Approved by Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Curriculum Development Centre, Sanothimi,
Bhaktapur as an additional material.
A text book of
Health and Physical
Education
8
Author:
Dheejan Babu Kaphle
M.Ed. (TU)
First Edition : 2072
Copy right : Publisher
Layout : Focus Computer
Printed in Nepal
“You can do anything with children if you only play with them.”
-Bismark (1815-1898), German Statesman.
Children are like unmoulded clay of the potters. They incubate several mysteries under their
young thoughts, behaviors, and interactions with the rest of the world. There are several
ongoing quests of studies on child nature and behavior. Each of the quests brings new facts
and theories with a common conclusion that caring and friendly attitude towards children is
a key factor for their development.
We should cooperate with children for resolving the hindrances of learning and discipline.
Instead of motivating them towards healthier lifestyle and behavior, we should not force them
to mug the texts up in their soft and delicate brain. In contrary, unbearable load of study,
system of corporal punishment, and practice of imposing supra-disciplinary confinements
have created a big problem for children.
This book intends to make children active, creative, and healthy in their practical life. Teachers
should be conscious enough to manage their ignorance and juvenile behavior without harming
their body and brain.
This book includes the contents as prescribed by CDC, Ministry of Education, Nepal. While
editing this book, cognizant and insightful plans are applied as far as practicable. The authors
are precisely focused to prepare competent citizen through the educational processes carried
out with this book.
“Children aren’t happy with nothing to ignore,
And that’s what parents were created for.”
-Ogden Frederic Nash (1902-1971), U.S. Humorist.
With a deep dedication to the children who are deprived of school education, I expect genuine
comments and suggestions from the teachers, guardians, and readers.
Dheejan Babu Kaphle
The Author
[email protected]
Part One: Health E
CONTENTS
PART-I: HEALTH EDUCATION
Lessons Page No.
1 Human Body............................................................ 6
2 Personal Health........................................................ 26
3 Nutrition.................................................................... 31
4 Disease....................................................................... 38
5 Adolescence, Sex, and Reproductive Health....... 57
6 Tobacco, Drugs, and Alcohol................................. 68
7 Environmental Health............................................. 74
8 Safety and First Aid................................................. 83
9 Family and Community Health............................. 90
PART-II: PHYSICAL EDUCATION
10 Physical Exercises ................................................... 100
11 Drill............................................................................ 105
12 Physical Training...................................................... 107
13 Yoga............................................................................ 115
14 Games........................................................................ 123
15 Athletics..................................................................... 136
#8 Health and Physical
EducationIPart
Health
Education
1
Human Body
Before You Proceed to the Text
Our body is like a living machine. Different parts of the body coordinate with one another to
perform special tasks. How is the human body made? How does it remain alive? Discuss this
matter and share your opinions in your class.
Some people say that it is a creation of God. Some argue that it developed itself in the nature.
What do your parents, neighbours, friends, and teachers think about it? Conduct a short
symposium in your class. It is not necessary that you must find the truth. It is just a discussion
about what people think about the origin of human body.
1.1 Introduction
Human body is a combination of different systems. Each of the systems is assigned
with specific tasks. The human body respires for survival. This task is assigned to the
respiratory system. Intake of food is very essential for any living thing to survive.
This complex task is done by digestive system. There are altogether nine systems
in our body. Different organs coordinate with one another to make a system. These
organs work together to carryout common functions.
A system is a set of organs which work together to carry out common functions.
Each system is made up of its constituent organs. For example, the respiratory system
6 Health and Physical Education - 8
is made of up nose, throat, larynx, pharynx, wind pipe, lungs, etc. These organs help
to inhale air from the atmosphere, absorb oxygen through the lungs, and exhale the
unused gases with carbondioxide out to the atmosphere. Oxygen is essential for the
body to produce energy. It helps in oxidation1 of glucose in the body cell. Blood,
which is an organ of circulatory system, supplies glucose to each and every cell of the
body. Blood receives glucose from the digestive system. This system is made up of
many organs like mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, etc.
In this way, all the systems work in coordination with one another to keep the body alive.
1.2 Circulatory System
This system is also termed ‘blood circulatory system’ because blood is the major organ
that circulates to all parts of the body in this system. Sometimes this is also termed
‘cardiovascular system’, where,
Cardio = heart and
Vasculo = blood vessels.
With reference to its word meaning, cardiovascular system is the system of the heart
and blood vessels.
Three Major Organs of Circulatory System
• Blood
• Heart
• Blood Vessels
The circulatory system helps to absorb oxygen from the lungs, supply it to different
parts of the body, bring carbondioxide gas from various parts of the body to the
lungs for exhalation, and transport various materials within our body. This system
transports hormones, salt, glucose, and many waste materials too according to need
and necessity.
(i) Blood: Blood circulating in our body is a fluid organ made up of blood tissues.
It is made up of blood cells and plasma. There is 55% of plasma in human
blood; the total volume of blood cells is about 45%. Plasma is the watery fluid
in the blood. It is yellowish in colour. It contains about 92% of water, and the
rest are salts, hormones, sugar, electrolytes, uric acid, urea, and various other
substances.
Blood cells are also known as corpuscles. There are three types of blood cells. They are:
1 Oxidation = Chemical combination of oxygen with glucose releasing energy needed for the
body. Carbondioxide and water vapour is also produced along with energy
production.
Health and Physical Education - 8 7
(a) Red blood cells (RBC): They are also called erythrocytes. They are very
small, disc-like, and biconcave in shape. They
are flexible and non-nucleated2. They are red in
colour due to the presence of a red pigment
called hemoglobin (Hb). It is made up of a
protein pigment and iron. It picks up oxygen
molecule from the lungs and supplies it to
various parts of the body. It also helps in
transportation of carbondioxide back to the
lungs for exhalation. Red blood cells are
produced in red bone marrow and destroyed
in the spleen. They have an average life span
of 120 days. Millions of RBCs are being produced and destroyed in the
human body all the time. The lack of RBC in the human body is termed
anemia. It occurs particularly at the time of heavy loss of blood due to an
accident, operation, and delivery of baby. We must take balanced diet rich
in iron to prevent anemia. Red blood cells and hemoglobin are slightly more
in males than in females.
(b) White blood cells (WBC): White blood cells are also called leukocytes.
There are many types of white blood cells. They are basophil, eosinophil,
neutrophil, monocyte, and lymphocyte. They are transparent or colourless.
Their shape is oval or round. All the leukocytes are nucleated. They have
nucleus in their body. Leukocytes fight against harmful germs in our body.
They kill germs in different ways. Some of them engulf3 the foreign germs
while some produce antibodies4 . Some of them secrete toxic5 chemicals to
kill the harmful disease germs. They are manufactured in red bone marrow.
Lymphocytes are formed in lymph nodes. They can live for about one week.
(c) Platelets: Platelets are also called thrombocytes. They are very small and
non-nucleated. They are formed in red bone marrow. When there is internal
and external bleeding in any part of human body, they gather around and
block the damaged part of blood vessel or capillaries. In this way, they help
in clotting of blood and prevent bleeding. If bleeding continues, the amount
of blood in the body becomes inadequate and the person dies.
ii. Heart: The heart is the busiest muscular organ of human body. It is one of
the most important organs of circulatory system because it pumps blood and
circulates it to all parts of the body. It is located between two lungs inside the
ribcage. The left lung provides a small space for the heart. This space is known
as cardiac notch. Therefore, the heart is situated slightly on the left side from the
2 Non-nucleated = Without having a nucleus
= Surround, capture, and digest
3 Engulf
4 Antibodies = Substances produced by lymphocytes that attach themselves to
harmful germs in order to kill or weaken the germs. Antibodies protect
us from many bacteria and viruses.
= Poisonous
5 Toxic
8 Health and Physical Education - 8
middle of the chest cavity.
Pulmonary Aorta
artery
Pulmonary
Anterior artery
vena cava
Left atrium
Right atrium
Pulmonary Pulmonary
veins veins
Semilunar Semilunar
value value
Atrioventricular Atrioventricular
value value
Posterior Right ventricleLeft ventricle
vena cava
Figure: A Human Heart
The size of our heart is almost equal to our own closed fist. Its regular and
restless contraction and expansion is known as heartbeat. Normal adult
heartbeat is 72 times per minute. But it may range from 60 to 100 depending
upon the exercise, rest, physical work, and emotional states. Infants and babies
have faster heartbeat.
It has four chambers. Upper two are left and right auricles6 . Lower two chambers
are called left and right ventricles. Right and left parts of the heart are separated
by a muscular wall called septum. Valves are the one-way gates for the blood.
They allow blood to flow in only one direction. There are four valves in the
heart. They are:
(a) Tricuspid valve: The valve is situated between right atrium and right
ventricle. It allows the blood to pass from right atrium to right ventricle. It
consists of three cuspids7.
(b) Bicuspid8 valve: The valve is situated between left atrium and left ventricle.
It allows the blood to pass from left atrium to left ventricle. It consists of two
cuspids.
(c) Atrial valve: The valve is situated between the left ventricle and aorta. It
allows the blood to pass from the left atrium to aorta.
(d) Pulmonary valve: The valve is situated between the right ventricle and
pulmonary arteries. It allows the blood pass from the right ventricle to the
pulmonary artery.
iii. Blood Vessels: Blood vessels are the tubular structures through which the blood
flows. There are three types of blood vessels in the human body. They are:
6 Auricles = also atriums
= membranous cup like structure of the valve
7 Cuspid
8 Bicuspid valve = also known as ‘mitral valve’
Health and Physical Education - 8 9
(a) Arteries: The blood vessels that carry Open valve
blood away from the heart are known as
arteries. All arteries carry oxygenated9
blood except the pulmonary arteries. Aorta
is the biggest artery of the circulatory
system. It is joined to the left ventricle and
brings the oxygenated blood from there
for the distribution to all parts of the Closed valves
human body. The aorta gets branched to
many arteries and arterioles which supply Figure: A section of an artery
pure blood to head, brain, heart muscle, and several internal and external
organs. Its wall is composed of three layers. They are tunica adventitia,
tunica media, and tunica interna.
(b) Veins: The blood vessels
that carry the blood Arteriole
towards the heart from
other parts are called Capillaries
veins. All veins carry Venule
Capllary network
deoxygenated blood Tunica Tunica
externa T.S. Vein (endothelum)
except the pulmonary
Tunica media Tunica
veins. The smallest Tunica internaTunica media externa
(Endothelium)
veins originating from
the network of blood
capillaries are called Elasitic membrane Elasitic membrane
venules. They combine to Endothelium Lyers of arterial wall
form bigger and thicker T.S. Artery Tunica
interna
veins. The veins from lower part of the body pour blood into inferior
venacava and those from the upper part pour blood into superior venacava.
Both vanacavae, in this way, bring the deoxygenated blood into the right
atrium. Vanacavae are the biggest veins in the circulatory system.
(c) Capillaries: They are the finest hair-like blood vessels in the human body.
Capillaries can be observed in the white sclera of the eyes as fine red rough
lines on it. These blood vessels have a single wall. They are very minute
and are distributed widely in almost all body organs. Their thin and semi-
permeable wall helps in the exchange of oxygen and carbondioxide gases
and various other materials like glucose, hormones, and salts. Capillaries
obtain oxygenated blood from arterioles. Blood gets deoxygenated10 in the
capillaries and receives carbondioxide. In this way, blood becomes impure
here. The impure or deoxygenated blood is then collected into the venules
in order to get transported towards the heart and lungs.
The term ‘circulation’ is made up of a root word ‘circle’. Whenever we start
9 Oxygenated = carrying oxygen or combined with oxygen
10 Deoxigenate = process of losing oxygen
10 Health and Physical Education - 8
moving from any point on a circle in any direction, we arrive at the same
point again. In the same way, blood moving at any point in the body returns
to the same point after a certain course of circulation.
The circulation process is carried out by the pumping force of the heart. As
the chambers of heart contract, blood escapes out from them. In contrast,
as the chambers dilate, blood enters within them. Due to the unidirectional
flow of blood caused by four valves in the heart, it cannot return in reverse
direction. Due to the regular contraction-dilation and presence of valves in
the heart, there is continuous circulation of blood in the human body in a
definite way.
The primary purposes of blood circulation are:
• To send oxygenated blood received from the lungs to different body parts
• To send deoxygenated blood received from different body parts to the lungs
The following picture shows the path of blood circulation in the human body.
Superior Head Upper 1
vena cava limbs 2
Inferior Lungs Aorta
vena cava 3
Ra LA 4
RV LV
Heart
Portal Gastrointestinal tract
vein
Kidneys
Lower
limbs
Figure: Circulation Path of Blood
When we respire, we inhale air into the lungs. There is oxygen gas in the air. The
oxygen gas is absorbed by the blood inside the lungs. This is called ‘oxidation of
blood’. The oxygenated blood, then, is carried by pulmonary veins. These veins
pour the oxygenated blood into the left atrium. As the left atrium contracts,
blood is pushed down into the left ventricle through bicuspid valve. Suddenly,
the left ventricle contracts and the blood is pumped out to aorta. The aorta,
then, distributes this oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through various
arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. Blood is, now, deoxygenated in capillaries.
It receives carbondioxide and gets collected into the venules. Venules combine
to form bigger veins and all the veins bring the impure blood into superior and
inferior vanacavae11. Both the venacavae pour blood into the right atrium. As
the right atrium contracts, blood in it is pushed down to right ventricle. When
11 Venacavae = plural form of venacava
Health and Physical Education - 8 11
it gets filled, it contracts forcefully to pump this deoxygenated blood towards
the lungs for oxidation through pulmonary arteries. The sudden closure of
tricuspid valve prevents the blood from returning to the right atrium during
this process.
Inside the lungs, blood gets oxygen and follows the same course of circulation again.
Blood Donation
Blood is a precious material that can save people in critical conditions. When
there is heavy loss of blood, it may result in death of the victim. But, if the victim
can receive blood that matches with his/her group, he or she can survive easily.
There are altogether four groups12 of blood. They are:
• Group A • Group B
• Group AB • Group O
In order to match the group, we must consider about RH-factor. There are two
types of RH-factors13 . They are:
• RH-Positive • RH-Negative
Representations of blood group constitute both of the above factors. For
example, blood group O positive (O +ve) stands for group O and RH-factor
positive. Similarly, blood group O negative (O –ve) stands for group O and RH-
factor negative.
A person between the age of 17 to 60 years, who has more than 45 kilograms
of body weight, can donate blood. Some people are afraid of donating blood
but regular blood donation (i.e. after every three months) stimulates proper
blood cell manufacture from the bone marrow. As millions of blood cells are
dying and being manufactured every minute, blood donation does not harm
our body. Instead, our small contribution can save a precious life.
Remember
Blood cannot be prepared in any artificial labouratories anywhere in the world.
The only source of human blood is the human body itself.
Blood collected from the donors is always well-examined for the presence of
HIV and hepatitis viruses to prevent the transmission of related blood-borne
diseases. Donated blood, if unused instantly, is stored safely in blood banks. It
can be used within a period of three months.
Cardiovascular diseases have become a growing health problem all over the
12 Four groups of blood = Group A - presence of A antigen factor only, Group B - presence
of B antigen factor only, Group AB - presence of both A and B
antigen factors, Group O - absence of both A and B antigen factors
= RH-factor positive – presence of RH factor, RH factor negative –
13 Two RH-factors absence of RH factor
12 Health and Physical Education - 8
world. Hypertension14, hypotension15 , heart attack16 , CAD (coronary artery17
disease) and heart diseases are increasing day by day. It is due to unhealthy and
sophisticated habits of people. Excessive intake of hot, spicy, and fatty materials
is the root cause of cardiovascular diseases. These foods cause accumulation
of cholesterol and fatty substances on the inner wall of blood vessels which
narrows or blocks them. If the blood vessels supplying blood to the vital organs
like brain, heart muscles, etc. are blocked, these organs cannot get adequate
amount of oxygen and food. As a result, their cells start dying causing gradual
failure of the organ and ultimately death.
We must avoid hot, spicy, and fatty food to prevent cardiovascular diseases.
Apart from these, regular exercise and proper rest are equally important to
keep our circulatory system and ourselves healthy.
1.3 Reproductive System
Reproduction is one of the identifying characteristics of living beings. All the living
things in the world have their reproductive system. There is sexual reproduction in
human beings.
Reproduction is the process of producing offspring or similar descendents by the
living things.
Sexual reproduction is the process of producing offspring with the involvement of
two opposite sexes for the union of male and female gametes.
Sexual reproduction is followed by the Baby Female Male
union of male and female haploid18 gamete Zygote (23+23=46)
cells. Male gamete cell is known as sperm19
and female gamete cell is known as ovum20 Fertilization
. As both of the gamete cells contain 23
chromosomes each, there is a complete set Egg (23) Sperm (23)
i.e. 46 chromosomes after their union. In this
way, combination of these cells assures the Human Reproduction
new offspring with human characteristics
with complete set of chromosomes (i.e. 46
chromosomes).
Reproductive activities are controlled and guided by sex hormones. Male sex hormone
14 Hypertension = high blood pressure
15 Hypotension = low blood pressure
16 Heart attack = death of cardiac cells (heart cells) causing heart failure
17 Coronary artery = a narrow artery supplying blood to the muscles of the heart
= containing half number of chromosomes in the nucleus (i.e. only 23
18 Haploid chromosomes in case of human being)
19 ‘Sperm’ = also termed as ‘spermatozoan’
20 ‘Ovum’ is a singular term and its plural term is ‘ova’
Health and Physical Education - 8 13
is termed as ‘testosterone’. There are two female sex hormones. They are ‘estrogen’21
and ‘progesterone’.
Male Gonads Gamete cell Hormones
Female Testes Sperm
Ovaries Ovum Testosterone
Estrogen and
progesterone
A. Male reproductive system
Male reproductive system produces male gametes and male sex hormone.
Besides, it manages the safe transport, storage, nutrition, and proper ejaculation
of the spermatozoa22 and semen. Male gamete is also known as sperm. Its
nucleus contains only 23 chromosomes while other normal human cells contain
46 chromosomes in their nucleus. Following are the important parts of male
reproductive system.
a) Testes23 Acrosome
b) Epididymis
Head
c) Vas deferens Body
d) Seminal vesicles
Tail
e) Ejaculatory duct
f) Urethra Figure: A Sperm.
g) Penis
(a) Testes: There are two testes in males. They are oval in shape. They lie at
the groin region between two thighs. They are enclosed inside a thin
skinny sac known as scrotum. Testes are also known as male gonads. They
produce male gamete cells (sperms). They also produce male sex hormone,
testosterone. This hormone gets into the bloodstream and determines
various sex characteristics in males.
(b) Epididymis: There are two epididymes above each testis. They collect
sperms from testes and send them to the vas deferens.
(c) Vas deferens: They are two long and narrow tubular structures originating
from the base of each epididymis to seminal vesicles. They transport sperms
from epididymes to seminal vesicles. Males can permanently stop their fertility
by getting these ducts cut surgically. This process is called vasectomy.
(d) Seminal vesicles: They are two pouch or sac like structures. They collect
sperms form vas deferens and store them. They produce milky-white
viscous fluid called semen. Semen provides nutrition as well as a medium
to swim for the sperms collected inside the vesicles.
21 ‘Estrogen’ has different spelling in British English, i.e. oestrogen
22 ‘Spermatozoa’ is the plural form of spermatozoan
23 ‘Testes’ is the plural form of ‘testis’
14 Health and Physical Education - 8
Male Reproductive System
Bladder Lymph nodes Bladder
Seminal
Seminal vesicle
vesicle Prostate
Vasa deferentia
Rectum Epididymis
Urethra
Penis Prostate gland
Urethra
Testicle Testes
Figure: Male Reproductive System
Figure: Male Reproductive System
Ejaculatory duct: They help in ejaculation24 of the stored sperms with semen at
the time of sexual climax in males. There are two ejaculatory ducts originating
from each seminal vesicle and terminating at urethra.
Urethra: There is only one urethra in male reproductive system. It helps in
transport of sperms and semen out from the male’s body. It is enclosed inside
the penis in its anterior part. It opens outside at the tip of penis. It is a common
organ for reproductive and urinary system in males because it also carries urine
from the urinary bladder in the urinary system.
Penis: Penis is a muscular organ situated just above the scrotum. It is made up
of erectile and spongy tissue.
B. Female Reproductive System: Female reproductive system produces female
gamete cell, i.e. ovum and female sex hormones. There are two female sex
hormones. They are estrogen and progesterone. Besides, it manages the monthly
cycle of menstruation, pregnancy, and delivery of baby. Following are the main
organs of female reproductive system.
(a) Ovaries: There are two ovaries in females.
They are situated on either side above Ovary
the pelvis. They are oval in shape. They
produce female gamete cells, i.e. ova25 Fallopian
and female sex hormones, estrogen and tube
progesterone. An ovum contains only Uterus
23 chromosomes. It is fertilized by a
Cervix
sperm to make a zygote. The zygote is Vagina
developed inside the womb of the mother
and becomes a baby after maturity. The Figure: Female Reproductive System
24 Ejaculation = forced ejection or passing out of fluid
25 ‘Ova’ is the plural form of ‘ovum’
Health and Physical Education - 8 15
hormones secreted from ovaries mix into bloodstream and determine
various female sex characteristics.
(b) Fallopian tubes: There are two fallopian tubes in female reproductive
system, each connecting an ovary to the uterus. These tubes bring the gamete
cells produced by ovaries towards the uterus. The tubes also provide space
for the fertilization of ovum with sperm.
(c) Uterus: Uterus is also known as womb. It is pear-shaped muscular hollow
organ. The fertilized ovum is implanted on its internal wall. The fetus gets
proper environment for its development and growth. After maturity, the
wall of uterus contracts and expels the baby out from the womb to the
external environment.
(d) Cervix: Cervix is the anterior opening of the uterus. It has a narrow neck
and remains closed due to its grip. The cervix links the uterus to the vagina.
(e) Vagina: It is a muscular tube that establishes connection between the external
environment and the uterus. It receives the erected penis of a male during
the sexual intercourse. It also provides the passageway for a matured baby
to be delivered out from the uterus. Its external opening is surrounded by
two pairs of muscular flaps known as labia majora and labia minora. There
are two bartholin glands and a number of vestibular glands at the opening
of vagina. Secretion from these glands keeps the vagina moist.
Menstruation
The process of discharging blood fragments and mucus by females through their
vagina every month in a cyclic order is known as menstruation. It is a natural process
guided by female sex hormones. The first menstruation begins at the early adolescence
in girls. This may be at the age of 11 to 13 on average. The first menstruation is termed
‘menarche’. It is an indicator of reproductive potentiality in girls. Normally, it occurs
in every 28 days. In some females, it may differ by one to three days. Menstruation is
one of the phases of women’s monthly cycle.
The first phase of monthly cycle starts immediately after menstruation. In this phase,
the ovaries start developing ova. Consequently, the uterus starts the preparation
of its implantation on its inner wall, the endometrium. This preparation includes
development of new blood vessels and mucus membranes on the endometrium. This
phase takes about 14 days.
In the second phase, the preparatory work of uterus is developed more with the
increase in thickening of mucus membrane and distribution of blood vessels. This
thickening and other development of endometrium is the preparation for future
implantation of ovum. But, it is not possible for ova to be fertilized every month. As
the unfertilized ovum is not implanted on the endometrium, all the preparatory work
of endometrium becomes useless. This phase takes about 10 days.
In the third phase of monthly cycle, the useless preparation of endometrium and
adead-unfertilized ovum are shaded off and expelled out through the vagina. This
16 Health and Physical Education - 8
is called menstruation. The menstruation phase normally lasts for about four days.
The first phase of monthly cycle begins after completion of menstruation. This cycle
may continue up to the age of 45 years on average. The stoppage of monthly cycle is
called menopause. After menopause, there is neither menstruation nor fertility power
in women.
Reproductive Process
The reproductive process begins from the production of ovum and sperms in female
and male reproductive systems respectively. When an ovum is released by the ovary
in females, it travels slowly in the fallopian tube. If there is sexual intercourse with a
male, millions of sperms enter inside the vagina and uterus. Sperms, then, travel to
all the directions and also towards the fallopian tube. Ultimately, one sperm meets
and fertilizes the ovum inside the fallopian tube. Now the fertilized ovum is termed a
‘zygote’. During the time from ovulation26 to fertilization, the internal wall of uterus,
known as endometrium, develops new blood vessels and mucous layer on it. It is the
preparation for implantation of zygote. The zygote, then, comes inside the uterus and
gets implanted on the wall of the uterus.
Leg Uterus
Umbilical
cord
Placenta Cervix
Vagina
Amniotic sac
with fluid
Eyelid
Figure: A Developing Fetus in the Uterus (Womb)
The implanted zygote undergoes multiple cell divisions and develops rapidly. It
becomes an embryo and fetus. Its head, trunk, limbs, heart, lungs, stomach and all the
organs are developed and it matures after about nine months and seven days. After
maturity, the wall of uterus contracts and expels the baby out through the vagina
towards the external world. This event is called delivery or birth of a baby.
26 Ovulation = release of ovum from the ovary
Health and Physical Education - 8 17
1.4 Glandular System
Glands are a group of cells that secrete specific fluids in the body. The fluids are
enzymes, hormones, sweat, saliva, tear, and juices in the human body. There are two
types of glands in the human body:
A. Endocrine Glands
B. Exocrine Glands
Difference between exocrine and endocrine glands
Endocrine Glands Exocrine Glands
(a) They are ductless glands. (a) They are connected with ducts.
(b) They secrete hormones. (b) They secrete enzymes, juices, sweat,
(c) Their secretions are mixed directly into and tear.
the bloodstream (c) Their secretions are transported to a
(d) Examples: Pituitary gland, adrenal gland, certain part through ducts.
gonads, thyroid gland, etc. (d) Examples: Sweat glands, tear glands,
salivary glands, etc.
#Pancreas shows the characteristics of both endocrine and exocrine gland.
Endocrine Glands
(a) Pituitary Gland: This is also called Pituitary gland
‘master gland’ of human body. It Parathyroid gland
controls all the other glands. It secretes Thyroid gland
many hormones that command other Thymus gland
glands for secretion of their respective
hormones. Some of the hormones Adrenal gland
secreted by this gland are growth Pancreas
hormone (GH), gonadotropins, thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH), etc. It is
situated below the cerebrum of brain.
Its shape and size is almost similar to a
seed of pea.
(b) Thyroid Gland: There are two thyroid Ovary
glands in the front side of the neck. (Female)
They are attached to the Adam's apple. Testis
They produce T3(triiodothyronine) (Male)
and T4(thyroxin) hormones. These hormones help in our physical and mental
development. Iodine is needed to produce thyroxin hormone. If there is lack of
iodine in our food, this gland gets swollen and bulges frontwards to be a goiter.
Therefore, we must take iodized salt to prevent goiter and also to save ourselves
from physical and mental retardation.
(c) Parathyroid Glands: There are four parathyroid glands in the human body.
They are situated at the back of thyroid glands. They produce parathormone
18 Health and Physical Education - 8
hormone, which helps in proper utilization of calcium and phosphorus in the
human body. If this hormone is secreted in excess, calcium which is needed for
strengthening bones is deposited in kidneys to form kidney stone and the bones
become weaker. If it is less in the human body, our muscles become weaker.
Therefore, there must be right amount of parathormone in our body. We must take
a balanced diet and take regular exercises and rest to make them function well.
(d) Gonads: They are the sex glands in the human body. Testes are male and ovaries
are female gonads. Testes produce testosterone hormone, while ovaries produce
estrogen and progesterone hormones. These hormones determine respective
sex characteristics in males and females.
(e) Adrenal Glands: They are situated above each kidney. They produce adrenalin
and noradrenalin hormones, which help in proper digestion of carbohydrates
and balance of blood pressure. Imbalanced production of these hormones
causes weakness, hypertension, hypotension etc. These glands also produce
small amount of sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone) in
males and females both. Excessive secretion of testosterone hormone in females
results in adrenal virilism27 . Similarly, if the female sex hormones are produced
in excess in males, they develop adrenal feminism28 .
(f) Pancreas: Pancreas plays the role of endocrine as well as exocrine gland.
It secretes pancreatic juice and sends it to the duodenum through its duct.
Therefore, it is an exocrine gland. It also secretes insulin and glucagon hormones
that directly mix into bloodstream. Therefore, it is also an endocrine gland. It
is situated just above the transversecolon below the stomach. Insulin hormone
plays an important role in utilization of sugar in the body. If this hormone is
produced in inadequate amount, sugar cannot be used properly by the body
and sugar-level rises. This situation causes weakness and fatigue29. In diabetes,
the pancreas does not produce insulin hormone and the blood-sugar level rises.
(g) Pineal Gland: This gland is situated inside the cranial cavity, between the
hemispheres of cerebrum. This is a pea-sized gland similar in shape to a pine-
cone. It has red colour. This gland secretes melatonin hormone. This gland is
more prominent in younger age and goes on degenerating with increasing age.
It becomes calcified and harder in the old age. This hormone is produced in
humans, other mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
In humans, melatonin plays an important role in the regulation of sleep cycles.
Pineal gland has a connection with the special receptor cells of retina of the
eyes. The secretion of melatonin hormone is increased with the decrease in
the perception of light by the retina. Therefore, the maximum production of
melatonin occurs during the night time. During the daytime, it's production is
less. Melatonin generation by the pineal gland induces physiological changes
27 Adrenal virilism = development of male characteristics like hoarse voice, mustache, beard,
hair on limbs etc. in females
28 Adrenal feminism = development of female characteristics like sweet voice, enlargement of
breast etc. in males
= tiredness
29 Fatigue
Health and Physical Education - 8 19
that make us feel sleepy, promote sleep, reduce body temperature and decrease
respiration rate. During daytime, melatonin levels are low because large amount
of light is detected by the retina. Light inhibition of melatonin production is
central to stimulating wakefulness in the morning and alertness in the daytime.
Melatonin has anti-aging properties. It acts as an antioxidant, neutralizing
harmful oxidative radicals. Melatonin also plays a role in modulating certain
functions of the immune system.
Birds know time and reptiles decide the time of their hibernation with the help
of this hormone. In amphibians, melatonin stimulates a lightening of the skin.
(h) Thymus Gland: This gland is situated at the back of sternum, the central
vertical bone of the front chest. It has pinkish-gray colour. The size of thymus
gland is 10gm in children and 35 to 40gm in adults. As the ageing starts, it starts
shrinking down and its average weight reduces upto 15 gm in elderly people.
Thymosin hormone is produced by the thymus gland. The hormone helps in
production of lymphocytes. Lymphocytes help in strengthening the immunity
power to defend against diseases and germs.
Glands and Our Health
Hormones secreted from different endocrine glands play a very important role
to control different functions in our body. Hormones secreted from all the
glands mix into the bloodstream and affect various organs and their functions
in a proper way. In order for the glands to function well and make our body
healthy, we must take a balanced diet, adopt healthy habits, and take proper
exercise and rest.
1.5 Nervous System Cell Body Dendrite
Nucleus
Nervous system is the master system of Myelin shath
our body because it controls all the other Node of Ranvier Axon
systems. It is the most complex system in Axon Terminals
the human body. This system carries the sole
responsibility of various abstract feelings,
memory, thoughts, and creativity. Senses like
smell, sound, vision, touch, and tastes are
recognized only after their analysis by the
brain. Nervous system is made up of a special
type of tissue known as nervous tissue. This
tissue is made up of nervous cells called
neurons.
Neurons make nerve fibers by connecting
themselves with one another. There are three
types of nerve fibers.
20 Health and Physical Education - 8
(a) Sensory Nerve: Nerves that carry sensations from various organs towards
the spinal cord and brain are called sensory nerves.
(b) Motor Nerve: Nerves that carry commands from the brain and spinal cord
towards different organs of the body are called motor nerves.
(c) Mixed Nerves: Nerves that show the characteristics of both the sensory and
motor nerves are called mixed nerves.
The nervous system is composed of its three sub-systems. They are:
A. Central Nervous System: The central nervous system has two major parts.
They are the brain and spinal cord.
Brain: The brain lies inside the cavity of head-bone called cranial cavity. Brain
is protected by three thin layers of meninges30 and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)31
between these membranes. The brain has the following parts:
(a) Cerebrum: This is the
uppermost and the biggest Cerebrum
part of the brain. It is made Corpus collosum
Ventricles
up of very soft nervous
Thalamus
tissue. It contains the Midbrain
Cerebellum
centres of speech, smell,Hypothalamus Brain stem
taste, temperature, hearing, Pituitary
gland
vision, wisdom, Pons
Medulla
knowledge, creativity, and
memory. It receives
different sensations from
various organs and sends
commands to them accordingly.
(b) Cerebellum: It is also called small brain or
hindbrain. It lies at the lower-back side of the
cranial cavity. It is protected by occipital bone
at its back. The centre for balancing the body
lies in the cerebellum. It receives the sensation
of posture and gravitational force acting on
our body. According to these sensations, it
sends commands to various muscles of legs
and body for keeping our body balanced.
(c) Midbrain: It lies below the cerebrum and in
front of the cerebellum. It connects the brain
with Pons Varolli. It serves in transmission of
messages between cerebrum and Pons Varolli.
(d) Pons Varolli: It lies below the midbrain, Central Nervous System
30 Meninges are the membrane structures covering the brain. It has three layers, pia mater,
arachnoid mater, and dura mater. Its singular form is ‘meninx’.
31 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a special type of fluid that remains between the meninges and
protects brain from physical injuries
Health and Physical Education - 8 21
connecting it to the medulla oblongata. It conveys the nerve impulses
between the midbrain and medulla oblongata.
(e) Medulla Oblongata: It lies just below the Pons Varolli, and links it to
the spinal cord. It helps in transmission of nervous impulses between
them. Besides, it also has some vital centres. They are the cardiac centre32,
respiratory centre, as well as coughing and sneezing centres.
(f) Spinal Cord: It is a long cord situated inside the backbone. It is connected
with 31 pairs of spinal nerves which connect different body parts to the
cord. Spinal cord transmits the nervous impulses between the brain and
different body parts. Besides, it is the centre for reflex action.
What is reflex action?
We do various activities after thinking about their causes and consequences.
But, there are some actions which are performed automatically without
conscious thinking. For example, we scream ‘aaaththa……..’ and remove
our hand from hot objects, if it comes in touch with very hot substance
unknowingly
Sensory nerve tells spinal
cord that flame is hot
Spinal Sensory
cord nerve
Spinal cord sends message
through motor nerve to
move hand
Motor nerve
Reflex action
Figure: Example of Reflex Action
Similarly, we quickly raise our leg if it strikes a sharp stone on the way. We may
shout, ‘aai…yaaa…!’ all of a sudden. We do these activities without conscious
thoughts. Such sudden action executed without conscious thought by our
body in response to certain unpleasant stimuli is known as reflex action.
B Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral nervous system lies at the periphery of our body. It is made up of
31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves. These nerves spread at
the peripheral parts up to the skin and connect them with the central nervous
system. Spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord and cranial nerves originate
32 Cardiac Centre = the nervous centre that regulates the activities of the heart
22 Health and Physical Education - 8
from the cranial cavity. It has sensory, motor, and mixed nerves.
C Autonomic Nervous System
It is the part of nervous system that controls the self-regulating body functions
without conscious thought. It determines the involuntary functions like the
works of heart, lungs, and intestine. Autonomic nervous system has two sub-
systems. They are parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. These
two sub-systems work in opposite way and produce a balanced function of
various organs in our body. For example, the sympathetic nervous system
dilates pupil while the parasympathetic nervous system helps in its contraction.
Due to effort of both of these systems, pupil gets the desired and appropriate
sizes in dim and bright light. The following diagram demonstrates how these
two subsystems produce desired and balanced mechanisms.
Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Contracts pupil Dilates pupil
Stimulates Ganglion Inhibits flow
flow of saliva Medulla oblongata of saliva
Slows Yogus Accelerates
heart beat nerve heartbeat
Constricts Dilates
bronchi bronchi
Stimulates Inhibits
peristalsis peristalsis and
and secretion secretion
Stimulates re- Conversion
leases of bile of glycogen
to glucose
Secretion of
adrenaline and
noradrenaline
Contracts Chain of Inhibits bladder
bladder sympathetic ganglia contraction
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in balancing various body functions.
Health and Physical Education - 8 23
Nervous system and health
As the nervous system is the master system of human body, it controls all the
other systems and body functions. Though the major organs of nervous system are
protected well by cranial box and spine, it is made up of delicate tissue and hurt easily
with injuries to the cranium and spine. There are centres for various sensory and vital
organs in the brain. If the centres are injured or damaged, their corresponding organs
become dysfunctional. A well-balanced and nutritious food as well as balanced
exercise and rest are essential to keep this system healthy. We should avoid junk,
dirty, and stale foods. Tobacco, marijuana, alcohol, and harmful drugs are harmful
for nervous system. Safe travel and adoption of safety measures in risky situation can
prevent injuries to the nervous system.
Exercise
A. Give very short answers to the following questions.
1. Name the types of blood cells.
2. What is plasma?
3. Which blood cell has hemoglobin?
4. Which blood cells help in clotting of the blood?
5. Name the valve situated between the left ventricle and left atrium.
6. Define endocrine gland.
7. Which gland produces T3 and T4 hormones?
8. Name the cord that is situated inside the vertebral column.
9. What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
10. Name the hormones produced by ovary?
B. Give short answers to the following questions.
1. Differentiate between vein and artery.
2. What are capillaries? Where are they found?
3. Draw a diagram of heart and label it showing four chambers, four valves
and blood vessels connecting to it.
4. How does blood circulate in the human body? Mention its path of
circulation.
24 Health and Physical Education - 8
5. Write the functions of:
(a) Testes (b) Ovaries c) Uterus (d) Penis (e) Vagina.
6. Draw well-labeled diagrams of male and female reproductive systems.
7. Why is the pituitary gland called master gland? Write the functions of
pituitary gland.
8. List different endocrine glands of the human body along with their
locations, secretions, and functions.
9. Draw a diagram of neuron and label its parts.
10. Define (a) Nervous System (b)Reflex Action (c) Blood Capillaries
11. Differentiate between:
(a) Cerebrum and Cerebellum
(b) Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems.
C. Fill in the blanks.
1. …………….. tubules are situated inside the testes.
2. Pulmonary circulation helps in the exchange of blood between the heart
and ……………..
3. Deoxygenated blood has …………….. colour.
4. Parathyroid gland produces …………….. hormone.
5. The specialized cells of nervous system are called……………..
Health and Physical Education - 8 25
2
Personal Health
Before You Proceed to the Text
A SHORT STORY
There were two boys living in a village. They were ‘Buddhi Bahadur’ and ‘Murkha Maan’.
Both were students of class eight in a local school. Buddhi Bahadur was as wise as his name
implies and so was Murkha Maan. Both of them were talented students. The only difference
was that Buddhi used to apply the learnt lessons in his own life but Murkha used to utilize
the learnt knowledge in the examination only. Buddhi looked neat, clean, and smart. But,
Murkha looked dirty and rough.
One Saturday evening of the summer, both of them came out from home. The environment
was very calm and clean. Trees and shrubs around were blooming. Birds were singing in the
soft breeze of air. They did not know that they had walked for more than an hour meeting
their friends and enjoying the beauty of nature. With an unexpected interruption in their
talks about upcoming examination, Buddhi said, ‘Oh yaar, it has become late to get back and
I’m feeling hungry.’ Murkha replied quickly pointing towards a junk food seller on the side
of the street, ‘Don’t worry! My favourite item is there!’ He added, ‘I’ve money too’. Buddhi
opposed, ‘Hey, these items look unhealthy, don’t buy them', but Murkha did not listen to him
and bought a little junk food and came back in no time. Murkha requested Buddhi to take but
he denied. Murkha took all of the bought materials and gave a loud repulsive1 belch.
AFTER FIVE DAYS
It was the time of examination. All the students attended examinations. They did well but
could not see one of their talented friends - Murkha Maan. He had been ill. Buddhi, his closest
chum from childhood, went to meet him in hospital. After a long conversation regarding
examinations, questions, and school activities, Murkha regretted, ‘Buddhi, I suffered a great
loss in my study because I ignored the learnt knowledge and your valuable suggestions. I am
under medication of typhoid. I shall never take junk and street foods again’, Buddhi smiled
and said, “Don’t worry my friend! I have requested the principal for your re-examination. He
is positive about that.".
1 Repulsive = Disgusting, foul.
26 Health and Physical Education - 8
2.1 Introduction to personal health and personal hygiene
There are different aspects and
determinants of human health. Our
health is determined by various factors
around us. Some of the factors are our
hereditary characteristics, environment,
and food. One of the most important
determinants of health is our personal
health habits. Personal health habits
include personal food behaviour,
personal cleanliness, and appropriate
exercise and rest.
Personal health can be defined as the state of health determined by personal health
habits like food, personal cleanliness, proper exercise and rest. Personal hygiene is the
process of maintaining personal cleanliness, nutrition, and healthful personal habits.
Proper maintenance of personal health and
sanitation are very important for keeping
our body healthy. Dirty and unhealthy body
provides shelter for various disease germs.
Similarly, polluted surroundings hosts many
harmful disease germs and worms. Some
people have a habit of taking junk and stale
foods. Most of the street foods contain dust
and pollutants. They are coloured with
non-edible colour compounds and contain
harmful chemicals. We should be well-aware
in selection and intake of food essential for
our body.
Proper exercise keeps our body organs fresh
and fine. The unnecessary compounds and
toxins accumulated in body tissues and blood
vessels are easily excreted out with the help
of proper exercise. We should not jerk our
body tissues in unscientific and excessively
forceful way while taking exercise. This may cause damage and internal injuries to
the tissues. Exercise should be taken regularly. Besides, we need adequate and proper
rest. We should sleep at least eight hours a night before we cross the age of sixteen.
After sixteen, we can reduce this time to about six to eight hours. Proper rest on the
basis of physical labour performed is needed for our body to carry out functions
smoothly.
Health and Physical Education - 8 27
2.1 Personal Cleanliness
Personal cleanliness and sanitation are very important for keeping our body healthy.
Some of the major guidelines for personal cleanliness are given below:
a. We must wash our hands properly with soap and water after defecation,
before having meal, and before preparing food items.
b. Eyes, nose, ears, neck, skin, and all organs should be cleaned regularly.
c. We should pay special attention to the cleanliness of sex organs.
d. We should brush our teeth twice after the major meals and clean the tongue
regularly.
e. We should take bath regularly.
f. The clothes should be chosen according to the weathers and seasons. Very
tight, stretching, and polyester clothes should be avoided as far as possible.
g. The eyes should be washed properly and regularly with clean and cold
water.
h. Personal accessories like handkerchief, comb, brush, towel etc. should not
be shared with others.
i. We should not walk barefooted in any open places. There should be separate
slippers in latrines.
j. Tobacco, alcohol, and drugs should be completely avoided.
2.3 Adolescence and Personal Health
Adolescence is the age of various physical changes in the body of human beings.
The changes mainly take place in the reproductive system and organs. They start
becoming more active in their functions. Girls’ menstruation cycle begins in this
stage and boys also experience wet dreams. During menstruation, there is discharge
of blood and mucus from the vaginal opening. These substances attract harmful
microorganisms, which may cause diseases in their body. Therefore, adolescent girls
must keep their vaginal opening clean and healthy. They can use sanitary pad or clean
and soft piece of cotton cloth at the time of blood discharge. As there is loss of blood
during the menstrual period and hence high chance of anemia, they should take iron-
rich foods like fruits and green vegetables. Besides, abundant water intake is equally
important to pass the impurities of blood out from the body. Similarly, boys should be
conscious for keeping their reproductive parts clean and healthy. Adolescents should
not hesitate to get their reproductive parts and organs examined by a qualified doctor
if there is any sort of problem. It is the phase of developing views and attitudes
towards human sexuality. All the adolescents are attracted towards the members of
opposite sex. Positive views and attitudes should be developed to keep their mental
health sound. Negativity, lack of sexual education, sex abuse, and prone preferences
are common problems for the adolescents all over the world. Such problems should
be identified in the early stage and solved in proper ways. Besides, adolescence is the
28 Health and Physical Education - 8
stage of multidimensional growth and development. Therefore, all the adolescents
should perform regular and proper exercises and take adequate rest. Safe, healthy,
nutritious, and balanced diet are indispensible factors for sound personal health.
2.4 Regular Health Check-Up
The state of human health is always changing. It never remains the same. Therefore,
we should always be attentive about it. Various factors like environment, climate,
health habits, epidemics, sanitation, heredity traits etc. are responsible for changing
our health conditions. The organs like heart, brain, lungs, liver are called vital organs
because they are most essential for our survival. Such vital organs should be checked
regularly at least once a year. Pregnant mothers have rapid changes in their body. The
health of mother and foetus should be checked periodically as per the recommendation
of doctors. The infants and children are more vulnerable to diseases. Therefore, they
should be monitored periodically with the measurement of their weight and height.
Nutritious foods are essential for all the people but special attention should be paid
to the pregnant mothers, breastfeeding mothers, infants, children, and elderly people.
Activity
DO THE FOLLOWING AND DISCUSS IN YOUR CLASS
• Make a list of nutritious foods that are provided in your family.
• What activities do you do for maintenance of your personal health?
Exercise
A. Give very short answers to the following questions.
1. Define personal health.
2. Write any one advantage of washing hands before meal.
3. How often should we take bath to remain healthy?
4. Who should be given more priority for nutritious food?
B. Give short answers to the following questions.
1. Why is the maintenance of personal health important for us? What are the
factors to be followed to maintain a sound personal health?
2. List any five ways to maintain personal health properly.
Health and Physical Education - 8 29
3. Define personal cleanliness. Why is it important for us? Give any three
reasons.
4. What do you mean by vital organs? Why are they called vital organs?
5. Why do we need regular health check-up? What types of people especially
need regular health check-up?
C. Tick (√ )the best alternative.
1. The personal health is…………………….
a. the cleanliness done for the all members of the society
b. the sanitation of the community.
c. cleanliness
2. Proper exercise helps in…………………
a. preventing the entrance of germs in our body.
b. releasing toxic substances out from our body.
c. keeping our body clean and tidy.
3. We should brush our teeth…………………….
a. every morning
b. twice a day before taking tea and breakfast.
c. twice a day after the major meals.
4. Loss of blood during menstruation may cause ….……….
a. tuberculosis.
b. anemia.
c. HIV/AIDS.
30 Health and Physical Education - 8
3
Nutrition
Before You Proceed to the Text
Energy is required to carry out any sort of work. Vehicles running on the roads are supplied
energy with petrol and diesel. Huge trains run with the energy of burning coal. Our fans
and heater work with the electrical energy. We walk, speak, think, run, and do various work.
Our body also produces heat energy continuously to keep itself warm. If it is so, it also needs
energy. If it is so, how does our body get energy?
Our body grows and develops itself. Besides, it fights against various disease germs to keep
itself safe. How does it build millions of new cells for its growth?
Guess yourself, discuss this matter with your friends and others, and match it with the text
given below.
3.1 Introduction to Nutrition
Nutrition is the process of proper intake and utilization of food, which is needed
for continuing life processes. It is the process by which living things receive the
food necessary for them to grow and remain healthy. Proper nutrition maintains
the proper functioning of body tissues and cells. It is essential for survival. It is
said that individual's health is a result of what s/he eats. Therefore, an individual
must consume all sorts of food from different groups so that the body can fulfill its
requirements for proper functioning and development. The food that we eat should
contain appropriate nutritive values. The nutrients are categorized into six groups.
They are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins, and water.
Health and Physical Education - 8 31
3.2 Malnutrition
This term is made up of a prefix ‘mal-’ and the word - ‘nutrition’. The prefix ‘mal-’
means improper or bad. Thus, the meaning of malnutrition is the incorrect or improper
form of nutrition. There are two types of malnutrition. It is a condition that results
from either excess or inadequate supply of any essential nutrients of food. They are
over-nutrition and under-nutrition. Under-nutrition is caused if an individual does
not take required nutrition for a long period of time. In contrast, over-nutrition is
caused if an individual takes excess nutrients, more than required for the body.
The causes of malnutrition include not only the scarcity of food. We must have proper
knowledge of obtaining and consuming food in appropriate ways. The main causes
of malnutrition are scarcity of food, lack of knowledge, diseases, and improper food
handling. Over frying of food, improper storage, open storage, long-term storage, etc.
damages the nutritional values of food items. Intake of such food items does not have
any meaning in promoting our health.
Malnutrition is seen mostly in infants and young children below five years of age.
It has been a major problem in Nepal and other developing countries in the world.
Pregnant women, illiterate people, poor people, and children are the main victims
of malnutrition all over the world. Malnutrition results in undergrowth, weakness,
mental retardation, lean and thin appearance, anemia1, and various diseases.
3.3 Some Diseases Caused by Malnutrition
If there is inadequate nutritional intake, we suffer from nutrition-deficiency diseases.
Some of them are marasmus, kwashiorkor, anemia, night blindness, scurvy, rickets,
and goiter.
a. Marasmus
Introduction
Marasmus is also called PEM
(protein energy malnutrition)
because it is caused due
to lack of protein and
carbohydrates both. It is a
common childhood health
problem resulting in chronic2
diarrhea and anemia. It is caused by the lack of proteins and carbohydrates
in children. It is seen most commonly in weaned infants of about one year of
age. This disease is found to be caused by the presence of worms in stomach
and intestine. The worms present in the digestive canal absorb the nutritional
components with the body fluid.
1 Anemia = lack of blood or hemoglobin in the body
2 Chronic = persistent for a long period of time
32 Health and Physical Education - 8
Symptoms of marasmus: The main symptoms of marasmus include thin arms,
loose and dry skin, wrinkled face and body, shrunken body, wasted tissue, loss
of appetite, dehydration, thin limbs and swollen stomach, and slow growth.
Weight of the victim declines severely and may become less than 60% of the
standard weight. There is remarkable and rapid loss of muscle and tissues in
the body. The victim seems bony and skinny without muscle tissues.
Preventive measures against marasmus: Increase in food intake, addition of
carbohydrates and fats in food items, encouragement to breastfeeding, and
enhancement of knowledge about nutritious and balanced diet in the family
are the key preventive measures against marasmus.
b. Rickets
Introduction
It is a disease that occurs in children in which the bones do not harden properly
and are malformed due to lack of vitamin-D. Due to the deficiency of this
vitamin, calcium and phosphorus cannot be utilized by the body.
Symptoms of Rickets
i. Leg bones are in abnormally bent (bow leg) shape.
ii. Ribs seem protruding out and pigeon-chest appearance develops.
iii. Joints develop knock-knee deformity with enlarged and nodular shape.
iv. Retardation in growth and physical development of the child is noticed.
Signs of Rickets
Soft spot on
baby's head is
slow to close.
Bony necklace
Curved bones
Big, lumpy joints
Bowed legs
(Knees bent out)
Prevention of Rickets
i. Vitamin-D should be included in proper amount in dietary intake.
ii. Source foods of vitamin-D like cod liver oil, ghee, butter, eggs should be
included frequently in the family diet.
iii. Exposure to sunlight helps in synthesis of vitamin D in the human body.
iv. Proper treatment should be given in case of rickets in early stage.
Health and Physical Education - 8 33
c. Anemia
Introduction
Anemia is the condition of body in which there is lack of hemoglobin or
RBC (Red Blood Cells) in the blood caused due to disturbance in formation
of hemoglobin and RBC or their loss and rapid destruction. It is a common
problem in children and pregnant women. It is primarily caused due to the
deficiency of iron, copper, and vitamin B-12 (Folic Acid).
Symptoms of Anemia
i. Patient feels tiredness, dizziness, muscle weakness
ii. Pale nail, eyes, tongue and palm
iii. Fall in hemoglobin concentration below the normal range
iv. Breathlessness on exertion and impaired performance
Prevention and control of Anemia
i. Supply of balanced diet including iron, folic acid and vitamin-C. Green
vegetables and fruits are rich in these nutrients.
ii. Regular monitoring of infestation of hook worms, Ascaris3 , and other
internal parasites.
iii. Avoid barefoot walk in open areas.
iv. Supply of iron tablets in case of excessive loss of blood is recommended.
d. Night Blindness
Introduction
It is an inability to see in the dim light or at night. It
is most prevalent among children, though adults also
suffer from this disease. It is mainly caused due to the
deficiency of Vitamin-A in food intake. Rod cells of
retina are affected by the lack of Vitamin-A. As the rod
cells respond to the dim light when we see something,
there is a problem in reading, walking, and driving in
dim light due to this disease.
Symptoms of Night Blindness
i. There is a problem to see in dim light.
ii. Conjunctivae turn dry and wrinkled.
iii. There is xerophthalmia4 or eye-dryness.
Prevention and control of Night Blindness
i. Appropriate supply of Vitamin-A in food in take.
ii. Identification and management of sources of Vitamin-A: dark green leafy
3 Ascaris = Roundworm.
4 Xerophthalmia = ‘xero-’ – dryness, ‘-opthalmia’ – condition of eye
34 Health and Physical Education - 8
vegetables, pumpkin, papaya, mango, eggs, fishes, carrot, etc.
iii. Compulsory supply of Vitamin-A capsules to the children in time.
iv. Prevention of gastrointestinal diseases in children.
e. Scurvy
Introduction
It is a disease caused due to the deficiency
of Vitamin-C (Ascorbic Acid) in food
intake. It is the disease of gums and teeth.
It can affect children as well as adults and
elderly people.
Vitamin-C is not stored in the human
body, so it should be taken regularly. It is
required in small amount for us.
Symptoms of Scurvy
i. Bleeding gums and loose teeth
ii. Spongy gums with swollen appearance
iii. Weakness and fatigue5
iv. Joints become swollen and painful in the later stage
v. Hemorrhage in internal tissues causing anemia
Prevention of Scurvy
i. Regular supply of Vitamin- C in food intake is necessary.
ii. Avoid over frying and overcooking of food source of Vitamin-C.
iii. Provide Vitamin-C tablets in case of any symptoms.
3.4 Methods of Obtaining Balanced Diet from Locally
Available Food Materials
Balanced diet is essential for proper functioning of body organs and systems.
Our body needs various types of nutrition. Some people have a wrong belief that
nutritious foods are expensive. But, it is not true. There are many nutritious foods
which are inexpensive and easily available. Balanced diet is a balanced combination
of nutrients required for the continuation of life processes. We must be wise enough
in right selection and proper preparation of food items. A balanced diet contains
various groups of nutrients, viz. water, carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and
vitamins. The components of a balanced diet differ according to age, sex, physical
activity and the physiological state of individuals. Children need more proteins for
growth and development whereas a person who works very hard needs more intake
of carbohydrates and fats.
5 Fatigue = feeling of tiredness
Health and Physical Education - 8 35
a. Heat and Energy Yielding Foods (Carbohydrates and Fats): Heat and energy
yielding nutrients are required more in comparison to other category of nutrients
for our body. There must be 50-60% of carbohydrates and 30-35% of fat in the
balanced diet. Carbohydrates can be obtained from the foods including rice,
maize, potato, sweet potato, honey, sugar, wheat, yam, etc. and the chief sources
of fats are oil, butter, ghee, etc.
b. Body Building Foods (Proteins): Proteins are known as body building nutrients
as they are essential for production of new cells and tissues. Protein containing
foods are called body building foods. There must be 10%-15% of proteins in our
food for balanced diet. It is necessary for growth and development. Proteins
can be obtained from both animals and plants. Animal proteins can be obtained
from fish, meat, egg, milk, etc. Plant proteins can be obtained from gram, bean,
lentil etc.
c. Protective Foods (Minerals and Vitamins): This category of food protects our
body from diseases and harmful germs. They help in increasing immunity
power of our body. Minerals and vitamins can be obtained from food items
including vegetables and fruits.
3.5 Harmful Effects of Packed Food on Our Health
The state of our health is affected by various factors. Health is determined by different
physiological processes. Such processes are affected by the substances consumed
through various ways like eating, drinking, and using the commodities of daily uses.
There are different packed foods found in the market. Biscuits, cake, chocolate, dry
fruits, dry foods, packed meat and fish, packed pickle, potato chips, and noodles are
some of the major examples of such packed foods. They are very harmful for our
health because:
a. The nutrients like proteins, vitamins, and minerals are lost over time.
b. The foods may become stale. Such foods contain toxic6 and carcinogenic7
substances that are very harmful to our health.
c. The packed foods contain the preservative chemical materials. Such materials
are used by the producers for the long-run protection of packed food items
from being decayed or damaged. But the preservative chemicals themselves are
harmful for human health.
d. Packed foods are made attractive by adding artificial colours. Non-edible
colours have negative effects on human health.
e. Some of the packed foods contain yeast and testing powder. They may produce
harmful effects on health.
f. The quality of packed foods is often found low because most of them are
produced with profit motives rather than customers’ health motives.
6 Toxic= poisonous
7 Carcinogenic= causing cancer
36 Health and Physical Education - 8
Exercise
A. Answer the following questions
1. What do you mean by nutrition and malnutrition? Define each.
2. Differentiate between overnutrition and undernutrition.
3. What is anemia? How is it caused?
4. List the symptoms and preventive measures of scurvy.
5. What is the name of nutrient that prevents us from night blindness? Write
its symptoms and preventive measures.
6. Why do pregnant women and children suffer more from malnutrition in
Nepal?
7. How can we manage balanced diet from the locally available food items?
8. Prepare a list of different food items that contain:
a) Energy-yielding nutrients
b) Body building nutrients
c) Nutrients for protection
9. What is rickets? Write its causes and symptoms.
10. Why is Vitamin-C needed for our body? Write the importance of ascorbic
acid.
11. Why are packed foods harmful for our health? Give any five reasons.
B. Fill in the blanks with proper word.
1. …………...... is the condition of improper nutrition in our body.
2. Meat, fish, and beans are good sources of …………......
3. The disease …………...... has major symptoms like severe weight loss and
skinny appearance.
4. …………...... disease is caused due to the lack of vitamin C.
5. When there is loss of excessive blood, the condition is called …………......
Health and Physical Education - 8 37
4
Diseases
Before You Proceed to the Text
There are many people living in the world. Not all people have equal life span. In the past,
when disease germs and microorganisms were not discovered, human beings blamed devils,
gods, and other supernatural powers for untimely demise of people. Nowadays, many disease
germs are known with the effects of their attacks on our body. Scientists have developed new
medications and technologies to defend against various kinds of germs and microorganisms.
Human being is still not happy with this limit of achievements.
Probably, the disease germs are also trying their best to produce newer species of germs and
to develop their resistance against man-made medications. This struggle is going on from
long ago. No one can guess how long it will go.
Discuss about the emergence of diseases with your friends, neighbours, and parents.
4.1 Introduction
The term ‘disease’ is composed of a prefix ‘dis-’ and a word ‘ease’. Where,
‘dis-’ stands for ‘no’ or ‘without’, and
‘-ease’ means ‘comfort’.
Therefore, we can simply conclude that disease is a condition without comfort. There
are various types of diseases which may attack our body. Among them, some are
communicable and some are non-communicable. Some of them are caused due to
presence of harmful germs and worms while some are caused by lack or absence of
nutrients. In this unit, we are going to study about some of the communicable and
non-communicable diseases.
4.2 Communicable Diseases
Communicable diseases are the diseases that can transfer from a diseased person to
other healthy people. The diseases in this category are caused due to foreign organisms
residing in our body. Most of these organisms are unicellular and microscopic. They
are viruses, bacteria, and protozoa. Some organisms causing communicable diseases
are multi-cellular and visible with our naked eyes. They are mostly roundworms,
hookworms, and some species of arthropods.
38 Health and Physical Education - 8
Communicable diseases, sometimes, spread quickly in communities and become
epidemics. Some flues like bird-flu and swine flu spread quickly over many countries
and become pandemic. Communicable diseases spread rapidly in hot seasons. Kala
zaar, encephalitis, malaria, typhoid, dysentery, and epidemic diarrhea have become
the major diseases causing loss of many lives in Nepal every year. Terai region is
affected more than hilly and mountain regions due to favorable temperature, high
pollution, and high population density. In order to prevent communicable diseases
to take the form of epidemic or pandemic, these diseases must be controlled in time.
4.3 Measures to Prevent Communicable Diseases
(a) Use of safe and clean water: Use of unsafe and polluted water is one of the
major causes of diseases. Water is the major constituent of human body and
hence it occupies the biggest share in our food. Instead of drinking, we use
water for different purposes. We need water for bathing, cleaning utensils,
washing clothes, etc. Whatever the purpose of the use of water, we must use
clean and pollution-free water. The polluted water contains harmful disease
germs, worms, toxins, and different harmful chemicals. If these harmful living
and nonliving things enter our body, they cause diseases and illnesses. Disease
germs present in polluted water are the causative agents of communicable
diseases. Some of the diseases transmitted through polluted water are diarrhea,
dysentery, cholera, etc. We must use pure and clean water for all the purposes
to remain safe from communicable and non-communicable diseases.
(b) Cleanliness: Cleanliness is a key measure of remaining safe from various forms
of communicable diseases. People living in developing countries like ours are
deprived of knowledge and awareness of cleanliness and the diseases are caused
by unhealthy habits. Many types of superstitious beliefs existing there do not
let people understand the truth about the causes of diseases. The disease germs
get a favourable place and environment to live in the dirty body, clothes, and
surroundings. They can easily attack us in such condition. Therefore, we must
keep our body, clothes, room, home, latrine, bathroom, yard, and surroundings
clean. We should brush our teeth twice a day, after lunch and supper. We must
wash our hands before touching any food material and after the use of latrine.
Sanitation and cleanliness are crucial to chase diseases away from us.
(c) Safe and balanced diet: A safe diet is that which is free from any form of
contamination of disease germs and worms. Waterborne and food borne
diseases are caused due to the intake of unsafe foods. Street foods, junk foods,
uncovered foods, and stale foods have high chance of containing causative agents
of different diseases. Therefore, such unsafe food should be avoided as strictly
as possible. The balanced diet is that which contains all the necessary nutrients
in required quantity. Such nutrients increase immune power of our body and
increase the capacity of our immune response to tackle against the causative agents
of communicable diseases in an effective way. Therefore, we should take balanced
and safe diet to protect ourselves from communicable diseases.
Health and Physical Education - 8 39
(d) Immunization: Immunization is the process of developing artificial defense
power against the causative agents of different diseases. Immunization is
the easiest prevention of various fatal diseases like tuberculosis, hepatitis,
polio, diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, and measles. There are specific
immunizations against specific diseases. For example, BCG vaccine is given
for the prevention of tuberculosis and DPT vaccine is given to prevent a child
from whooping cough, diphtheria, and tetanus. The immunization should
be administered according to the prescribed ‘immunization schedule’. The
schedule is given below:
IMMUNIZATIOIN SCHEDULE
Name of Diseases Age at first Number of Time interval
vaccination controlled dose doses -
B.C.G. Tuberculosis Within one year One
(TB)
(Bacillus
Calmette
Guerin) Diphtheria, 6 weeks-1 year Three One/One month
D.P.T. Pertusis 6 weeks-1 year Three
Second dose
Hepatitis –B (Whooping after one month
cough), and of the first dose
and third dose
Tetanus after six months
Hepatitis-B
Polio Poliomyelitis 6 weeks-1 year Three One/One month
Measles Measles 9 months-1 year One -
Tetanus Pregnant women Five
T.T. One/One month
(Tetanus Toxoid) (Two doses
in the first
pregnancy and
a single dose in
others)
(e) Education and Awareness: Most of the diseases are caused due to lack of
knowledge and awareness in people. Almost all the common diseases are
related to preventable risk factors and causes. It is observed globally that
the communicable diseases spread quickly and affect many people in the
underdeveloped and uneducated communities. Right information about causes,
preventive measures, symptoms, and controlling measures of communicable
diseases should be provided to all the people. This can be regarded as the best
policy of being protected from all sorts of communicable diseases.
40 Health and Physical Education - 8
4.4 Some Communicable Diseases
(a) Meningitis
This term is composed of a root word – 'mening' and a suffix – 'itis'. Mening
is the membranous protective cover of the brain and spinal cord. The suffix –
'itis' carries the meaning of infection or inflammation. Thus, meningitis gives a
meaning of inflammation of the menings1. This disease is caused due to infection
of various species of viruses and bacteria responsible of pneumonia, syphilis, or
tuberculosis. It can attack people of any age group.
Mode of transmission of meningitis: This disease spreads rapidly through the
spit, mucus, sputum, and other substances like utensils and clothes used by the
infected person.
Signs and symptoms of meningitis: There are following signs and symptoms
of meningitis:
• High fever marked by severe headache
• Loss of appetite
• Nausea and vomiting
• Intolerance2 of light and sound
• Rigidity of muscles especially around the neck
• Convulsions, unconsciousness, and death if not treated properly
Prevention and control of meningitis:
• Maintain proper personal hygiene and sanitation
• Immunize with meningococcal vaccine
• Educate people about meningitis, its symptoms, and preventive measures
• Stay away from the crowd of people. A crowd may have infected carriers too
• Care the victim properly. Dispose the patient's spit, sputum, urine, stool,
etc. in a safe way
• Do not use the patient’s clothes, utensils, handkerchief, towel and other
personal materials
(b) Encephalitis
The prefix 'encephalo-' denotes the meaning of brain. Thus, the etymological
meaning of encephalitis becomes the inflammation of the brain. Arbo-virus is
the main causative agent of encephalitis. This may be caused by some species
of bacteria too. This is a fatal disease taking hundreds of lives in the terai region
of Nepal every year in the summer season. This disease takes endemic and
epidemic forms quickly due to its easy transmission.
1 Menings = the thin membranes that surround and protect the brain.
2 Intolerance = difficulty in bearing.
Health and Physical Education - 8 41
Brain
Spinal cord
Swollen brain and spinal cord in
bronchiolitis
Mode of transmission: The microscopic viruses can live in the body of pigs,
ducks, and human beings. Anyone of them infected with the causative agents
can be a carrier. Mosquitoes serve as vectors in its transmission. They bite
infected victims and carry the germs. If they again bite healthy individuals, the
disease is transmitted.
Symptoms of encephalitis:
• High fever and severe headache
• Loss of appetite
• Loss of memory
• Nausea and vomiting
• Rigidity3 of muscles especially around the neck
• Convulsions4 and unconsciousness
• Paralysis5 of certain part of body or death, if not treated properly
Prevention and control of encephalitis
• Remain safe from mosquito bites.
• Maintain proper sanitation around home and the yard.
• Prevent the accumulation of stagnant water around home. It may facilitate
the rapid reproduction of mosquitoes.
• Educate people about encephalitis, its symptoms, and preventive measures.
• Raising domestic animals should be managed well. Special attention should
be taken for the domestic pigs and ducks.
• Wear full shirt and trousers covering the whole body while walking outside home.
• Use mosquito net while sleeping and always remain protected from
mosquito-bite.
3 Rigidity = inflexibility, stiffness
4 Convulsion = violent irregular motion of the limbs or body caused by involuntary contractions
of muscles
5 Paralysis = impairment or loss of the motor functions of the nerves causing immobility of the
respective organ
42 Health and Physical Education - 8
(c) Hepatitis B:
The term ‘hepatitis’is composed of a prefix ‘hepato-’and a suffix ‘-itis'. These two
terms stand for ‘liver’ and ‘inflammation’ respectively. Thus, the etymological
meaning of the term hepatitis becomes ‘inflammation of liver’. There are various
forms of hepatitis. Among them, hepatitis-B is more common and dangerous.
Hepatitis B is a liver disease, caused by the virus called type B Hepatitis Virus
(HBV). It is about hundred times infectious than HIV/AIDS. This disease is
known as 'silent killer' because it kills the victim without remarkable effects on
the body. Its effects increase gradually over a long period of time (its incubation
period6 may range from six weeks to six months according to health habits and
immune system of the victim). The period from the exposure to the virus until
the onset of the disease is termed 'incubation period'. There is a gradual death
of hepatocyes7. The liver has the capacity to regenerate if some of its portion
is lost. But, in case of hepatitis B regeneration of lost cells does not occur. The
patient dies of liver failure, cirrhosis, or liver cancer finally.
Healthy liver
Inflammation
of the liver
Modes of transmission of hepatitis B
i. It is transmitted through the contact with an infected person's blood.
ii. Such contact may include blood transfusion, use of contaminated syringe,
common razor, etc.
iii. It is found to be transmitted among injecting drug users, who use a
common syringe to take intravenous drugs
iv. The common instrument of tattooing, piercing ear and nose, or any other
sharp instrument shared may get contaminated with infected blood and
transmit to another healthy person
v. Common use of toothbrush, handkerchief, towel, etc. among infected and
healthy persons
vi. Through sexual contact
vii. By kissing and sharing common foods and drinks
viii. Byaccidentalprickingwithcontaminatedneedle(particularlytohealthpersonnel)
6 Incubation period = It is the period between the entrance of disease germs and appearance
of the first symptom of the disease
7 Hepatocytes = The cells of liver
Health and Physical Education - 8 43
ix. From a pregnant mother to fetus. But the chance is rare
Symptoms of hepatitis B
There is infection of liver and gradual damage of the liver cells. In some victims
(almost 10%), hepatitis becomes acute and shows remarkable symptoms. But,
the remaining 90% victims may have mild or no remarkable symptoms.
Early symptoms:
- Poor appetite
- Light fever
- Loss of interest in food
- Slight muscle aches and joint pains
- Nausea, weakness and fatigue
Later symptoms:
- Yellowish skin and mucus
- Yellowish sclera of eye showing the signs of jaundice
- Periodic pressure felt below the right rib due to enlargement of liver
- Pale stool but dark urine
- Increased fatigue
- Liver failure and liver cirrhosis8
Prevention and Control of Hepatitis B
– Compulsorily take immunizations against hepatitis virus as per the referred
dose and time.
– Avoid sharing syringe and needles.
– Always use personal towel, handkerchief, razor, and other such personal
things.
– Be safe from drug abuse9 and from sharing needles in drugs intake.
– Be safe from contaminated blood transfusion.
– Develop safe sex habits.
– Avoid alcohol intake. Alcoholics are more vulnerable10 to severe effects
sooner than non-alcoholics.
(d) HIV/AIDS
Introduction
The full form of AIDS is Acquired Immune Deficiency Virus HIV
Syndrome. It is caused by a type of RNA-retrovirus
'HIV’ (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). HIV and
AIDS do not have similar meaning. HIV is the name
8 Liver cirrhosis = liver damage
9 Abuse = use of something in an inappropriate way
10 Vulnerable = susceptible, in danger
44 Health and Physical Education - 8
of the virus and AIDS is the final stage of HIV infection. HIV destroys the
immune system of our body and creates a condition where there is deficiency of
immune power. Immune power protects us from different germs and diseases.
The viruses (HIV) attack our white blood cells which are responsible for
immune power. They increase their number billions times a day by continuous
replication within these cells. HIV was first detected in USA in July of 1981
in some people of African (Haitian) origin. Then, it spread all over the world
rapidly. It is assumed that 7,500 people are infected with HIV each day and
there were more than 33 million people infected with HIV in the world in 2010
AD. HIV entered lately in Asia. It was first reported in Nepal in the year 1988
AD.
National Centre for AIDS and STD Control (NCASC)11 had published a
factsheet on HIV epidemic in Nepal in August, 2010 AD. The report has stated
the following facts about the estimated numbers of HIV infected people in 2009
AD in Nepal.
- Children (0-14 years) : 3,544
- Adults (15-49 years) : 52,504
- Adults (50+ years) : 7,480
- Total : 63,528
Different studies have shown that there were about 75,000 HIV-infected patients
in Nepal in 2010. The NCASC report has mentioned the labour migrants,
injecting drug users, female sex workers, and their clients as 'high-risk group'
of HIV infection.
HIV/AIDS has become a dreadful problem all over the world. It is widely spread
in Africa, where more than one fourth of the total population is infected with
HIV/AIDS. India is the second largest country for HIV infection. As Nepal has
open border with India, people travel freely across the border. Many girls are
trafficked towards India and are forced to indulge in prostitution. Similarly, a
number of males and females go there for jobs. Various surveys have shown that
HIV infection rate is high among them. When they return to Nepal, they transfer
HIV to other people. UNAIDS, one of the leading international organizations,
has declared Nepal as ‘concentrated epidemic’ area due to higher rate of HIV
spread.
Modes of Transmission of HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS is a communicable disease. It is transmitted from an infected person
to a healthy person through different body fluids like blood, semen, vaginal
secretion, etc. There is a false belief that HIV can be transmitted if we go close
to an infected person, work and live together. Such false beliefs have because
11 National Centre for AIDS and STD Control (NCASC) = a government organization working
under the Ministry of Health and Population in Nepal; website: www.ncasc.
gov.np
Health and Physical Education - 8 45
problems to adjust the infected persons easily in the family and society. HIV
is microscopic virus, which may be transmitted from an infected person to a
healthy one in the following ways:
(i) By transfusing HIV-infected blood.
(ii) By sharing common syringe, needle, tattooing instrument, and other
materials which come in contact with blood.
(iii) By indulging in unsafe sex (oral sex, anal sex, and sex without using
condom)
(iv) By a pregnant mother to her unborn fetus
(v) By breastfeeding mother to her child through breast milk
(vi) By accidental piercing with an infected-blood-contaminated syringe to
health workers
Stages of HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS is a chronic disease that develops progressively in the human body
over a long period. It begins from the entrance of viruses in the body and ends
at death caused due to other opportunistic diseases12 like TB, cancer, etc. The
first symptoms of HIV infection appear two to four weeks after the entrance of
viruses in the body. This period is known as incubation period. After incubation,
the infection progresses to the stage-I of HIV infection, known as window
period.
Stage I-Window Period
This is the first stage of HIV infection. This is called window period because
the viruses are not seen in blood in the labouratory tests. They multiply rapidly
and start destroying immune cells in the body. The viruses destroy special types
of lymphocytes known as CD4-positive lymphocyte cells. This stage lasts for
about one to three weeks. Some minor symptoms like headache, mild fever and
cough, swelling of the lymph glands, oral ulcers, and red spots on the body
are developed in this stage. These symptoms disappear when the infection is
developed into the next stage.
Stage II – Latency Period
In this stage, viruses grow remarkably in number and can be seen in the
labouratory tests of blood. This period may not have any remarkable symptoms
unless the immune cells are destroyed to a significant extent. This is the stage
of losing defense power against various disease germs. This stage may show
very few or no symptoms at all and may last from two weeks to fifteen years or
even more. If the victim follows hygienic and healthful habits to prevent oneself
from other infections, s/he can live a healthy life. Relatives, friends, and other
people in touch with the victim must maintain a cordial, helpful, and friendly
relationship with the victim to lengthen his/her life.
12 Opportunistic diseases = diseases that attack when the immune power of body remarkably
declines.
46 Health and Physical Education - 8
Stage III – AIDS
The final stage, AIDS, is the stage before death. This stage is characterized by
various opportunistic infections. The immune power of AIDS victim becomes
severely declined. The following symptoms are seen in the AIDS stage.
(i) Enlarged and painful lymph glands (Lymphadenopathy)
(ii) Oral13 , pharyngeal, and esophageal sore14
(iii) Persistent unhealed skin wounds throughout the body surface, this may
be Kaposi's sarcoma15
(iv) Remarkable weight loss
(v) Unhealed malignancy of any part of the body
(vi) Continuous fever, cough, sores, diarrhea etc. which remain unhealed
Minor and Major Signs of HIV/AIDS
AIDS is a syndrome creating suitable environment for various forms of other
diseases. It doesn’t have its own characteristic symptom. But, it is always
associated with the signs and symptoms of other diseases. Unhealed and
persistent cough, fever, swelling of the lymph glands, oral ulcers, and red spots
on the skin are the minor symptoms of HIV infection. These minor symptoms of
HIV infection last for about one to three weeks. When the infection develops to
the stage of AIDS, some major symptoms appear. The major symptoms include
long and persistent fever, diarrhea, and remarkable weight loss of about ten
percent or more than that.
Preventive Measures against HIV/AIDS
Preventive measures of these sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) can in short
be mentioned as ABC method. ABC-method of preventing STDs includes:
A – Abstinence: It is the practice of staying away from sexual indulgence.
B – Be a faithful partner to your spouse only. Have sexual intercourse with
only one partner.
C – Correct and consistent use of condom; it prevents the transmission of
HIV/AIDS.
Besides the above-mentioned ‘ABC rule’ of preventing STDs, the following rules
should be adopted.
i. Never indulge in unsafe sex. If the partner is doubtful, use condom.
ii. Never use common syringe and needle for any purpose.
iii. Awareness programme should be conducted for community people
about STIs, HIV and AIDS.
iv. HIV monitoring must be conducted during blood donation and transfusion.
13 Oral = pertaining to the mouth
14 Sore = a painful or hurt area
15 Sarcoma = a type of cancer
Health and Physical Education - 8 47
v. HIV infected females should not become pregnant.
vi. Spread the knowledge about condom and its method of appropriate use
to prevent HIV/AIDS.
vii. HIV infected persons should be treated normally without any sort of isolation
and discrimination. Proper counseling may support the adjustment of the
patient in the family and society.
viii. Provide proper care and help to the victims.
ix. Health education should be made accessible to all. Inclusion of
communicable diseases, precautions, safety measures, and prevention
methods should be included in health education.
x. If one's spouse (husband/wife) or sex partner is diagnosed with any form
of STI, probability of infection becomes high. In this condition, immediate
check-up and treatment should be sought.
xi. STIs should not be concealed in any circumstances. They should be
treated in early stage.
xii. Hesitation to discussions and education related to sex and sex-related
matters should be overcome. STI, sexuality, safe and healthy sex-
behaviours should be openly discussed among friends, teachers, and
family members.
4.5 Some Non-Communicable Diseases
Non-communicable diseases do not transmit from one person to another. They are
basically caused due to malfunction16 or dysfunction17 of any organ of our body owing
to malnutrition, hereditary characteristics, or any other reasons.
(a) Asthma
It is a disease of respiratory system. This Trachea Lung
disease is characterized by difficulty Asthmatic bronchiole
in breathing. It is very common in the Normal bronchiole
elderly people of Nepal. It is caused
due to excessive exposure in the
dusty and smoky environment. The
smokers have a high chance to suffer
from asthma. It is also caused due to
prolonged respiratory disease in the
childhood or later. Sometimes, it is
also caused due to allergic response to
certain substances.
16 Malfunction = Wrong or defective function.
17 Dysfunction = A condition with no any function.
48 Health and Physical Education - 8
The airways become narrow due to excessive production of mucus inside the
bronchi and bronchioles resulting in wheezing sound in asthma. There is no
absorption of required amount of oxygen due to the mucus barrier in the air
sacs. Therefore, the victim feels a problem of severe breathlessness in case of
asthma.
Symptoms of asthma
(i) Dyspnea, difficulty in breathing
(ii) Increased rate of respiration
(iii) Anxiety18 and fear of death due to severe breathlessness
(iv) Recurrent 19 wheezing20 and cough
(v) Unexpected frequent pauses during the speech for inhalation and
exhalation
(vi) Increase in pulse rate
(vii) Bluish appearance in severe cases due to the low volume of oxygen
Prevention and control of asthma
(i) Avoid exposure to smoky and dusty places. If there is compulsion, always
wear a safe mask.
(ii) Avoid smoking and any form of tobacco and alcohol.
(iii) Be safe in extreme cold climates.
(iv) Environmental sanitation should be given a high priority.
(v) Keep indoor air fresh and clean.
(vi) Have a balanced and nutritious diet.
(vii) Control of air pollution
(viii) Identify the allergens and remain out of contact with them
(b) Stone Kidney Stone
Stone is a disease caused due to formation Kidney
of abnormal hard mass inside different stone
parts of the body. The hard mass, known
as stone, is also known as calculus. Calculi Ureter
21are basically composed of cholesterol,
bile pigment, and calcium salts. Common Kdiney
sites of the stone formation are kidneys, Ureter
gallbladder, bile ducts, ureters, urinary Bladder
bladder, urethra, and glands. The presence
of stone is termed lithiasis by the doctors
and medical practitioners. Causes of stone
include excessive intake of cholesterol-
18 Anxiety = nervousness, unease, with mental troubles
19 Recurrent = frequently repeated
20 Wheezing = breathing with an audible whistling sound
21 Calculi = plural of 'calculus'
Health and Physical Education - 8 49
rich and salty foods, lack of exercise, imbalanced nutritional intake, etc.,
though in many cases the causes are unknown. Other diseases like diabetes,
obesity, inflammation of gallbladder and bile duct etc. can, sometimes, facilitate
formation of stones.
Symptoms of Stone
(i) Burning or stabbing pain in the affected part
(ii) Disturbance in the functions of affected organs
(iii) Nausea and vomiting
(iv) Loss of appetite
(v) Radiating pains (For example: There is pain in the back shoulder if there
is gallstone. Similarly, there is back pain in case of kidney stone.)
(vi) Inflammation of the affected organ
(vii) Fever and chills in severe cases
Prevention and Control of Stone
(i) Develop good food habit, avoid oily and spicy foodstuffs.
(ii) Increase water intake.
(iii) Perform physical exercises regularly.
(iv) Schedule regular health check-up and follow it timely.
(v) Have balanced and nutritious diet.
(c) Cancer
It is a non-communicable disease found all over the world. It occupies the
biggest share among diseases causing deaths all over the world. People mostly
die of blood cancer, lungs cancer, stomach cancer, and liver cancer. Cervical
cancer and breast cancer are more prevalent among females whereas prostate
cancer is more commonly found in males. Cancer can be treated in its initial
stage. If it is not diagnosed and treated in time, it cannot be treated. Due to lack
of knowledge, education, and health service centres, more than 70 percent of
cancer deaths occur in underdeveloped and poor countries in the world. It is
estimated that the trend of cancer-deaths will go on increasing and it will be 9
million and 11.4 million in the years 2015 and 2030 AD respectively.
Causes of cancer
There are many causes of cancer. Some are known and some are still unknown.
Some of the known causes of cancer are given below:
(a) Intake of carcinogenic substances like nicotine, toxins, and carcinogenic
chemicals formed in rotten fruits and vegetables
(b) Intake of decayed, spicy, oily, and mucor-contaminated food items
(c) Hereditary characters of cancer in the genes of parents
(d) Exposure to strong rays which penetrate our body like x-ray, cosmic ray,
ultraviolet ray, and radioactive ray
50 Health and Physical Education - 8
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Health & Physical Education
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