be distributed to make them accessible for maximum number of
people. Sufficient space should be managed for roads and paths in front houses
and buildings. Proper air passages must be maintained by making appropriate
spaces between houses. Drainage systems should be designed in scientific
ways that they can collect and drain pollutant liquids easily.

84 Health, Population and Environment - 9

ii. Development of rural areas
The basic facilities like roads, education, communication, electricity,

entertainment, health services, etc. should be managed in rural areas. Rural
development with such facilities retains people from town areas to rural areas.
In this way, unmanaged urbanization in town areas can be controlled.
iii. Employment opportunity
Provision of employment opportunities in different parts of the country assures
people for their easy survival in their hometown. Such opportunities discourage
people to leave the native place. It controls rapid migration of people towards a
common place. In this way, rapid and unmanaged urbanization is controlled.
iv. Balanced development
Development policy should be adopted on the basis of geographical and
ecological status of a country. Development works need natural resources to
obtain raw materials for its execution. Balanced development creates balanced
opportunities for people in all areas. It balances the existence and exploitation
of natural resources too. Proper and balanced utilization of natural resources
helps in conservation of natural resources in town areas. In this way, balanced
development can play a vital role as an effective mitigating measure of
unmanaged urbanization.
v. Development of dormitory or semi-urban areas
Dormitory areas are the places which are on the way to become urban areas soon.
Such semi-urban areas are basically located in the periphery of urban areas.
Development of such areas helps in reducing adverse effect of overpopulation
and unmanaged urbanization in the town areas.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 85

Notes

l The total population of a certain place expressed in terms of numbers at a
given time is called population size.

l Population size of Nepal in 2001 AD was 23,151,423 and that in 2011 AD
was 26,494,504.

l Average annual population growth rate in Nepal in the tenth census, 2001
AD was 2.25% per annum. This figure has been reduced in the eleventh
census, 2011 AD to 1.35% per annum.

l Population composition can be defined as the arrangement of population
on the basis of various characteristics of people like language, age, sex,
caste, ethnicity, religion, occupation, etc.

l Population distribution can be defined as the arrangement of population
on the basis of geographical , ecological , developmental, or any other form
of land divisions at a given time.

l Population density is the total population living in a unit square kilometre
area.

l Population growth rates in Nepal decreased during the intercensal period
1981-91 AD and increased in the intercensal period 1991-2001 AD.

l Urbanization is the process of converting rural and underdeveloped areas
into well-facilitated town areas with additional services and facilities like
health, education, communication, transportation, entertainment, and
others.

l Local Self-Governance Act, 2055 of Nepal has provisions for the declaration
of municipalities, sub-metropolitan cities and metropolitan cities in Nepal
on the basis of available services, demographic conditions and financial
strengths.

l Proper and balanced utilization of natural resources helps in conservation
of natural resources in town areas.

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Exercises

Group "A"

Give very short answers to the following questions.
1. What was total population of Nepal in 2011 AD?
2. When was the first census held in Nepal?
3. Which census had the maximum average annual population growth rate in

Nepal?
4. Define population composition.
5. What is active population?
6. What is the population density of Terai region in 2011 AD?
7. What is the minimum income of metropolitan city in Nepal?
8. Write any one negative impact of urbanization on environment.

Group "B"

Give short answers to the following questions.
1. "Population refers to the total number of people living in certain area at a

specific time." Explain.
2. Explain the trend of population change in Nepal over the last one hundred

years of census.
3. Differentiate between population composition and population distribution

with examples.
4. Why is the study of population composition very useful? Give reasons.
5. Write short notes on:
a) Population composition by age.
b) Population composition by language
c) Population composition by religion.
6. What is the status of religious vividness of Nepalese people according to

census 2011? Describe in brief)

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7. List any three features of population distribution in Nepal on the basis of
population density variations in different geographical regions.

8. What is urbanization and how does it become unmanaged? Describe with
example.

9. Classify the urban areas of Nepal with their basic features.

Group "C"

Give long answers to the following questions
1. Describe the recent trend of urbanization in Nepal briefly with supporting

population data.
2. Explain the positive and negative effects of urbanization with examples.
3. How can we solve the problems created by urbanization? Explain any five

ideas.

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FAMILY LIFE

5 EDUCATION AND
QUALITY OF LIFE

Contents

5.1 Introduction to Family Life Education
5.1.1 Human Life Cycle
5.1.2 Scope of Family Life Education
5.1.3 Importance of Family Life Education
5.1.4 Introduction to Family
5.1.5 Importance of Family
5.1.6 Types of Family
5.1.7 Needs of a Family

5.2 Roles and Responsibilities of Parents or
Guardians in Family Life

5.3 Marriage: Introduction
5.3.1 Types of Marriage
5.3.2 Age at Marriage
5.3.3 Disadvantages of Early Marriage for
Women and Men
5.3.5 Advantages of Proper Age at Marriage

5.4 Planning of the Family
5.4.1 Role of Women in Planning of the Family
5.4.2 Planning of the Family for Future

5.5 Ageing and Social Security
5.5.1 Ageing: Introduction
5.5.2 Causes of Ageing
5.5.3 Changes in Ageing
5.5.4 Problems of Ageing
5.5.5 Caring of Elderly People
5.5.6 Importance of Elderly People

5.6 Social Security
5.6.1 Introduction to Social Security
5.6.2 Directive Principles of Social Security
5.6.3 Programs of Social Security in Nepal

Health, Population and Environment - 9 89

5.1 Introduction to Family Life Education

Every person lives in a family. Life process begins in an institution called
family. Family life refers to the sum of different life situations that occur within
a family. In this context, family life education can be defined as the educational
process which teaches students about different aspects and modes in families
affecting and determining personal as well as family matters concerned with
its members. The personal and family matter may include physical, moral,
emotional, and social development as well as the problems and issues of
adulthood, parenthood, marriage, and interpersonal relationships in the family
and society. Therefore, family life education can also be understood as the
educational process to assist students in their physical, emotional, moral, and
social development in the family along with their preparation and adjustment
during adolescence, adulthood, marriage, parenthood, and ageing.

5.1.1 Human Life Cycle

Human life is a dynamic process beginning from birth and ending to death)
Birth is possible only after fusion of male and female gamete cells and its proper
development inside the womb of the mother.

Inside the womb of the mother, there is a system of supplying oxygen, nutrients,
water and all other necessary materials required for the development of fetus.
After about nine months and seven days, the fetus becomes matured and gets
birth out from the uterus to the external world. After birth, the life is not so easy
in the first few years. Period up to one year is called infancy and this stage is the
dependent stage for food, locomotion and most of other aspects of life.

Embryo Infant

Fertilization Human Child
Gametes Life Pubescent
Cycle

Death Old Adult Adolescent

Figure: Human Life Cycle

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The stages grow gradually as babyhood, childhood, pubescence, adolescence,
adult and old ages. Ultimately, inevitable death collapses the life of each human
individual. From the stage of puberty, the reproductive power of human
proliferates. Females produce ova and the males produce sperms. When they
fuse, a new life begins as a zygote. It is further developed into embryo and fetus
that becomes mature and gets birth as a new member of the human society.

In this way, the life cycle of human being continues. Continuous and
uninterrupted life cycle has made us alive from millions of years back to the
present time.

5.1.2 Scope of Family Life Education

Scopes of family life education comprises of various aspects of human lives
that are in association with human families. People marry in order to form
a private family and live a family life with mutual support and cooperation.
Major scopes of family life education are as follows:

a) Marriage and Marital Stage

Family life education teaches about the techniques of understanding and
cooperation between spouses of a married couple. There are many issues
that differ in husband and wife due to the norms and values of their
originating family.

b) Stage of Family Expansion

Family expansion implies the process of adding new members in the
family. Most common way of expanding family is the process of giving
birth to new babies. Family life education concerns with limiting number
of children with contraceptive methods and birth spacing. In case of
sterility in parents, it teaches the couple about the techniques of getting
child)

c) Stage of Training Children

When children grow to pubescence and adolescence, they learn the skills
of self-dependence in various matters. Such self-learning may not be
adequate for the skills like social adjustments and emotional controls.

Family life education guides parents to train their children regarding
such skills. It also teaches them the skills of developing financial security,
saving, moral values, self-discipline etc. It is the stage of taking important
decisions regarding academic course-selections and life skills.

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d) Stage of Children’s Maturity

When children get matured, it is their time to seek for their new family.
The parents should support them regarding this issue. There may be
controversy among the members of upper and lower generation. It is
due to the changing nature of family norms and values with time.

The members of both generations should understand that it is a common
situation between generation gap. Therefore, they should handle such
situations tactfully in such a way that the problems and disputes are
minimized. It helps in developing happy family life.

e) Stage of Rest

It comes at old age. At this age, there is increased dependency upon
others. Elderly people need more physical, psychological and medical
care. The adults and children should provide all the basic care to the
elderly people in their family. Focusing elderly people and their problems,
governments of different countries have made special provisions like
incentives, insurance and free services.

The nature and volume of such services may differ from country to country.
People of both generations should develop mutual understanding and
respect to each others’ feelings to avoid chaos and confusions in the
family.

5.1.3 Importance of Family Life Education

As we have discussed general introduction of family life education, it assists
family members for adjustment and development in different situations.
Importance of family life education can be listed as below:

a) It helps people to understand the concept and importance of family.

b) It helps family members to cope with physical, emotional, social, and
moral developments.

c) It teaches us about the norm of a happy family. It gives ideas to maintain
happiness in the family.

d) It helps in establishing and maintaining healthy relationship among
family members.

e) It develops understanding and knowledge about the roles and
responsibilities of family members on the basis of their designations in
the family.

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f) It helps adolescents to cope with rapid development and changes in
adolescent period.

g) It helps parents to understand their responsibilities and also helps in
sound decision making.

h) It assists family to be fit and well-adjusted in the community.

5.1.4 Introduction to Family

Family is a group of people living together in a house. Family members share
common mess, common roof, common family norms and values, common
religion and various other socio-cultural features. Family helps its members
to be well-adjusted in the society. Family members are related with one another
through main three ways: blood (Father/Mother and Son/Daughter), marriage
(Husband and wife), and adoption (Adopted children and parents). Members of
a family support each other with the feelings of unity and cordial relationships.

A family is commonly defined as a group of people related by blood, marriage,
or adoption; interact with one another according to their designated family
relationships; live under a common roof; use a common mess; create and follow
common subcultures; and stand as a unit of the society.

5.1.5 Importance of Family

Human is a social animal. It claims itself as the most advanced creature of the
world due to presence of extra-ordinary brain in it. It lives in family and society.
It takes various advantages by living in a family. Family creates an environment
of support and assistance to all the family members through common efforts.
There is much importance of family because family functions in its unique way
for the family members. This importance can be inferred from the following
functions of family.

5.1.6 Types of Family

According to the size and constitution, families are categorized into two types.
They are nuclear family and joint family.

a) Nuclear family

It is the family consisting of parent/s and their own unmarried child/
children. It is called small family due to less number of members in it.
If one child of nuclear family marries, then the family does not remain a
nuclear family. It is then called a joint family. In a nuclear family, there
live no more than one married couple.

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Nuclear Family Joint Family
b) Joint family

It is a composite family consisting of many family members of three
or more generations. There may be two or more married couples and
children from different parents.

Basic characteristics including advantages and disadvantages of
both types of families can be learnt from the following table showing
differences between these two

Differences between Nuclear Family and Joint Family

Nuclear Family Joint / Extended Family

1. It is small in size. Less number of 1. It is big in size. More members are there

family members live in a nuclear in a joint family.

family.

2. There are no more than one mar- 2. There may be more than one married

ried couple. couple.

3. It is composed of husband, wife, 3. It is composed of two or more nuclear

and their unmarried offspring. families.

Advantages of nuclear family Advantages of joint family

1. Basic needs are easily fulfilled. 1 Child care is easier due to presence
of elderly people, grown up
2. It is self supportive. children, and unemployed family

3. Decision making process is easier members.
and faster.
2. There is more physical security
4. Mutual obligation between the and protection.

needs of family members rarely 3. Feelings are more intense.
exists in nuclear families. Emotional security is more due to
the presence of many members.
5. Less disputes and discussion.
6. There is more privacy of family 4. More economic security.
affairs. 5. There is better inheritance of social
values and cultural practices.

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5.1.7 Needs of a Family

Family Needs

Needs are the factors required for survival and to have quality life. Family
needs are the needs of the family members within one family. Needs may be of
many types, but these all can be categorized into main five groups. As a need
of lower stage is fulfilled, there arises a new need of upper stage. American
psychologist Abraham Harold Maslow has given a hierarchy of needs theory.
This theory describes all the needs in five main categories. The hierarchical
needs theory given by Maslow can be illustrated as in the figure:

Self- Additional needs
actualization Basic needs

needs
Esteem needs
Love and belonging needs
Safety needs

Physiological needs

a) Basic needs

Needs of human beings which are essential for survival are called basic
needs. Basic needs include two categories, safety needs and physiological
needs.

i. Physiological needs

This category of need includes the needs primarily needed for continuation
of physiological processes of survival. Food, sex, health, drink, etc. are
included in this group of needs.

ii. Safety needs

As the name of this category has the term safety, it assists family members
in safe survival. Protection, shelter, clothes, security are some of the
examples of needs in this category.

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b) Additional needs

It is the second group of needs. It includes those needs which are not
primarily needed for survival. Quality of life is increased by fulfilment
of additional needs. Maslow has given three sub-groups of additional
needs as follows

i. Love and belonging needs

It lies at the base of additional needs. It includes the need of love and
affection (giving and receiving., cordiality, friendship, and similar other
needs.

ii. Esteem needs

It lies in the middle of additional needs in the hierarchy of Maslow’s needs
pyramid) This is concerned with giving and receiving value, respect, and
regard) Need for freedom and prestige also falls in this group.

iii. Self actualization needs

It lies at the top of pyramid and is the upper marginal need of human
being. There are no other needs to fulfil after fulfilling self-actualization
need. Maslow opines that no one can cross the limit of self-actualization
needs. Needs to achieve the maximum potentiality and fulfilment of all
sorts of needs are kept in this group.

Under the above-mentioned categories of needs, uncountable human
needs can be placed according to the life status, circumstances, and
surroundings. Let’s discuss some needs which surface most commonly
in all families.

a) Income and expenditure

The world has been globalization in various bases. Monetary transaction
is one of the bases among them. Human civilization has crossed the era
of barter system and we are getting all sorts of necessary things from
the market. We purchase goods and services from the market by paying
their prices. We must spend our income to purchase goods and services
from the market. Income is needed to purchase anything that we desire.
But a wise family manages its expenditure according to priority of needs.
In a family, there must be sources of income. There are dependent and
active members in families. The active members should be capable to
generate income by increasing their competence in physical, educational,
technological, and mental aspects.

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b) Food

Food is one of the basic needs for all families. It is needed for survival and
to tackle various diseases. There must be nutritious foods for all members
in families. Especially, children, pregnant and breastfeeding mothers,
infants, and elderly members need special care in food supplement.
Nutrients in food items strengthen immune power of human body.
Quality of foods in families enhances quality of family life and makes the
family happy.

c) Clothing

Clothes are required for protection. Clothing protects us from uneven
weather. Maslow has placed this need under the basic needs in his
hierarchical pyramid of needs theory. Clothes also help us in expressing
social status and personality. There must be a habit of wearing clean and
healthy clothes by all members in families.

d) Shelter

Shelter is the place where we live. It is one of the basic needs. It lies under
the category of safety needs. A congested house creates problems in
accommodating family members within it. There must be enough rooms
according to the size of family. House must be well-ventilated to obtain
adequate oxygen from the outer environment. It must be made clean and
healthy by regular sanitation. An ideal house has separate bedrooms,
kitchen, study rooms for students, latrine, and bathroom.

e) Sex

Sex is one of the components of basic physiological needs. Sex is essential
to continue generation. Fulfilment of sexual desire gives a kind of
satisfaction, called orgasm. People have different ways of fulfilling sex
desires. But, it does not mean that sex abuse is a need of basic type. If
sex is practised just as a way of entertainment and sex abuse, it cannot
be placed under the basic needs. Sex between married couple is socially
accepted and regarded as genuine. Other categories of sex increases
crime, rapes, blackmails, and social disorders.

f) Health

Health is placed under basic needs. It is accepted as a component of
fundamental human rights. One's health depends upon various factors.
Main factors among these are food, environment, lifestyle, and heredity.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 97

It is also affected by the availability of health services and facilities.

g) Security

Security is placed under the basic safety needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs. Security includes physical as well as economic security. Family
members must be protected from natural hazards like rainfall, wind and
storm, as well as from different kinds of accidents. No one can be happy
in insecure environment. So, security is also the basic need of family.

h) Education

Education is one of the essential factors of human life. Without education,
no one can progress in his/her life. Education is needed to develop
competence and to adjust in the society. Uneducated person cannot
run his life successfully. He has to face different kinds of problems in
this competitive and challenging world) So, to pass the life happily and
successfully, family should provide proper and quality education to its
members.

5.2 Roles and Responsibilities of Parents or Guardians in Family Life

Parents are the main members in a family. They control most of the activities
of families. Parents play very important roles to lead the family towards the
path of success. A successful or unsuccessful family depends upon the role of
parents, their capacity, and experience to guide the family. Parents have many
responsibilities towards their family members. For example, to provide them
nutritious food, health care, education, proper training, teaching them social
and religious norms and values, make them able to adjust themselves as a
respectable members of their community.

Responsibilities of Parents towards Their Children

Responsibilities are the duties to deal with
or take care of something or somebody. As
parents are the leaders and policy makers
of family, their responsibility is to take care
of their children and make them bona fide1
citizens of the nation. We can discuss the
following points as the responsibilities of
parents:

a) Management of income

It is the duty of parents to fulfil economic need of their family members.

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Children need different kinds of commodities and services. Their source
of fulfilment of such needs is parents. First, they expect the fulfilment of
their needs from their parents.

b) Provision of education

Education is the basic need of life. It is regarded as one of the fundamental
human rights too. Education develops one’s capacity to generate income.
Family members should be provided with quality education. Parents
should provide proper education to them.

c) Fulfilment of the needs of children

Basic needs are associated with survival process. Everybody must get
proper food, clothes, housing, health care, etc. to live a healthy life. It is
the parents who provide solutions to these needs to their children.

d) Plan the family size

A big family always has problems related to all sectors in life. The supply
of food, housing, clothing and other essential needs becomes difficult in
big families. A small family can easily maintain these things. So, parents
should determine the size of their family according to their capacity and
income generating power.

e) Birth spacing

For proper health care of mother and child, there must be certain gap
between two consecutive births. It is suggested that there must be at least
four to five years gap between first and second child. If the birth spacing
is not proper, both the mother and child will be affected badly. Therefore,
it is the duty of parents to maintain proper birth spacing and improve the
health of their children.

f) Socialization

Socialization is the process of teaching and learning social norms, values
and traditions. Human being is a social animal. Each individual learns
this process from their parents first in their life. It is the parents’ duty to
guide children in socialization process.

g) Health care

Health is wealth) Unhealthy person can do hardly anything in life.
Parents should take care of their children’s health. A healthy child can
develop interpersonal capacities, express it in front of others, and achieve
the goals of life. This proves that health care is the prime duty of parents
towards their children.

Health, Population and Environment - 9 99

h) Better family relation

Family relation maintains peace and harmony within the family. Parents
should create good relation among the family members. To run a family
successfully, there must be cooperation, love, affection, and respect
among the family members.

Roles of Father and Mother as Parents in a Family

The term ‘roles’ has very similar meaning with the ‘responsibilities’ in some
contexts. But it is not so all the time. The term ‘role’ means a part of activities
played by someone in a given social or family context with some expected
pattern of behaviour. In a family, father and mother play certain roles as
parents. Some of the important roles are given below:

a) Policy maker
Parents are the policy makers in every family. They make different

decisions, programs, strategies, and plans for the welfare of their family
members. They hope that their plans and programs will help them to
make their family successful and train their family members well. So,
they are the policy makers of the family.

b) Leaders/Exemplars

To make the family disciplined, parents represent themselves as
examples to their children. Children copy the behaviour and tradition of
their parents. In order to teach the children better norms and values, it is
their duty to represent as good exemplars to their children.

c) Educators

Educators' function is to provide education. In a family. Parents educate
their children regarding various dimensions of social life. Family is
regarded as the first school of life. So, parents are the first teachers for
each and every person.

d) Inspires

To inspire means to encourage somebody to do his/her work, parents
not only impose decision upon their children, but also inspire their
children for progress and better work. Inspiration plays an important
role in achievement of success in life.

Activity

What type of marriage is in practice in your family and community?
Discuss with your community members and prepare a short report on it.
Discuss the conclusions in class.

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