Oasis Health, Physical Education & Ceatve Arts 7

As per the latest Curriculum approved by Curriculum Development Center
Sanothimi Bhaktapur

7

Oasis Publication (P) Ltd.

Anamnagar, Kathmandu, Nepal
Phone: 0977-01-4224004

7

Publisher & Distributor

Oasis Publication (P) Ltd.

Anamnagar, Kathmandu, Nepal
Phone: 0977-01-4224004

First Edition : 2071

Reprint : 2073

Reprint : 2075,2076

Layout : Oasis Desktop Group

Ramesh Bhattarai

Printed in Nepal

Preface

It has been a matter of pleasure to bring this Text Book of Health,
Population and Environment Education for Class Seven with the contents
designed according to the recently prescribed syllabus of the Curriculum
Development Centre, Ministry of Education, Nepal government in the
context of wide demand from the students, teachers, and concerned persons
for a quality book all over the country.

An optimum effort has been made to make this book useful to achieve the
targets of knowledge, aptitude, and comprehension needed for students. It
has been written in simple graspable language and profusely illustrated
with necessary examples and pictures. This book intends to make children
active, creative, and healthy in their daily life. Teachers should be conscious
enough to manage students’ ignorance and juvenile behaviour without
harming their body and brain.

“Children aren’t happy with nothing to ignore,
And that’s what parents were created for.”

-Ogden Frederic Nash (1902-1971), U.S. Humorist

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to entire
Oasis Publication family for their encouragement to prepare this book. I
am grateful to Ms. Nisha Adhikari and Amoon Kafle for their praiseworthy
help in course of preparation of manuscript of the text. My sincere thanks
go to Mr. Surendra Ghimire, Gopikrishna Khatiwada, Araju Dahal,
Abiraj Kafle, Aaryabrat Bhandari, Shriyuti Subedi, Slok Adhikari, Surata
Pokhrel, Sanjita Kafle, and Sanvi Pokhrel for their kind support in different
stages of book publication. I want to extend my cordial thanks to Mr. Mani
Kumar Nembang and all other staffs of Oasis Desktop for replication of raw
manuscripts into an attractive book.

I look forward to constructive feedback, genuine comments, and healthy
criticism from the readers so that the subsequent edition will be more
useful.

Author
[email protected]

COCNoTnEtNenTtSs

Health and Physical Educati
on # 7
IPart

Health
Education

1Unit

Human Body

Before You Start the Text

Our body is like a living machine. Different parts of the body coordinate with one
another to perform special tasks. How is the human body made? How does it remain
alive? Discuss this matter and share your opinions in your class.

2 Health and Physical Education # 7

1.1 Introduction

Human body is a combination of different systems. Each of the systems is assigned
with specific tasks. The human body respires for survival. This task is assigned
to the respiratory system. Intake of food is very essential for any living thing to
survive. This complex task is done by digestive system. There are altogether nine
systems in our body. Different organs coordinate with one another to make a
system. These organs work together to carry out common functions.

A system is a set of organs which work together to carry out common functions.

Each system is made up of its constituent organs. For example, the respiratory
system is made up of nose, throat, larynx, pharynx, wind pipe lungs etc. These
organs help to inhale air from the atmosphere, absorb oxygen through the
lungs, and exhale the unused gases with carbon dioxide out to the atmosphere.
Oxygen is essential for the body to produce energy. It helps in oxidation1
of glucose in the body cell. Blood, which is an organ of circulatory system,
supplies glucose to each and every cell of the body. Blood receives glucose
from the digestive system. This system is made up of many organs like mouth,
esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, etc.

In this way, all the systems work in coordination with one another to keep the
body alive.

1.2 Human Skeletal System

Skeletal system is the system formed by the bones of the body. There are
altogether 206 bones in the whole adult human body. This system has the
following functions:

• to provide the shape or framework of the body
• to support the muscles and tendons attached to it
• to limit and regulate the required mobility of joints and body organs
• to protect the vital organs like the brain, heart, and lungs

The bones constituting the skeletal system are given below:

Human skeletal system (206 bones) can be divided into two parts. They are axial
skeleton and appendicular skeleton.

1 Oxidation: Chemical combination of oxygen with glucose releasing energy needed for the body,
carbondioxide and water

Health and Physical Education # 7 3

Human Skeleton

Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton

Skull Clavicle
Mandible
Scapula
Sternum
Ribs Humerus
Ilium
Vertebral column Ulna
Sacrum Radius
Carpals
Metacarpals

Phalanges
Coxa
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges

4 Health and Physical Education # 7

A. Axial Skeleton (80)

a. Skull or head bones (29)

b. Vertebral column or backbones (26)
c. Thorax or chest bones (25)

i. Sternum (1) ii. Ribs (24)

B. Appendicular Skeleton (126)

a. Pectoral girdle or shoulder bones (4)
b. Upper limbs or hand bones (60)

c. Pelvic girdle or waist bones (2)

d. Lower cimbs or leg bones (60)

Types of Bones

i Long bones
They are present in the legs and hand bones. Humerus, radius, ulna,

femur, tibia, and fibula are long bones. There is bone marrow inside the
long bones. Blood cells are produced by the bone marrow.
ii. Short bones
Phalanges, carpals, metacarpals, tarsals etc. are some examples of short
bones.
iii. Irregular bones
The facial bones and vertebra are the examples of irregular bones. They do
not have well-defined shape.
iv. Flat bones
They are flat in shape. Cranial bones and ribs are the examples of flat
bones.

Joints

Joints are the places where two bones are linked with one another. There are
three types of joints.

i. Movable Joints: They help to move different body parts in the desired
direction. Mobility of the movable joints also differs in different joints.
Shoulder joint and the joint between the thigh bone and hip girdle allow
rotation around them. They are called ‘ball and socket’ joints. Some joints
like knees and elbows allow bending in only one direction. Therefore,
they are termed ‘hinge joints’.

Health and Physical Education # 7 5

ii. Immovable Joints: Some joints do not allow any movement of the bones.
They are immovable joints. Joints between the cranial bones are the
examples of immovable joints.

iii. Semi-movable Joints: These types of joints can be moved to remarkably less
extent. The joints between vertebra are the examples of semi-movable joints.

1.3 Muscular System

Muscular system is the system of muscles in our body. Some of the muscles are
attached to the bones and cartilages while some are not. The functions of muscles
are as follows:
• Muscles help in the movement of legs and hands.
• Muscles cover the bones and provide attractiveness to our physique.
• The eyeball rotates in the desired direction with the help of muscles attached to it.
• Automatic processes like digestion and movement of food along the

intestine is performed by the intestinal muscles.
• The muscles of our heart regulate heartbeat in appropriate rate uninterrupted

and ensure our survival.

There are three types of muscles in our body. They are voluntary, involuntary,
and cardiac muscles.
i. Voluntary Muscles

These types of muscles can be moved according to our will. The voluntary
muscles are striated2. The muscles of arms and legs are the examples of
voluntary muscles. The voluntary muscles help in movement of joints.
For example, if the front muscles of arms contract and the back muscles
are relaxed, the elbow is flexed. When we extend the elbow joint, the front
muscles relax and the back muscles of the arm contract.

(a) Bundles of fibres
Muscle

(b) Fibres
Bunle of fibres

(c) Myofibrils
Fibre
50 m m

Voluntary muscle
2 Striated = having the bundles of parallel multinucleated fibres of muscles

6 Health and Physical Education # 7

ii. Involuntary Muscles

These types of muscles cannot be moved according to our will. They are non-
striated3. Theymoveunder theneedandnecessityaccordingtotheautomatic
regulation of the nervous system. The muscles of stomach and intestine
are the examples of involuntary muscles. There is regular and rhythmic4
movement of the intestinal muscle that helps to move the food during the
process of digestion. This movement of intestinal muscles is known as
peristalsis movement.

iii. Cardiac Muscles

The muscle of the heart is known as cardiac muscle. This muscle is
involuntary and we cannot move it according to our will. The heart
muscles contract and expand for the purpose of pumping blood in our
body. The cardiac muscles are involuntary but striated.

Intercalated disk Cross-striations Myocytes
Nuclei

Cardiac muscle

1.4 Digestive System

Digestion is a process of breaking down complex food materials into the simpler
form, its absorption, and defecation of unutilized substances out of the body. The
complex compounds are broken down by various enzymes present in the saliva,
bile juice, pancreatic juice, gastric juice, etc. Some of the organs of digestive
system are mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestine,
liver, pancreas, cecum, rectum, and anus.

3 Non-striated = not having the multinucleated muscle fibres
4 Rhythmic = repeating in a certain interval of time

Health and Physical Education # 7 7

Mouth

It is the cavity consisting of teeth and a tongue. Food is first taken from the
mouth. Saliva secreted from the salivary glands is mixed with the food. Saliva
contains digestive enzymes that help in digestion of food. Teeth and tongue help
in grinding food into smaller particles. The tongue tastes food and detects any
harmful substances that may have been mixed with the food.

Salivary Glands

There are three pairs of salivary glands around the mouth cavity. They are
parotid, sublingual, and submendibular glands. They secrete saliva and send it
to the mouth while chewing food. Saliva helps in the digestion of food.

Pharynx

It is the triangular cavity at the back side of the mouth. This cavity helps in
swallowing food.

Esophagus

It is also called ‘food pipe’. The food materials swallowed from the pharynx are
carried by the esophagus towards the stomach. It is made up of soft involuntary
muscles.

Liver Stomach
Gallbladder Small intestine
Large intestine

8 Health and Physical Education # 7

Stomach

It is a muscular pouch that stores the swallowed food for digestion. It lies in the
upper left part of abdominal cavity. Food is mixed with gastric juice and ground
more inside the stomach. There is pyloric constriction at the lower part of the
stomach.

Small intestine

It is a coiled and long tubular structure starting from the lower part of the
stomach. An adult has about two and a half meters long small intestine. It has
three parts. They are duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. There are small finger-like
projections on the internal lining of the small intestine. They are known as ‘villi’.
They contain minute blood capillaries which help in receiving the nutrients for
the supply to all parts of the body.

Large intestine

Large intestine is also known as colon. It is wider than the small intestine and is
connected to the small intestine at its lower part. The large intestine also helps in
absorption of water and nutrients. The large intestine has three parts. They are
ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon. The junction of small
and large intestine lies at the lower right part of the abdominal cavity. The large
intestine is connected to the rectum at its lower end.

Esophagus

Liver Stomach
Pancreas

Small Large
intestine intestine

Rectum

Appendix Anus

Digestive system

Health and Physical Education # 7 9

Rectum

It is the place where all the waste materials are collected after digestion. It is a
pouch-like reservoir collecting the stool. When there is adequate waste collected
in it, we feel an urge to defecate.

Anus

It is the opening of rectum. There is a sphincter around the anal opening. This
sphincter becomes tight and closes the anal opening except during the time of
defecation.

Process of digestion

Esophagus Mouth (ptyalin)

Stomach (HCl)

Small intestine
(pancratic and
intestinal amylases)

Carbohydrates (starches, lactose, and sucrose) digestion process

Liver Stomach Pancreas
(Bile salts) (Pepsin) (trypsin, chymotrypsin,
and carboxypeptidase)

Gallbladder Pancreas Small intestine
(bile salts) (pancreatic lipase) (aminopolypeptidase
and dipeptides)
Process of Fat Digestion
10 Health and Physical Education # 7 Process of Protein Digestion

The process of digestion begins from the mouth. The enzyme ‘ptylin’ present
in saliva is mixed with chewed food inside the mouth and digests the sugar.
The lubricating substance ‘mucin’ present in saliva helps in easy swallowing and
transportation of food towards the esophagus. When the food reaches inside the
stomach, the gastric juice is mixed with the food. Hydrochloric acid is also present
in the gastric juice. The action of gastric juice and stomach muscles’ movement
converts the food into paste-like ‘chyme’. The chyme is mixed with bile juice and
pancreatic juice for further digestion of proteins and fats near the duodenum.
Bile juice is produced from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas. Both
the juices are poured near the upper portion of duodenum through a common
duct. Many heavy particles of food are broken down into smaller, absorbable,
and useful nutrients with the action of these enzymes and juices.

The small intestine absorbs the useful materials and mixes them into bloodstream.
Finger-like projections on the inner wall of small intestine known as ‘villi’ help
in this process. Besides, the small intestine also secretes the intestinal juice for
further digestion of undigested substances. The large intestine absorbs water and
helps in hardening the waste. After completion of all these processes, the useless
wastes are collected inside the rectum. After accumulation of certain volume of
stool inside the rectum we feel an urge to pass it out and evacuate the rectum
through the process of defecation.

Capillary absorbs digested Villus
food
Central lymph vessel
absorbs fats

Lymph vessel

Vein
Artery
Pit secretes enzymes

Villi and small intestine

Health and Physical Education # 7 11

1.5 Respiratory System

Our body needs oxygen for the production of energy. Production of energy takes
place inside the mitochondria of each cell. Glucose combines with oxygen to
release energy. The respiratory system helps to take oxygen from the atmosphere,
utilize the oxygen for the production of energy, and exhale carbon dioxide out
of the body.

There are two types of respiration in our body. They are external respiration
and internal respiration. The internal respiration refers to the exchange of gases
between the cells and blood. Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the
body tissues and cells; the oxygen is utilized inside the mitochondria producing
carbon dioxide gas. The carbon dioxide gas is transferred to the blood and
transported to the lungs for exhalation.

Oxygen + Glucose = Energy + Water + Carbon dioxide

The external respiration refers to the exchange of gases in the lungs. The process
of external respiration comprises of inhalation and exhalation. Air around
the nose is sent into the lungs through the process of inhalation. When the air
reaches inside the alveoli in the lungs, the blood supplied around the alveoli
absorbs oxygen and releases carbon dioxide gas. The unabsorbed air and the
carbon dioxide gas are expelled out to the atmosphere during exhalation. The
system regulating the external respiration is comprised of various organs like
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, and lungs.

i. Nose
Nose lies at the central part of our face. There are two inverted holes

known as nostrils. The nostrils have fine hair near the opening. The fine
hairs filter various harmful dust particles while inhaling the air. The air is
moistened inside the nasal cavity.
ii. Nasopharynx
It is the part at the posterior base of nasal cavity. The nasopharynx provides
the way for the air to enter the larynx.
iii. Larynx
It lies in the front part of the throat. Its anterior protrusion forms the
Adams apple. There are vocal cords inside the larynx. These cords are
responsible for the production of sound. The larynx is covered with a
lid like structure known as epiglottis. The epiglottis is closed when we
swallow food and water. It is opened when we inhale or exhale. In this way,
it prevents the entrance of any solids or liquids into the trachea and lungs.

12 Health and Physical Education # 7

Nasal cavity Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Lungs Bronchioles
Bronchi
Alveoli

Diaphragm

Respiratory system

iv. Trachea
It is the tube joining the bronchi and larynx. It is also known as windpipe

because air passes through it during inhalation and exhalation. The
presence of cartilages makes its wall hard.
v. Bronchi
They are the branches of trachea at its lower part. There are two bronchi,
each of them connecting the trachea to the lungs.
vi. Broncheoles
They are the branches of bronchus distributed inside the lungs. The
broncheoles terminate at bunches of minute air sacs. They are known as
alveoli. Each alveolus is surrounded by fine blood capillaries. Exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases takes place across the walls of alveoli
and blood capillaries.
vii. Lungs
There are two lungs inside the ribcage. The lungs expand when they are
filled with air during inhalation and contract during exhalation. The right
lung is made up of three lobes while the left has only two lobes. The left
lung provides space for the heart.

Respiration process

Respiration process comprises of internal and external respirations. When the
air is inhaled into the lungs, the oxygen is taken by the blood present inside the
capillaries surrounding the alveoli. Then, the blood transports oxygen towards
various body tissues and cells. The cells carry out internal respiration at their

Health and Physical Education # 7 13

mitochondria and release carbon dioxide, which is then transported by the blood
towards lungs. Blood releases the carbon dioxide gas inside the alveoli. Carbon
dioxide and other unused gases are, then, exhaled out towards the atmosphere
through the nostrils.

Flow of fresh- Pulmonary
ly oxygenated venule
blood back to
the heart.
Inhinaflleadteasiralveolus
Pulmonary venule Pulmonary
Pulmonary arteriole arteriole

Alveolus

Capillary network Flow of oxygen-
The Alveoli and Associated Capillaries of Lungs of Man depleted blood that
has returned to the

heart.

A capillary network covers the surface
of the alveolus to facilitate oxygen and
carbon dioxide exchange.

Care of the respiratory system

Respiratory system keeps us alive by supplying oxygen and removing carbon
dioxide gas form the body. A healthy adult respires for about 60 times per
minute. This system is in direct touch with the external environment. If we
respire in the polluted air, various harmful gases and dust particles enter the
lungs. These particles may remain attached to the internal lining of bronchus,
trachea, and alveoli for many days. Such things may cause various diseases like
asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia, etc. Therefore, we must try our best to remain
safe from such environment.

1.6 Urinary System

Urinary system filters nitrogen wastes from the blood, accumulates them as
urine, and passes it out from the body. It is the system in human body that filters
some of the toxic5 and nitrogenous waste substances like urea, uric acid, creatinine, etc.
from the blood and eliminates it out from the body in the form of urine. The major
organs of urinary system are:

5 Toxic = poisonous
14 Health and Physical Education # 7

Kidney
Ureter
Bladder
Prostate
Urethra

Urinary system in males and females

Kidney Kidney

Ureter

Ureter

Bladder Rectum
Prostate
Urethra Bladder
Urethra

Male Urinary System: Lateral View

Lateral and frontal views of urinary system

(a) Kidneys (b) Ureters

(c) Urinary bladder (d) Urethra

(a) Kidneys: There are two kidneys in human body. They remain attached
to the posterior wall of abdominal cavity on either side of the spine in
between 12th and 17th vertebra. They are bean-shaped, reddish-brown, and
with a dimension of 12 cm length, 6 cm width, and 3 cm thickness. They
receive blood from renal artery and filter the impurities. After filtration,
renal veins carry blood back from the kidneys to the circulatory system.
There are about one million microscopic filtering units in each kidney.
These filtering units are known as nephrons.

(b) Ureters: Ureters carry urine from kidneys to the urinary bladder. They
are two tubular structures of about 3 mm diameter and 25 to 30 cm length.
They are connected at the pelvis of kidneys and upper part of urinary
bladder.

Health and Physical Education # 7 15

(c) Urinary bladder: This is a hollow muscular organ for storage of urine.
It can hold about 500 ml of urine in it. Its lower part is connected with
the urethra. There are two sphincter muscles at the part of connection.
These muscles make the connection tightly closed when there is little or
no collection of urine. When the volume of urine rises up to about 500
ml and the person feels an urge to urinate, the sphincter muscles loosen
themselves to allow urine pass towards the urethra.

(d) Urethra: Urethra connects urinary bladder to the outer world. Waste fluid
collected in the urinary bladder in the form of urine is passed out from the
body through urethra. Urethra is longer in males; it extends out longer
along with the penis. Urethra is a common organ for urinary system and
reproductive system in males. In female, it opens about one centimeter
above the vaginal opening. Its length is about 14 cm in males and 4 cm in
females.

Process of Urine Excretion

Renal arteries bring blood with waste products towards the kidneys. Blood is
distributed inside minute capillaries in each Bowman’s capsule of nephrons. The
tangle of capillaries inside the capsule is called glomerulus. The capsules then
filter waste products in the blood and send to the tubules of nephrons. Blood
capillaries surrounding the tubules reabsorb some useful materials like water
and glucose from the tubules. Tubules now contain waste materials dissolved in
water. It is called urine.

Afferent artery Efferent artery
Distal convoluted tubule
(Branch of renal artery)

Glomerulus
Bowman’s or
renal capsule

Proximal
convoluted tubule

Loop of henle Collecting duct

16 Health and Physical Education # 7 A Nephron

Urine is now collected at pelvis of kidneys and gets drained towards the urinary
bladder through ureters. When there is adequate collection of urine in the bladder,
i.e. about 500 ml, the pressure on the wall of bladder increases. This message goes
towards the brain. The brain, then, commands the sphincter muscles to open and
urination process takes place excreting the urine out through the urethra. After
urination, the sphincter muscles constrict and close the bladder. The bladder
continuously collects the urine formed by both the kidneys. When the bladder is
filled again, similar process is repeated for urination.

Exercise

1. Match the following:

Atrium and ventricle Urinary system
Nephron Skeletal system
Tibia and fibula Digestive system
Alveoli Circulatory system
Pancreas Respiratory system

2. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for the false statements.

a. We inhale air into the lungs from the atmosphere.

b. Skeletal system protects our vital organs like heart, brain, and lungs.

c. There are 602 bones in human body.

d. The sternum, ribs, and lumbar vertebra makes the ribcage.

e. Bile juice is produced by pancreas in the body.

f. Ptylin is produced in the intestine.

g. Villis help in absorption of food.

h. Diaphragm surrounds the lungs from lateral sides.

i. Male urethra is longer than female urethra.

3. Give a short introduction to human body.

4. Write the functions of skeletal system.

Health and Physical Education # 7 17

5. How many types of joints are there in human body? Introduce any two of them
in short.

6. How does the cardiac muscle resemble both voluntary and involuntary muscles?
7. List the digestive organs in human body.
8. Describe the process of digestion in short.
9. How does internal respiration differ from external respiration?
10. What are the major facts to be remembered for caring our respiratory system?
11. How do nephrons help in purification of blood? Describe in short.
12. Write short notes on:
(a) Kidneys
(b) Ureters
(c) Urinary bladder
(d) Urethra

18 Health and Physical Education # 7

2Unit

Personal Health

Before You Start the Text

Complete a story with the help of the following clues.
Dirty Mayalman ……never take a bath…………always eat street food…………
once in a party………………ate much…………admitted in hospital………………
doctors said that the cause is dirty food…………………………doctors suggested
him……………………. promised to follow healthy babits.

Health and Physical Education # 7 19

2.1 Introduction to Personal Health

Personal health is one of the most important aspects of human health. The status
of our health is determined and influenced by our personal health behaviour like
caring for body organs, maintenance of personal hygiene, having balanced and
nutritious diet, performing regular exercises, and taking adequate rest. Personal
health can be defined as the state of our health affected and determined by the
personal health-related behaviours like food habits, maintenance of personal
hygiene, having balanced and nutritious diet, performing regular exercises, and
taking adequate rest.

2.2 Caring for Body: Need and Importance

Our body is a complex combination of various systems and organs. Some of the
organs are situated inside the body and some are in contact with the external
environment. All of our organs and systems must be working properly and
smoothly in order to keep our body healthy. Sometimes, these organs encounter
risky situations like exposure to radiation, contamination of our body parts
with harmful germs and substances. Therefore, there must be special focus in
cleanliness of body parts. If there is no proper care according to the nature and
functions of body parts, they may not work properly. We must take care of
internal organs like brain, heart, and lungs by taking proper exercise, rest, yoga,
physical training, etc. and by having balanced and nutritious diet. Similarly, we
must care for our limbs, head, hair, face, and sense organs.

2.3 Caring for the Sense Organs (Nose, Ears and Eyes,
Skin, Tongue)

Caring for the nose

Nose is the sense organ that helps in perception of smell. The nose lies at the
central part of our face. In this regard, nose also determines our personality.
Except the function of smelling, it serves as the passage way for the air for
respiration. A nose has two nostrils inverted downward. The openings at the top
of nose are known as nostrils. Nostrils are protected with fine hairs known as
nasal cilia. They prevent the entrance of unwanted dusts and harmful substances
inside the nose. The following are the ways of caring for our nose properly:
• Never insert the nail or sharp instruments inside the nostrils.
• The nose should always be kept clean.
• The mucus from the nose should be expelled out and while expelling the

mucus out there should not be excessive expulsive force.

20 Health and Physical Education # 7

• Some children have the habit of inserting fingers inside the nostrils. Such
activities should be discouraged.

• Provide first aid as soon as possible if there is nosebleed or any other nose
injuries. Tilt the head back for a while closing the nostrils with fingers in
such a situation.

• Seek medical aid if there is any injury or irresolvable problem in the nose.

Caring for the ears

Ears are situated on either side of our head. They are the sense organs perceiving
sound sensation. Ear has own cleaning system in its external canal. The
internal lining of ear hole secretes a type of waxy substance that washes out
the accumulation of dust and other substances. Besides, it kills several types of
harmful germs entering the ear. The following are some of the guidelines for
caring for ears:

• Clean the earwax frequently with soft cotton bud. If the cotton bud is wet
with sterile water or glycerin, there is less harm to the air canal.

• Never put oil in the ear holes for any purpose.

• Never insert any sharp or rusted instruments inside the ears.

• Do not put anything in ear for playing.

• Plug the ear-holes with cotton bud while bathing or swimming in order to
prevent water from entering the ears.

• If water enters inside the ear, remove it as soon as possible by tilting the
head sideward for a few seconds.

• Do not expose the ears to noise pollution.

• Plug the ears with cotton buds while going to the music concerts or any noisy
place.

• Seek medical assistance if there is any abnormality in the eas.

Caring for the eyes

Eyes are the important sense organs situated on our face. They are the focal
organs where the first glance of anyone falls. The whole world becomes dark if
our eyes become useless. They are highly sensitive and can be affected even by
very small dust particles. The major guidelines to care the eyes are as follows:

• Wash your eyes with clean and cold water at least in the morning and evening.

• Never expose the eyes to excessive light, direct solar radiation, and eclipse
radiation.

• Avoid applying any type of cosmetics around the eyes.

Health and Physical Education # 7 21

• Do not put any medications without doctor’s recommendations.

• If there is a foreign body in the eye, do not rub it. Let the dirt be washed
away with tear as far as possible. If it still remains in the eye, wash it with
clean and cold water.

• Prevent the eyes from dust, colours, and any form of chemicals.

• Use sunglasses while going outside during the sunny days.

• Include vitamin A in your everyday foods by managing green vegetables
and yellow fruits.

2.4 Balanced Diet and Use of Safe Drinking Water

Balanced diet is one of

the important things for

healthy life. Balanced diet

means the set of foods

with inclusion of all the

necessary nutrients in

appropriate amount. Junk

foods, street foods, stale

foods, hot, spicy, and oily

foods should be avoided

as far as possible. There

must be proper inclusion

of lentils, cereals, green

vegetables, milk products

etc. in our food. Sometimes,

non-vegetarians can

include meat and fish to

obtain adequate amount of proteins and other nutrients. Some people have the

habit of taking heavy meals twice a day. It is not good. We must take light meals

three to four times a day. Staying hungry for long can create acidity and pain in

stomach. We should avoid very hot or extremely cold foods. We should always

wash our hands with soap and clean water before taking the meal. We must

drink adequate amount of water every day. Three cups of water thrice a day

supplies nine cups of water to our body. It may fulfill one-day requirement of

water in normal condition. Excessive intake of water with meal may disturb the

digestion process. Therefore, we should drink enough water one hour before

or after the meal. Drinking water can be made safe by various measures like

boiling, filtering, adding chlorine solution, etc.

22 Health and Physical Education # 7

2.5 Right Posture

Posture is the position of our body in different situations. We must maintain
appropriate posture while sitting, walking, running, reading, sleeping, and in
different other situations. Maintenance of right posture helps in keeping our
body fit and fine. It also enhances the personality. Infancy, childhood, and
adolescence are the stages of shaping one’s body outlook and body structure.
Therefore, school children must be careful in maintaining their posture in right
manner. Some of the important points to be remembered for maintaining right
posture are as follows:



Sway Raised Thora Forward Good
Back Buttock Inward Head Posture

• Do not bend forward while walking or standing.

• Swinging hands while walking reduces the chance of falling down. It is
helpful in keeping the hands ready.

• Keep the backbone straight upright while sitting and reading.

• The body should be kept in supine1 position without bending any joints
while sleeping.

Excessive and unbearable jerk should not be given to any part of the body while
exercising. There must be equal level of exercise for left and right part of the
body.

2.6 Good Mental Health

Every organ and system of our body functions according to the commands
of the brain. Brain is a delicate and vital master organ of our body. Its proper
functioning depends upon the status of mental health. Therefore, we must keep
our mental health sound and stable.

1 Supine. = facing the abdomen upward

Health and Physical Education # 7 23

We can entertain ourselves through various means like games, picnic, travel,
music, literature, and arts. Sometimes, activities like games and picnic may create
unwelcome situations like disputes and quarrels. We must not let such situations
come up. Discipline, sportsmanship, obedience to rules and regulations, and
friendly play can easily prevent such unwanted situations.

Exercise

1. Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for the false statements.

a. Personal health is the state of health determined by personal habits.

b. Hygienic foods should be taken for sound personal health.

c. We should wash our hands and legs to remain healthy.

d. We should clean our nose with sharp instruments.

e. Calm and peaceful mind helps us to remain healthy.

f. Exposure of ears to noise pollution may cause deafness.

2. What do you mean by personal health?

3. List any five advantages of caring for the body properly?

4. What should we do to prevent the adverse consequences of nosebleed?

5. Why should we use soft cotton bud for cleaning earwax from the ears?

6. List any five points suggesting the methods of caring for eyes properly.

7. Draw a diagram illustrating the right posture of standing.

8. How can we keep our mental health in a good order?

24 Health and Physical Education # 7

3Unit

Nutrition

Before You Start the Text

All the living things eat food because they get nutrition from it. What do the following
living things eat?
Cow – grass
Dog – rice, meat, milk, etc.
Mosquito – blood, plant sap, etc.
Cat - ………………………………
Frog - ………………………………
Bee - ………………………………
Lion - ………………………………
Elephant - …………………………
Pigeon - ……………………………
Eagle -………………………………

And YOU? …………………………….

Health and Physical Education # 7 25

3.1 Introduction to Food and Nutrition

Nutrition is the process of taking necessary nutritional components in a balanced
way. The nutritional components or nutrients are the complex molecules
needed for our body to perform various tasks and functions of our body. We
can obtain the nutrients from our food. We consume varieties of foods to satisfy
our hunger and to get the desired tastes. But the biological purpose of eating
foods is to provide nutrients needed for our body. The nutrients of our body can
be categorized into six major groups. They are Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins,
Vitamins, Minerals, and Water.

3.2 Nutrients (Introduction, Source Foods, and
Functions)

a. Carbohydrates and fats

Carbohydrates and fats
are energy-giving
nutrients. They
produce energy.
needed for our body to
perform various
functions and activities.
Our body prefers
carbohydrate to use in
energy production. If
there is no adequate
carbohydrate in our Sources of fat
body, the body utilizes
fat. One gram of carbohydrate produces about four calories of energy
whereas equal amount of fat produces nine calories of energy. But the fats
are stored unutilized if
there is adequate
carbohydrate. If there is
excessive intake of fat, it
is accumulated in our
body and makes us
obese1 and lazy. Our
liver has to produce
more bile to digest more
amount of fat. This may
harm liver.

1 Obese = excessively fat Sources of carbohydrates
26 Health and Physical Education # 7

Therefore, we should take limited amount of fats. Major sources of fats are
ghee, oil, cheese, etc.
Carbohydrates can be obtained from cereals, milk, sugar, and fruits.
Excessive carbohydrates taken by the body are converted into fat and
deposited beneath the skin, around the intestines, and with the muscles.
This condition may result in obesity and diabetes.
Inadequate intake of carbohydrates causes marasmus in children. There
is lack of energy, tiredness, and appearance of thin body if carbohydrate
intake is less in our body.
b. Proteins
Proteins are responsible for growth, development, and repair of body.
Proteins help children in gaining height and weight rapidly. When any
part of our body is injured, the proteins help in repairing these parts.
We can get proteins from animal products like milk, egg, meat, fish, etc.
Similarly, plants like beans and lentils are highly rich in proteins. There
must be at least one source of protein in our everyday food. Vegetarians
can receive required amount of protein taking protein-rich plant products.
Non-vegetarians can include meat, fish, egg, etc. in their meal for the
supply of necessary proteins.

Sources of proteins
Excessive proteins intake may cause difficulty in digestion. Besides,

there is excessive production of harmful substances like urea, uric acid,
and cretinine in our body. Insufficient intake of proteins may result in
malnutrition. Therefore, we must include protein in balanced amount
in our food. Children suffer from ‘kwashiorkor’ if they take insufficient
protein. Lack of protein in our body is characterized by over accumulation
of watery fluid in the body, protruding stomach, unhealed wounds,
tiredness, and physical retardation of our body.

Health and Physical Education # 7 27

c. Minerals (Iron and Iodine)
Minerals are the inorganic nutrients needed for our body for the protection

from diseases. Some minerals are found freely in the nature whereas some
are stored in animal and plants. Some of the important minerals are iron,
iodine, calcium and phosphorus.
Iron
Iron is needed for the production of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a
component which is present on the surface of red blood cells and
responsible for the transport of oxygen throughout the body. It picks
oxygen molecules from the lungs and transports to the cells of all organs
and tissues. If there is inadequate supply of iron, this transportation
mechanism becomes weak and the body cannot get proper amount of
oxygen. Sometimes, there is bleeding with loss of blood. Iron helps to
produce blood cells rapidly in such situations. The condition where there
is less blood or hemoglobin is known as anemia. Iron prevents us from
anemia. The main sources of iron are leafy vegetables, fruits, beans, meat,
etc. Milk and milk products do not contain iron.
Iodine
It is an element required in small amount for various purposes in our
body. Its major use is in the production of thyroxine hormone. Thyroid
gland is present on either side of our larynx. This gland produces T3 and
T4 hormones2 responsible for proper growth and development of body.
Iodine is needed as a constituent of both of these hormones.
If there is lack of iodine in body, the
hormones cannot be produced in
the required amount. Due to this,
the thyroid gland starts swelling.
The swollen gland protrudes in
front forming the goiter. Therefore,
adequate intake of iodine prevents
us from goiter. Iodine is also
responsible for proper growth and
development of body. Deficient
growth of a person due to the lack
of iodine is known as cretinism.
Iodine is very important for sharp
brain and memory. It helps us to
increase the efficiency of logical center and memory center of the brain.

2 T3 and T4 hormones = triiodothyronine and thyroxin hormones
28 Health and Physical Education # 7

d. Vitamins (A, B, C, D, E, K)

(i) Vitamin A: It is very
important for keeping
our eyes healthy. If there
is deficiency of Vitamin
A, we suffer from night
blindness. It is a disease
characterized by difficulty
in seeing things in dim
light. Vitamin A can be
obtained from green
vegetables, yellow fruits,
and Vitamin A capsules. Sources of Vitamin A

We must include green
vegetables in our meal. Vitamin A capsules are distributed for all the
children on Vitamin A Day. It prevents children from deficiency of
Vitamin A.

(ii) Vitamin B Complex: It includes Vitamins B1, B2, B6, B7, and B12. Vitamin
B1 prevents us from ‘beri-beri’ disease. Vitamin B2, B6, and B7 keep our
skin, tongue, and lips healthy. Vitamin B12 is necessary for formation of
blood cells and prevents us from anemia. Vitamin B1 is present just
beneath the husk of rice grain. Liver, egg, meat, mushroom, and cereals
are rich in Vitamin B complex.

(iii) Vitamin C: It is found
in sour fruits like lemons,
oranges, amala, guava,
tomato, etc. It prevents us
from scurvy, a disease of
gums and teeth.

Vitamin C is not stored in Sources of Vitamin C
liver. Therefore, we must
take Vitamin C regularly.
Small amount of Vitamin
C is sufficient for our
body.

(iv) Vitamin D: Vitamin D makes our bones strong by utilizing calcium and
phosphorus in proper way. Rickets is a disease caused if there is lack of
Vitamin D in our body. This disease is characterized by soft and bent
bones. It is obtained from butter, cheese, fish, oil, etc. Exposure to sunlight
helps in manufacturing Vitamin D in our own body.

Health and Physical Education # 7 29

(v) Vitamin E: It is needed to keep our skin healthy and beautiful. It also
prevents from infertility and miscarriage. Vitamin E is found in fish
oil, some vegetable oils, cereals, lettuce leaves, and some other green
vegetables.

(vi) Vitamin K: It is very essential for clotting of blood. When there is cut or
wound, there may be excessive loss of blood. Continuous loss of blood
may result in unconsciousness or even death sometimes. Therefore, the
blood solidifies itself and checks the excessive bleeding. Vitamin K helps
in this function of blood. It is stored in liver. Therefore, liver is one of the
best sources of Vitamin K. Besides, it is found in eggs, meat, fish, rice,
wheat, maize, and various fresh fruits and vegetables.

e. Water
Water is the basic or fundamental nutrient of our body. It is needed more

than any other nutrients for our body because the body consists more than
seventy percent of water. We must drink clean and safe water. If the water
is polluted, we suffer from various waterborne diseases like cholera,
typhoid, diarrhea, and dysentery.

3.3 Importance of Balanced Diet

All the nutrients are not needed in equal amount for our body. We need
carbohydrates and proteins in large scale whereas small amount of Vitamins and
minerals are sufficient for our body. Therefore, we must manage the sources of
the nutrient foods accordingly. Balanced diet is the set of food items consisting
of sources of all the necessary nutrients in the right proportion. Balanced diet
provides appropriate and balanced supply of nutrients in right amount to our
body.

3.4 Junk Foods (Introduction and Effects on our
Health)

Junk foods are the ready made foods with less or no nutrition packed. They are
in attractive plastic wrappers. They advertise more and are mixed with tasting
powder, preservatives, and other harmful components. They give focus on
external attractions rather than the quality of food. Intake of junk foods fills
stomach with inadequate nutrient compounds and harmful chemical substances.
They decrease the interest to have other nutritious foods. A research has proved
that the junk foods affect our mind adversely.

30 Health and Physical Education # 7

Exercise

1. Choose the correct word and fill in the blanks.
a. Nutrients are the complex …………………… needed for our body to
perform various tasks and functions of our body. (molecules, set of foods,
equipment)
b. There are …….. types of nutrients altogether. (four, five, six)
c. Excessive carbohydrates taken by the body are converted into
…………………… (fat, proteins, minerals)
d. Children suffer from ………………….. if they take insufficient protein.
(kwashiorkor, rickets, scurvy)
e. ……………… prevents us from anemia. (sodium, vitamin, iron)
f. ……………..is very essential for clotting of blood. (vitamin K, vitamin A,
vitamin B)

2. Define nutrition. What do we obtain nutrients from?
3. List any three functions of carbohydrates. What are the common sources of

carbohydrates?
4. What amount of energy is produced from carbohydrates and fats? How does our

body utilize these nutrients?
5. What happens if there is excess or deficit of proteins in our body?
6. Give short introduction to a) Vitamin A b) Vitamin D c) Vitamin E.
7. What are the uses and sources of calcium and phosphorus?
8. What do you mean by anemia and goiter? How can we protect ourselves from

these diseases?
9. Define balanced diet. List any two important points of balanced diet.

Health and Physical Education # 7 31

4Unit

Disease

Before You Start the Text

Have you ever been attacked by any disease? For what purpose did you take
medicine last time? How long before had you taken it? Ask these questions to your
friends. Construct the following table in your notebook and fill in the gaps.

Name Reason of taking medicine When?

32 Health and Physical Education # 7

4.1Introduction

The term ‘disease’ is made of combination of a prefix ‘dis-’ and a root word
‘ease’. ‘Dis’ stands for ‘no’ and ‘ease’ means ‘comfort or easiness’. Therefore, the
meaning of disease is not to have easiness in the body.

Disease is the condition having discomfort or improper functions of some of our
body parts. There are various minor and major diseases occurring in our body.
Some of the diseases are caused by malfunctions or dysfunctions of body organs
and some diseases are caused by destructive1 activities of germs in our body.
Most of the diseases that are caused by foreign germs and worms can transfer
from a diseased person to other healthy people. Such diseases are known as
communicable diseases. Cholera, malaria, scabies, conjunctivitis, tuberculosis,
typhoid etc are some examples of communicable diseases. Diseases caused
by lack of nutrients or accidents are non-communicable diseases. Marasmus,
kwashiorkor, rickets, scurvy, etc are some examples of non-communicable
diseases.

4.2 Communicable Diseases

Communicable diseases are the diseases that can transfer from a diseased person
to other healthy people. The diseases in this category are caused by foreign living
organism residing in our body. Most of these organisms are unicellular and
microscopic. They are viruses, bacteria, and protozoa. Some organisms causing
communicable diseases are multi-cellular and visible with our naked eyes. They
are mostly roundworms, hookworms, and some species of arthropods.

Communicable diseases, sometimes, spread quickly in communities and become
epidemics. Some flues like bird-flu and swine flu spread quickly over many
countries and become pandemic. Communicable diseases spread rapidly in
hot seasons. Kala zaar, encephalitis, malaria, typhoid, dysentery, and epidemic
diarrhea have become the major diseases causing loss of many lives in Nepal
every year. Terai region is affected more than hilly and mountain regions due to
favourable temperature, high pollution, and high population density. In order
to prevent communicable diseases to take the form of epidemic or pandemic
disease, these diseases must be controlled in time.

4.2.1 Causes of communicable disease

The organisms which live in our body disturb the works of our
organs and cause diseases are known as causative agents. Bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, worms, and mites are some of the causative agents.

1 Destructive = causing damage

Health and Physical Education # 7 33

The following table shows some of the communicable diseases and their causative
agents.

Diseases Causative agents Type of
the agent
Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides Helminth
Bacteria
Diptheria Corynebacterium diptheriae Protozoa
Bacteria
Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba histoltica Protozoa
Protozoa
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Bacteria
Virus
Malaria Plasmodium malariae
Bacteria
Kala zaar Leishmania donovani Bacteria
Virus
Whooping cough Bordetella pertussis Bacteria
Bacteria
AIDS Human Immunodeficiency virus Virus
(HIV) Bacteria
Bacteria
Syphilis Treponema pallidum Bacteria

Gastroenteritis Escherichia coli

Common cold Rhinovirus

Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi

Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Rabies Rabies virus (Lyssavirus)

Gonorrhea Neisseriae gonorrhoea (gonococcus)

Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae

Meningitis (meningococcal) Neisseriae meningitidis (meningo-
coccus)

4.2.2 Modes of transmission of communicable disease

The causative agents of diseases transfer from one person to another person
through different means. Some of the means of transmission are air, water,
food, direct contacts, indirect contacts, insects or flies, and sexual intercourse.
For example, tuberculosis and common cold are transferred through air, typhoid
through contaminated water, scabies through direct touch and use of victim’s
clothes, and HIV/AIDS is transferred through sexual intercourse with the
diseased person. Some of the causative agents need help of other living things to
be transferred from one person to another. For example, plasmodium malariae,
the causative agents of malaria, are transferred from one person to another by
female anopheles mosquito. Such organisms are known as vectors. Mosquito
serves as the vector for communication of malaria. Similarly, dogs, flies, and lice
serve as the vectors for rabies, kala-zaar, and typhoid fever respectively.

34 Health and Physical Education # 7

4.2.3 Process and cycle of communicable disease

The communicable diseases form a cyclic path for their communication from one
person to another. The reservoir, receiver, and medium are the elements of the
disease cycle. Disease cycle can be defined as the path joining reservoir, medium,
and receiver of communicable diseases in cyclic order. The cycle explains that
the causative agents are taken by specific mediums and transferred to a healthy
person. The healthy person becomes the receiver first. The causative agents
multiply and increase the number and develop the receiver to reservoir. The
reservoir becomes capable of transferring germs to the medium again.

4.3 Some Communicable Diseases

a. Tetanus

Tetanus is a diseased condition characterized by a prolonged contraction of
skeletal muscle fibres. The primary symptoms are caused by toxic2 substance
(tetanospasmin) produced by a species of bacteria Clostridium tetani. These
bacteria are found in the soil contaminated with infected stool of men and
domestic animals like cow, goat, horse, etc. Children are comparatively more
infected by tetanus disease.

Mode of transmission

Tetanus bacteria may enter our body through cuts and wounds on our skin. In
infants, the bacteria may enter through the cut umbilical cord3. If soil, dung, dirt,
rust, or any other substances hosting the bacteria contaminate an opening or cut,
the bacteria may enter the body and cause disease.

Symptoms of tetanus

As the infection progresses, unwanted muscle contractions develop in the jaws
causing strong closure. Therefore, this disease is also known as "lockjaw". The
contraction occurs elsewhere in the body. Other symptoms include difficulty
in swallowing, stiff muscles, body bent into bow-like shape, distracted facial
muscles, uneasy movement and sudden contraction of body in response to loud
sound or touch.

Common symptoms of tetanus are
i. Stiffness in the muscles around mouth and face.
ii. Inability to suckle breast milk.
iii. Inability to eat, chew or swallow foods properly.

2 Toxic = poisonous
3 Umbilical cord: the cord in the newborn infants arising from navel

Health and Physical Education # 7 35

iv. Obstruction of speech.
v. Bending of whole body backward showing a shape of bow.

Tonic phase Clonic phase

Prevention and control of tetanus

Proper immunization should be given according to the
immunization schedule. Women are more vulnerable4
to tetanus. There must be five doses of Tetanus Toxoid (TT) vaccination started
at the age of 15 years. The second dose after one month of the first dose, the third
dose after six months of the second dose, the fourth and fifth doses at the interval
one year after the previous dose are scheduled in the national immunization
schedule. We can prevent tetanus by immunization within 24 hours after the cut
with rusted or dirty weapon. Causative bacteria can be washed away by cleaning
the wounds properly as soon as possible. Some of the common preventive
measures against tetanus are:

i. Children should be immunized with DPT immunization.

ii. Pregnant women should be immunized with TT immunization5.

iii. Cuts and wounds should be kept clean and protected from dirt, dust,
dung, and soil.

iv. Cuts and wound should be washed with soap and clean water.

v. TT immunization should be taken within 24 hours after any cut made by
rusted metal edges.

b. Tapeworm

It is an internal parasite found in men, pig, cow and some other animals.
Its body is long, flat and segmented. Its head has four sucker mouths on its
four sides. It sucks blood and other body fluids from the wall of intestine.
Sometimes, it can go into bloodstream and reach into the delicate organs
like heart, liver, and brain.

4 Vulnerable = susceptible
5 TT immunization: tetanus toxoid immunization.

36 Health and Physical Education # 7

Tapeworm transmission process
Symptoms of tapeworm
i. Mild stomach ache
ii. Loss of appetite
iii. Indigestion
iv. Unconsciousness if the worms are present in brain.

Head

Suckers

Tapeworm

Health and Physical Education # 7 37

Preventive measures against tapeworm
i. Good habit of having safe and clean food items
ii. Raw food items, particularly pork not eaten
iii. Regular monitoring and check-up for diagnosis of tapeworm
c. Hook worm

They are small hook-shaped internal parasites found in human body.
Larva of hook worms can enter the bloodstream of human by penetrating
sole and corner of toes of the feet. After entering bloodstream, they go to
respiratory system and digestive system.

Adults in intestine
Mature in soil

Eggs in feces Rhabditiform Develop into
larvae emerge filariform lar-
Attached to vae (infectious
intestinal wall for humans)

Migrate up Circulation
trachea,
Mature in lu- over epi-
men of small glottis
intestine

Larvae break
into alveoli lungs Penetrate skin

Swallowed
Transmission of hookworm

Symptoms of Hookworm
i. Itching sensation on sole
ii. Loss of appetite
iii. Diarrhea
iv. Stomach ache
v. Dry cough
vi. Remarkable weight loss
vii. Weakness and fatigue6

6 Fatigue: tiredness

38 Health and Physical Education # 7

Preventive measures against hookworms
i. Never walk barefooted.
ii. Develop a habit of taking healthy food items.
iii. Wash fruits and vegetables properly before eating them.
iv. Defecation should be limited to the latrines.
v. Regular monitoring and medical check-up should be done.
vi. Children should be provided with health education and awareness.
d. Diphtheria
Diphtheria is an upper respiratory tract illness caused by a bacteria

Corynebacterium diphtheriae. This disease was quite common in the past
but now it has largely been controlled through widespread vaccination.
It is an infection of throat due to infection of causative bacteria.

Mode of transmission

Diphtheria is a contagious7 Diphtheria
disease spread by direct physical
contact or breathing the droplets8
exhaled, sneezed, or coughed by
infected individuals. This disease
may transmit from person to person
through the infected droplets coming
out while coughing, sputum, and spit.
Eating, sleeping, or playing together
with an infected person transmits this
disease quickly from person to person.

Symptoms of diphtheria

It is characterized by sore throat, low fever, and an adherent9
membrane (a pseudomembrane) on the tonsils, pharynx, and/or nasal cavity.
There is difficulty and pain in swallowing, problems in respiration, and change
in voice due to this disease. Major symptoms include:

i. Throat pain

ii. Difficulty in swallowing

iii. Difficulty in breathing

iv. Fever and fatigue

7 Contagious = communicated through direct contact
8 Droplets = minute drops that come out while sneezing or coughing
9 Adherent = remaining attached to the surface

Health and Physical Education # 7 39

Preventive measures against diphtheria

• DPT (Diphtheria–Pertussis–Tetanus) vaccine should be given to the infants
after crossing six months of age. There must be three doses of vaccination
in the interval of one month after each dose.

• If the vaccination is not given at the recommended age, vaccine should be
provided up to the school age, though the effect of immunization is weaker
in such case.

• Isolate the victim from others until the treatment ends.

• The mucus, spit, or sputum produced by the victim should be buried or
burnt safely.

• Keep the victim in clean airy room.

• The toys or dolls of an infected child should not be shared by others.

• Do not share the patient’s personal items like handkerchief, towel, etc.
Disinfect them by boiling or treating with disinfecting chemicals after the
use by the victim.

e. Polio
It is a type of viral disease caused by the infection of polio virus. It

affects on the nerves of the victim and makes the limbs (hands and legs)
paralyzed. Poliomyelitis, often called polio or infantile paralysis, is a viral
infectious disease caused due to the infection of polio viruses.

Mode of transmission

The viruses are commonly transmitted through the feco-oral route10
or the contamination of foodstuffs with the stool or urine of infected person.
Polio transmits from one person to other persons through infected sputum, spit,
stool, urine, etc.

Symptoms of polio

Although around 90 percent of polio infections show
no symptoms at all, affected individuals can exhibit11
some minor symptoms if the virus enters the blood stream. In about 10 percent
of cases the viruses enter the central nervous system leading to minor illnesses,
non-paralytic aseptic meningitis, or muscle weakness and paralysis. Common
symptoms of paralytic polio include:

a. Asymmetric12 paralysis that most often involves the legs
b. Headache, fever, and vomiting

10 Feco-oral route = the path joining human excreta and food
11 Exhibit = show
12 Asymmetric = affecting either the right or the left side only

40 Health and Physical Education # 7

c. Difficulty in breathing if the respiratory muscles are paralyzed
d. Inability to move the affected limb or any other organ

Muscles Commonly Weakened by Polio

Muscles that Shoulder muscles
straighten or
bend hip, or that Muscles behind arm (Weakness straight-
spread or close ening arm)

legs Back muscles (Either side of
backbone)
Muscles that
straighten knee Thumb muscles

Muscles Contractures
that lift foot causing tight
cords

Preventive measures against polio

Polio can be prevented by

providing immunization

under the age of five years.

Immunization against

polio is given through the

mouth. Every year, Nepal

government organizes

polio day for nationwide

immunization of the

children against polio. It

is a communicable disease

that transfers from an

infected person to others

through infected stool

or urine. Therefore, the Polio Immunization

patient’s excreta should be

disposed safely. If there is difficulty in breathing, the patient should be provided

with artificial respiration.

Health and Physical Education # 7 41

Some of the major preventive measures against polio are:

i. Children should be immunized with polio immunization thrice from six
month to one year after birth.

ii. Polio immunization should not be missed on scheduled national
immunization day.

iii. Excreta of the infected children should be disposed safely into the latrine
or buried.

f. Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lungs. Nose, throat,

windpipe, and lungs may get infected in pneumonia. Pneumonia
can result from a variety of causes, including infection with bacteria,
viruses, fungi, or parasites, and chemical or physical injury to the
lungs. Pneumonia is common, occurring in all age groups, and is a
leading cause of death among the young, the old, and the chronically13

ill. Infants and children suffer from pneumonia particularly in cold
seasons.

Sinusitis Ear infection (Otitis media)
Tonsillitis
Throat infection Laryngitis
(Pharyngitis)
Bronchiolitis
Bronchitis
Pneumonia

Infections of respiratory organs due to pneumonia
13 Chronically = being infected with longterm diseases

42 Health and Physical Education # 7

Symptoms of pneumonia

i. Problem in respiration

ii. Wheezing sound produced while breathing

iii. Excessive expulsion of sputum from nose and throat

iv. Fever and fatigue

v. Severe14 cases include increase in blueness due to lack of oxygen in the
blood

Preventive measures against pneumonia

i. Children should be protected from extreme cold temperatures.

ii. Environment should be kept clean.

iii. Attention should be paid for maintenance of personal hygiene.

iv. Respiration of children, especially the wheezing sound and difficulties in
breathing, should be checked regularly.

v. In case of any doubt, children should be examined by medical personnel.

vi. Take balanced diet and maintain personal hygiene.

vii. Immunize15 against pneumonia, if available.

g. Kala zaar

Kala zaar is a fatal disease caused by a species of protozoan microorganism
‘Leishmania donovani’. Sand fly is the vector that carries the microorganism.
Kala zaar disease spreads in hot seasons in the terai region. Sometimes, it
takes a form of epidemic and makes much loss of people in the affected
area.

Mode of Transmission: Kala zaar is transmitted when
an infected sand fly bites and transmits the causative
agents in the body of a healthy person.

Symptoms of Kala Zaar: Major symptoms of kala zaar
include swelling of the liver and spleen, pain in the
liver, painful enlargement of lymph glands, weight loss,
fatigue, loss of appetite, anemia, irregular onset of fever,
and rough-black appearance of skin.

Prevention and Control of Kala zaar: Kala zaar can be
controlled by controlling its vector, the sand flies. In order to do so, we must
destroy their habitat. They live in the furrow of mud-walls of the houses of Terai
region. They also live in accumulation of loose soil or sand. We can use limited
amount of pesticides to destroy the flies. Proper sanitation is the best policy to

14 Severe = complicated or problematic
15 Immunize = provide vaccination for prevention of disease

Health and Physical Education # 7 43

be safe from sand flies and various such harmful insects around us. Besides that,
we should wear full clothes covering almost all the parts of the limbs and body
during the hot season. Use of mosquito net while sleeping prevents their bites.
We can also use flies-repelling ointment at the suspicious place and time. If there
is any case of kala zaar found in the community, the victim should be treated
properly as soon as possible. Probable symptoms of kala zaar should be seriously
taken for quick diagnosis.

h. Malaria
Malaria is a fatal disease caused by a microscopic parasite known as

plasmodium. It is present in infected human and female anopheles16
mosquitoes’ body.
It cannot survive inside the body of other living things. Plasmodium is
transferred between one another if there is mosquito bite. It is seen in
those places where there are favourable places for mosquitoes. Small pits,
open drains, ponds, and other forms of accumulation of water are the
favourable places for mosquitoes. First symptoms of malaria may appear
seven to thirty days after infected mosquito bite.

Symptoms

(i) High fever up to 106 degree Fahrenheit
(ii) Headache, body ache, and pain in muscles of various parts
(iii) Chill or feeling of extreme cold associated with uncontrolled tremor
(iv) Frequent on and off fever
(v) Excessive sweating when there is fever; the fever declines after sweating
(vi) Anemia and weakness
(vii) Swelling of the liver and spleen
(viii) Death, if not treated in time, or followed wrong and superstitious ways of

treatment

Mode of Transmission

The microscopic protozoa ‘Plasmodium’ are transferred from an infected
female anopheles mosquito to a healthy person through biting. The causative
microscopic organisms present in the saliva of the infected mosquito enter the
human body and cause the disease. The infected person can transfer the germs
to many other female anopheles mosquitoes.

Measures for Prevention and Control

(i) Remain safe from mosquito bite.
(ii) Prevent accumulation of water in pits, ditches, and canals.

16 Anopheles = a species of mosquito

44 Health and Physical Education # 7

(iii) Keep the water drains and other collections of waste water safe from
mosquitoes.

(iv) Use mosquito-net while sleeping.
(v) Avoid mosquito bite by applying mosquito repelling creams and incenses
(vi) Clean unwanted herbs and bushes around the residential areas.
(vii) Destroy the mosquitoes by using insecticides17 in the areas with dense

mosquito population.
(viii) Use mosquito-protecting nets on windows and ventilations.
i. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
A) HIV and AIDS

Introduction

The full form of AIDS is Acquired

Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

It is caused by a type of RNA- GP41

retrovirus 'HIV’ (Human GP120
Immunodeficiency Virus). HIV RNA
and AIDS do not have similar

meaning. HIV is the name of the Lipid membrane
virus and AIDS is the final stage

of HIV infection. HIV destroys

the immune system of our body

and creates a condition where

there is deficiency of immune Human Immunodefeciency Virus (HIV)
power. Immune power protects

us from different germs and diseases.

The viruses (HIV) attack our white blood cells which are responsible for immune
power. They increase their number billions times a day by continuous replication
within these cells. HIV was first recognized in USA in July of 1981 in some
people of African (Haitian) origin. Then, it spread all over the world rapidly. It is
assumed that 7,500 people are infected with HIV each day and there were more
than 33 million people infected with HIV in the world in 2010 AD. HIV entered
lately in Asia. It was first reported in Nepal in the year 1988 AD in four people.

National Centre for AIDS and STD Control (NCASC)18 had published a factsheet
on HIV epidemic in Nepal in August, 2010 AD. The report has stated the following
facts about the estimated numbers of HIV infected people in 2009 AD in Nepal.

17 Insecticides = poisonous substances used to kill insects
18 National Centre for AIDS and STD Control (NCASC) = a government organization working under

the Ministry of Health and Population in Nepal. website: www.ncasc.gov.np
Health and Physical Education # 7 45

- Children (0-14 years) : 3,544

- Adults (15-49 years) : 52,504

- Adults (50+ years) : 7,480

- Total : 63,528

Different studies have shown that there were about 75,000 HIV-infected patients
in Nepal in 2010. The NCASC report has mentioned the labor migrants, injecting
drug users, female sex workers, and their clients as 'high-risk group' of HIV
infection.

HIV/AIDS has become a dreadful problem all over the world. It is widely spread
in Africa, where more than one fourth of its total population is infected with
HIV/AIDS. India is the second largest country for HIV infection. As Nepal has
open border with India, people travel freely across the border. Many girls are
trafficked towards India and are forced to indulge in prostitution. Similarly, a
number of males and females go there for jobs. Various surveys have shown that
HIV infection rate is high among them. When they return to Nepal, they transfer
HIV to other people. UNAIDS, one of the leading international organizations,
has declared Nepal as ‘concentrated epidemic’ area due to higher rate of HIV
spread. This organization had predicted that AIDS would become the leading
cause of death by 2010 AD in Nepal.

Modes of Transmission of HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS is a communicable disease. It is transmitted from an infected person
to a healthy person through different body fluids like blood, semen, vaginal
secretion, etc. There is a false belief that HIV can be transmitted if we go close
to an infected person, work and live together. Such false beliefs have become
problems to adjust the infected persons easily in the family and society. HIV
is microscopic virus, which may be transmitted from an infected person to a
healthy one in the following ways:

(i) By transfusing HIV-infected blood.

(ii) By sharing common syringe, needle, tattooing instrument, and other
materials which come in contact with blood.

(iii) By indulging in unsafe sex (oral sex, anal sex, and sex without using condom).

(iv) By a pregnant mother to her unborn fetus.

(v) By breastfeeding mother to her child through breast milk.

(vi) By accidental piercing with an infected-blood-contaminated syringe to
health workers.

46 Health and Physical Education # 7